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differential
-rates of change
-
speed
-
acceleration
I
f(x) f(a) f(a)(x a)
W
= + -
"
+
If "(a)(x a)
-
·
·
-
-
7 S
a
Integral
"continuous addition"
integration
:
#
rixidy- area under the
curve between
a and b
multivariable calculus
in
-rates of
change many variables
I FRE
I
-
IR
, , ,
gral double
that stands
integral
for volume
#
S f(x y)dxdy
,
=
volume
/ under the
graph
of the
region D
Recap of series
real #
term
A
A ceries is a cum with and IR
If the
pim SN=S exists in IR
an
converges and we
If to and Iris
write
San= S
example : a
Nimo a
*
= it a
1- r
e
THE OREMS
theorem if
: an
converges ,
then
him an =
0
if
him ,
an Fo
,
then E ,
an
diverges
f (n)
then a an A
S
-I
an
-...
n1
as
=
! S
11 If I f(x)dx converges ,
then so does an
,
2) if I f(x)dx does E
diverges ,
then so an
C
if if
↳ converges >I and
diverges pal
n 1
=
Indeed let
decreasing positive [1 8)
f(x) continuous and on
=
o
, ,
,
I lim"
!
ax=
nax ox11p)
=
t -
c
limioxn"=yim
1 ,
=
/endivergen
if =1 I Hax =
em(x) -
Him int =
c
value of
8 f(x) ax says nothing about the value of
,
an
it
pick seveninteger, the
if ratio a
E an
conotenever gent of enter overgent
A series
Fact : It San is
H
*
if but bu and bu is
nmbr= 0
,
then
convergent
example
(n 1 -
=
+
-...
It is
convergent by the series test it , In ni = 0
But not
absolutely convergent !I
151n*1 = diverges
the ratio test
let
San be a series
1) if nml)=< 1 ,
then & also is absolutely convergent
a) if
(a) =
21 or s
,
then an is divergent
Remark
if
m /)=1 ,
then the test tests
nothing
example
So
Let XER and consider
.
it =
1 +
x
+ +
+
+ ...
with an
=
*
o
11 : O
Example
S(-1)n 4 4 2 +
-
= x - +
-
...
n =
1
if IXK 1 -1) is
,
then divergent
if X
=
if IX/<1 ,
then C-1(n- A is absolutely convergent
if X
=
1
,
then 1 -
+ -
+
...
converges
Math 222 Lecture -
What is calculus ?
Differentical
a re
·
i
f(x) =
f(a) +
f(a)(X -
a)
under
area
i
and b
f(x) =
f(a) f(a)(x a)
+
-
+ fatal
Multivariable
Differential
Integral
·
Rates o
Motion
charge
volocity und
Intragration="continuous
addition
us
acceleration
with direction
·
Linear
approximation
--
C
"
f(x, y)=f(a b) + ,
fx(a b)(x a) ,
-
(f(x y)dxdy
,
=
b)(y b)
"valum" under f(x y)
+fy(a
,
-
the &
over
region
in the
(xy)-plane
-
Recap on Series
n 0
=
If lim SN =
S exists in RR , we
say
N - 1
A
Ear =
*
n 0
=
Indeed ,
Sear *
- axarx ...
rNx
ap
al
-
=
-
I - ~
and
Is * Er if 1511 .
If ant 8, then an
diverges
The (The intrgral test)
Say & is a continuous , decreasing , positive function
on
18, 2) and let antf(n) .
Then
1 .
If Sof(xdX converges ,
so doos
n = 0
an
2 P SfIXdx does
En
.
dierges ,
so
it converges
if pul and
diverges if
p=1
Let f(x) =
positive an [ind
Pp I SY +
= Espxpl- -
p
-I
Sp
-
iP8s
iPpdx =
x))= (n) =
0 -
Volum of
Rak (Remork)
convergent fixdx
n=
i
pickle evening
is
rational number et
odd integer
p=24x1 is
ident
nate- ?? We have no
Lecture #2 09/05/2023
example
divergent
↓
, is
2)
En ,
is
convergent
In/ it =
ratio test will not
1)
I
be useful
result
is
"1"
2) Iantise/ne) :
Fixe :
be useful
will not
* so ,
ratio test is inconclusive if
him (a)= I
The root test
Let an be a series
1) if
him "anl=2<I is
absolutely convergent
2) if im "Tanl=1 is divergent
n-g
* Remark :
if lim ~lan)=1
r ,
the test is inconclusive
n +9
Ex
Let Xt IR .
Consider use root test to
Ex ( )
x does the
converges/diverges
series
or
is inconclusive
an
=
x ()"
n
.
/X
lan)= ")"1
r .: x
:
1x1
1) is
If IXI<1 absolutely convergent
2) if IX1>1 is
divergent
3) if (x1 =
1 test is inconclusive
for 1x1=1 we get E (n)"
Often we want to estimate the sum of the series in case it's convergent
,
Ex
Let Irk1
we , assume that
M
because we can't divide by e
infinite sum
a . -r
closed formula .
How well is In
We still can try to estimate :
approximating s?
partial
S =
E an Set RN =
IS - Sal
sum ,
by SN- ,
an
test
Integral estimate
Let
f be continuous
,
positive and
decreasing [1
,
3)
suppose
f(n)
=
an
if
1 8f(x)dx
,
is convergent ,
Series is
convergent
and we can eltimate our
then , n Crate of
convergence) .
D ,gixax RN
/gixsax
- +1
i
Alternating series test estimate
decreasing
Let
F be be a series
Sun but 1
that
= b
but
I
,
series is
absolutely
convergent
and
nm bu =
0
then ,
(RN) < bn+1 -
RN=1S-sol
Alternating series :
,
are
Alternating
is
& Hin an signs .
n
=
1
-
an
n
I
bu =
bu>0
antnrge
Assumpti satisfied
alternating series
192 small
a enough
0 00090
-a
.
+ 5-
+
2
=
0 22396
.
(1) 0 2
=
so , 1n
Power series
S (no x =
Co +
(1x +
(2 x2+
:
n en ...
=
0
an
we view x as a variable
,
stick in 1 x value
,
get a .
an(X-al ,
for a fixed a EIR
->
we call it a power series centered at a
# & c .
x" is
convergent
if IXI <
n 1
=
is if IxI>
divergent I
if
is divergent IxI= 1
is
divergent if Ix=-1
n
** converges for all xEIR
<example Continued)
=
3)
an
|a+)= /(34) =
((x -
3) .) =
1x-51 . (x-31
if Ix-31<1 it
converges
2XL1
if 1x-3K1 it
diverges
x<2 or x>1
if x =
2
,
x =
& test is inconclusive .
if x = 2 We have :
I converges by
alternating series test
if x =
d
,
we have
Ent diverges by
integral test
,
* To sum
up
& A series
n =
0
an is
absolutely convergent
if
Elan is
convergent .
convergent .
H"bu =
bo-b,+ bi-bet---
im b
=
Then
Estelbe converges -
Ent =
I - * -
**
-
-
This is
convergent by
the
alternating serves test
since
= for all n
and
s
=
0 .
But it is not absolutely
convergent since
EIF)= E * diverges .
1 If
=LI then
.
,
an is
n 0
=
absolutely convergent .
2 If
.
h =I or , then can
is
divergent .
E Let XE IR ,
and consider
3
= 1+ +
* +x
art---
With an s we compute
n = 1
a) =x=o
So by the Ratio Tosts
St is absolutely convergent -
Eg Let xeIR ,
consider
/G * *
1
=
x
-
* E-
+
+ -
-
u =
For an=(y
t we compute
/11m =
*
18)
x
+
In x ,
=
Ix
=
E x
=
1 ,
-* converges by
tost
the alternating sories
IP x
=
-1 s
Est =-
* diverges .
calling) ny1
(d)
= (n)" Fo I
The Root Fost Let Ean be a series .
I If
.
anl=L1 ,
the
can
is absolutely
convergent .
IP
2
tanl=1 thou
diverges
.
or
,
an .
m
&
b Just like with the Ratio Yosts i
he al=1 ,
consider
Say Xe ,
"( & x
n 1
=
** 1x/x =
absolutely convergent
So by the Root Tost, &x(m)" 1
is
u
=
(x iP Ix) I
P and
divergent >
.
Take x
=
1 s
(n= Ines (1 ]* ~
-
I
lin =
H- D
1 ,
we howe
, "()" is tricking e
Lecture 3
& Often hard to
compute the value of a
convergen
E An
n =
0
But we con
estimate
s
= E an
n 0
=
by its
partial W
suns
SN
=
Ear
this estimate ?
How
good is
Sf(xdX = ( f(xdx
Picture of test
Aside
integral
-
--Go
ar_an
_
ar
f(x)
01 2 3 4 5
Ser test) .
Than
(Rn =
1s 3w) -
-
bN x)
Find the value of
E
1 an
n
=
Note the
alternating series test and estimate
apply since
A
hims antis
A = and =
0
an(nx2) angnes)
Want (Rul=IS-Suls Yu *
(N+2) to be small .
If N
=
3
, we have Scratch work
Sw =
1 8 86 * N bN +1
=0 88182)
O !2 0 123
=
=
.
auch I * = =8 821 .
(Rs)= 15-selsbr 2
=
so O Go
.
& 0 00018
3
E
.
subtracting
so
Adding or
=0 000/8
0 00018
.
0 .
so
" 0 88
=
S s
=
.
Dowis Spring
& CX =
(
+
CX + Cex+---
n 0
=
(n(x a) -
n
=
controd at a.
values of and
diverge
y xe converges
-
o
(What about x
= *
1 ?) (Lectwob)
Et, converges
for all XeIR Chacture 2)
S n
converge
?
S
the matic test Set Then
We
apply .
an .
(x 3)n+
= 3)xx) 3)(ii)
-
⑰ =((x -
=
(x -
(x- 374
T - (x-31
Ratio tost iIX-311 , 2x<
converg
out i . e .
is 1x-31>I i x <2 x= !
and
divergent ,
.. or
If x
=
2 , we get , convergent
by Alt series test -
x 4
get E, diergart
=
, we .
So * (x -
3)
2 :
n =
1 i converges =x
an =
n"(x 1) -
ranl :
"Wex-in) =
n .
/x-11
divergel
I
if x #1 then "Fanl me to as
,
so
& n (x-1)"
diverges
n 0
diverse feelept
=
converges of
n+ O
if x
=
1
,
then "Fanl =
n .
0 =
0 -
to O "1"
38
& no(x-1)n converges
n =
0
Theorem
Sanx-al
For a power series
,
there are 5 possibilities
2) it
converges for all possible values of X EIR - radius of is
convergence
from a than R .
Remark :
converges or
diverges at a R
[ I
C ⑧ S
a a R
a R
+
-
Recap of examples
Radius of Integral of
series convergence
convergence
Enr(x-D O 21 13 ,
=
[13
& C (
-
-
,
c) =
iR
n =
1 X !
* n
3
I (2 1) ,
n 1
=
Ex D (-1 1) ,
When a ceries
Cux" has a positive
f(x) =
Ex
defined the interval of
on
convergence
-Sometimes ,
we have a
simpler formula for f(x)
:
for xt (-1 1)
,
f(x) say
example
Find a power series representation of fix - Fx
-is
and its interval of convergence
= 1- xe
= -
+x +
&x+ ...
it is
convergent if and only if - - x <2
1x1< E
the interval of
convergence is S-E E ,
Theorem if the power series Cr(x-al
-
f(x1 E(n(x-a) a) a)
=
= (0 -
(x - +
((x - +
((x -
)
changes
1) f(x) =
,
n-cn(X -
a) - =
n =
0
(n 1)(n + (x
+
-
a) originall new
+ + - +
,
-
...
ne
we removed the
Co
2) (f(x1dX =
2 +
(o(x -a) + (x a)-
+ (x -
a) +
...
=+ (x-ant
on lame open
interval
-
1 +
x +
x+ ...
what is
-
suggested
f((x)
=
Fxx =
1 +
2x +
3x2+ ...
=En .
x -
n
=
0
(n 1)x+
convention /
Example
f(x)
=
&
n 0
=
0!
xo
=
=
1
1
So
i
fix) :
f(0) =
1
ex
f(x)
=
Q1 :
Q2 :
fix)
E
((X-a)" for
=
x
I interval
f(x) =
(0 +
(, (x a)- +
(z)X -
a)2 +
(3(X a)3+ -
...
Co
f(a)
=
C1 =
f'(a)
8"(x) =
2) +
2 .
3(z(X -
a) +
...
in
general
:
a
=a In =
Ma
because we get
f(n(x)
=
a f(x)
2/2
13
Nial
=
By convention
0! =
1
infinitely
at a 0
=
,
then it is called the Maclauren Series of f .
Tr (x)
= cal(x-a =
f(a)
+
fi(a)(X
-
a) +
(a)(x-a)2 + ...
+a) (x -
a
Example
Consider ex
f(x) =
& f(x) =
ex =
f(x) ,
for any n, 0
a f(x) =
ex
It! n
xn T01x)= 1
n
=
0 T, (x) =
1 +
X
1 +
x +
j
x
+
Spicture)
Write
Rx(x)
f(x) Tr(x)
=
-
on
Theorem :
Let Tk(x
f(x) Rx(x)
= +
Ik degree of
Taylor polynomial fat
is the K a
then
fix-falix-an ,
for Ix-aR
K+ A
How do we show R2(x) -> 0 ?
Taylor Inequality
if
If(k+ (x)) = ,
for some constant M>0 for all x + [a-r ,
a +
r] for
some rs 0 .
Then the ,
remainder rxxl satisfies
Irx Ix-alle
Example :
ex on C-1 17 ,
T =
1 +
x +
e +
I +
We want to bond R1(X) =
ex-T11x) on C-1 13
,
f(x) exf()(x)
=
=
ex
so levie for xe [1 1 ,
it is absolutely
for all xtIR
convergent
him I =
o (*)
to
we will
apply Taylor's inequality f(x) ex
=
for >, O
f(r(x) = ex
If "(x))
( *+
ex er for +[ r]
=
= x
-
r
,
By Taylor's Inequality ,
**
IX
1Rx(x)) - Y :
er
o
fix x + [ -r r],
1Rk(x1) =
ex=
Eit x
for all KEIR
example Do Sincy)
,
CO11X1 have Taylor series representations around O?
let f(0) 0
=
f(x) sincxl
=
f((x) =
20/(X)
f((0) =
1
= -
0
18 Sincx) ""
(0)
(x)
8
=
x -
5,
x3 +
5, x+ ...
=
i x Entire since
/g
***
Since
f(K) is either I Sincel or Icosixl (x)) =)
we conclude
sincer-
xant
ai
Similar
argument gives
:
cos(X)
= x
=1 -
= + + ...
-
x*
=
n
1- 11 -xzn
E Int
.
cosixl =
Sincx) =
n =
0 (2011 !
-i xan
Lecture #5 110912023
Let f(x)
=
T , (x) =
X Tz(x) =
X if IX) _ =
28 6 .
Isin(x) j (213
Since
f(x)=-c0s1X) x 1 0 02
- =
= . = .
2 =
T2(x) =
Ts(x)
(sin(x1 -
x1 =
By Taylor's Inequality
(R3(x)) =
1 ! Ix14
(201(x1 -
(1 -
1 =
32 = 0 :0016
Example staylor expansion
S
**
In (1 +
x) =
x
for IXIC
of the logarithm
looks like the
=x -
2 1- +
+ ...
-> alternating series
#x
a
In (x+ 11
plugin -x( x)
=
-x x
-
=
+
di
for /C I
* Recall! so
-
.
-In x
I
-
xn
n 0
=
to find the
value of the
constanti Plug
In(1xx-faxanegral arti t
,
r
the value
Of "y
C =
(n(1 0)+
=
(n(1) =
0
*Remark :
b>n
(B) =
#
ways to an -element
(2) =
from 31 ,
2
,
3 ,
13 =
6
(b -n+1)
(B) n b-n b (b-1) ....
.
=
=
!
n!
=3 1
3
(2) 6
=
=
=
(1 +
x) * =
(B) -
x
Now , consider an
arbitrary b and :
x) B IXI 1
f(x) (1
=
+
- b
f((x) b(1 x)b f((0)
=
=
+
-2
f"(x) b(b 1)(1 x)b
f"(0) b(b 1)
=
-
=
+ -
n + ... n
= - -
-
...
- - + +
-
=
. .
(b
((0) b(p-1) 1)
=
..... -
nt
Notation :
(2) =
b(b 1) -
.
. ... (b -
n +
1)
(8) = 1
n!
ben
Note if b n then this coincides the
is an
integer with previous
:
notation .
if b is an
integer (n>b1
then (h) = 0
( x
1) Apply the ratio test to the Taylor series) to see that it is abs ·
I
b(-1 x (b .. - ti)(b-nxx *
(a
(n 111
/x) /X
.! =
+
=
=
=
x
by-11 .. X (b An+11.
x
"
for
so ,
we
get absolutely convergent IXI1
1)
&b(b 1)
n
-(4) xn
-
(a)nxn
+
re
gix =
-
=
+
=
n = 1
- b(b-1) ..... (b n) -
I x
=
n!
n 1
look at :
=
b(b- ) ..... (b -n + 1)
x
x-g(x) =
(n-11 !
b(b-1) ..... (b n) -
b ..... (b -
n +
1)
So (1+x) x x
gix) =
g(x) +x-g(X) =
n !
+
(n-11 !
continued)
b(b-11 .... (b
I
-n + 1)
x
.
1) (b) t
=b +
E [b(b- :...
,
(n-11 !
bIn
-
1)(=
b(b 1) (b n
1)
- - +
...
b +
= +
(n-1) !
b(b ..... (n -
n+
b
-
y b
b g(x)
=
.
=
!
+
so ,
gi(x) =
b Y
Consider (1 x)
b
y
-
h(x1 gix)
=
.
+
=
b
hisx) b(1xx) bg((x)
- -
b)1 x)
-
g(x)
= -
+
+
b b +
b(1
-
g(x) = b)( x)
-
x)
=
-
-
g(x)
+
+
O
So n(x) =
constant =
h301 =
(H01-3 .
g(x) = /
10 / 1 + x)
*
for IXK1
g(x)
=
Special cale :
b =
I * Remark :
It
might happen that
f is an infinitely
differentiable function
,
its Taylor Series
x =
(lx
↳
n
=
0
gir ,
sol xa
e
fix+80) (x-
g,x
=
G8 if x
=
0
f("(0) = 0
I So its
is O
Taylor levies
< ↳! 0x =
0 +
0+ ... o
but , 8 is
not
constant O
Lecture #6 09/19/2023
Remark In if
:
general ,
fixlax gix
=
dax
for IXKR
then
f g(x)
.
=
((0 +
x, x +
xx +
... ) )dot
.
d, x +
dex2+ ... )
,
+
+
x + ...
Example :
(OS(X)
sincx) -
COS(X)
=
(x - 5 + +
...
) .
(1 -
+ -
... )
=x
+
) I -
i)x +
(a! 25 +
!
+
5! )x5+ ...
x
-
5! x3 +
x5+ ...
Recap on power series
lof applications)
sincx)
lim Note that :
x- 0(x)
sincxl =
x
-
+ +
...
m (1-! )
x
xlin = + ...
x
=
1 -
- + + ...
=
1 +
0
x2
2) f(x) =
e
-
Sexax
using Taylor Series
-Bone ... *
e
SO ,
Sexax =
C +
on xant
so
i so iiit is anantaerivate
or it
Vectors & Geometry
48P
Let P = IR3
·
2e
Y
p =
(x y ,
,
z)
i =
(a ,
b ,
c) =
(x , y ,
z) Y+ =
(a +
x
,
b +
y ,
c +
z)
also vector by
we can
multiply a a number
I =
(a ,
b c) & E IR
,
2 .
T =
(2-a ,
a -
b
,
a. c)
of the vector
we can also compute the length
F (a ,
=
b ,
c)
III =
Nc +
Ate-11a .
El =
181 .
1151
11511 =
0 if and only if I =
*
-
if F 0 =
# /unitrector) - Ill = 1
The standard balis vectors
=(i) al
mernizens
-
"
(i) =
xi +
y + c
Bef
:
I . F =
x , xc +
x , x2
+
21 -
22
r
(ii) w (ii)
=
=
fasy to check
:
-Y .
= IVIR
-
.
( F +
=
Y. + is .
-I . =
i it .
if CER (C . ) . =
c .
( -)
,
Theorem :
En
if & the between I and I
is angle ,
then : .
= Ilrll .
11 WIl 2018
i
I- ↑
*
-El =
CO18
=NIl2 +112-2 m .
so , i .
E = 11 11 11511-c01(8)
·
M
Special cale if & =
E then cost =
0
w I .
=
.I 0 if and only if =
E only way the expression
dir
=
would be =
Example
(E) :s
orenagonal
to
(i) (i) ()= =
0
=2
+
- -
⑧
21
of I onto it
# n
prin
projec =
c .
i
= ity in
1
=
(0)(8)
lengthIcolored)
of interval
c =
11511-(01(8)
ThVI
Cost not
,
III -
=
-
by the previous theorem
the
-
#C (can
is called the
be 1)
scallar proje
↳ formula for project /I outo )
denoted by
competit is the
signed length of the projection
Example
proje
for ↑
=
(1 ,
1 ,
2) w =
( -
2
,
3 , 1)
F F
-
=
(1 ,
1 ,
2) .
( -
2 , 3 1)
,
=
-
2 +
3 +
2 =
3
11 W(12 =
1 212
-
+ 32 + 12 =
11
proje
= 1 -2 , 3 , 11 =
(2 ,, )
Lecture #7 09/21/2023
Hef
Let r =
(a ,92 as) =
formula
Y x
=
(acbs -
Azbz ,
Azb , -a , bs ,
aibz- acb , )
-dit
(at Tae)-saubs-asbil-labs-asbij) + labe-anb , E)=
in IR" ,
we can take the "cross-product" of n-l vectors .
Example
& =
(1 ,
2
,
3) w =
(2 ,
-1
,
1)
- x =
det
(iii) :
=(21 -
31 -
11) + -
(1 -
1 -
32)j +
(1) -
1) -
2 .
2)
54 58
58 15 , 5 , 5)
= + - =
Properties
110x ( w) +
=
ex + x
and
( w) x +
=
rxu +
x
2) (Cr) x
=
<(0xw)
and
↓x((w) =
c(rx =)
3) Ex = -
wxe in particular &x=-Ext so , x =
8
4) Y (Ex)
.
=
0 and 5 .
(*x) =
0
proof of 1) let
i =
(a as) (b ,, b bs)
, as
=
, ,
I (0x)
. =
(a 92 as) .
(Acbs -
=A , acbs / -
abs + ab , -
/by
aca , +
asabe I ab , =
O
in
L 115x wil 1IVI /I WII Sinc
=
· ·
ol
, I
11x1 Ex
5
=
0 So =
0
,
L .
hand rule
right .
(a , b c) ,
Can be represented
f(+1 =
p +
+ I .
=(x0 +
at
, yo + bt
,
20 +
ct)
in coordinates x(t) =
x0 +
at # Remark
:
yo
+
bt f2(+) =
Pc +
+ E
z(t) =
20 +
(t are parallel if I and i are
Parametrizing planes
/Xo , y ,
20) with normal vector
n (a =
,
b, c)
/ a
9
is the let of all &EIR3 (9-) .
5 =
.....
ie if q =
(x y , z)
....
,
#
coordinates
- -
, ,
,
·-
a(x -x0) +
b(y y0) - +
((z -20) =
Or
ax +
by +
(2 =
d =
axo +
bxo +
(20
important !!!
The
plane given by equation ax+ by + (2
=
d
has 5 =
<a ,
b ,
c) as a normal vector .
Example
Let Us find the equation of the
plane containing 3 points
P =
(1 ,
3 2) G (3=
,
-1
,
6) R
=
(5 ,
2 , 01
,
R
*.
·
-
this is the unique plane
the free
containing
..
vectors
+
->
O Q &,
P PR
->
n
=
Pa x PR
i =
(2 ,
-
1
,
1)x(d ,
-
1
,
-
2)
=(12 , 20 11) ,
so the plane is :
(12 , 20 19),
.
(X -1 ,
y 3,
- z -
2) =
0
12(x 1) -
+
20(y 1) -
+
11(2 9) - =
0
Example
Let us find the distance from the
point p=(1 ,
2 ,
1)
to the plane
· P x 1
y 2
=
.
+ +
I A normal vector to
-
I
Q
·
the
length of the projection of P to
compP1= /10
Il proje II I /
Onl= 2 1) (1 1,131
.
=
,
, ,
11 (1 ,
1 ,
1) 11
= 10 -
1 +
2 1 . +
11) =
3 = 55
r3 5
Lecture 8 09/26/2023
Example x
2 +
y2 =
1
E
g
.
.
x y2 22 1
=
+ +
I centered at 10 0, 01 ⑧
-
,
visualized
x2 z2 0 I2
y2
=
+ +
2 0 -> x2 2 0 X
y
=
= +
2 =
1 + x2 +
y2
=
1
2 =
-
1 -> x +
y
=
1
2 = = 2 + x2 +
y
=
1
Z
2
y-traces 0 x 22 0
=
y
=
O
x
=
= 2
I I 2
1 22 0
y x
=
+
-
=
22 =
x +
1
2 = =
V1 +
X
yI 2
=
22 =
x
2 + 1
2
=
IN1
X-traces ,
same as y-traces 2
- .-
..
I
-
Y
.......,
-
- -...
-
givel 2 cones
X
....
-
.......
-
~ ...
~
-
-
E g
.
.
Sketch 2 =
x +
2- traces
Y
2
2 0 x
2
y 2 2 x y2 2
=
=
=
= -
y I
=
X x = r
x 2 +
2 =
1y 2 =
x2 1 -
2 -
= 1 x2 y 2 -
= -
1 X
2
x2 x2 1
y x
2
1
=
= +
+
x
=
Y1 + y
-
=
2 = -
2x2 yz - = - 2
I r
x2 2
y
=
+
y-traces
0 2 x2
y
=
=
112 x2 1
=
y
-
=
22 x2
y
I
=
= -
1
X-tracel
x
=
02 =
-
x2
12 1 y2
-
x
= = -
x =
=
22 =
2
-
x2
-
2
Hi
It saudle
y
vector-valued functions
Def F :
Can be written as
F( + ) =
(x) +
) ,
y) +
1
,
z) +
1)
=x( + 1 . +
y( 1 + .
j + z(+ 1 .
E
tt1RY =
[(x1+ , x1t) ,
21 +) : +
+R)
f g
. .
ri +) =
Parametric curves
given by increasing
values of t
parametric
we can re-parametrice them for
so the corresponding
curve in this case is the circle ·
instance by Fi(+) r (-H Changing the
=
direction .
E g .
.
H= (c0 , (2+) ,
Sink2t)
,
E .
g . (H =
(cr1(+) ,
sinc+1 ,
+
Also has the circle as
d
its parametric curve the parametric
curve is helix
t g .
. Y(+ = <x1) ,
x(+) ,
2( )
+
x(+) =
2 +
(0)(EH)-(011 + 1
x1 1
=
2 +
(0) (2+)-(inct)
(Et1
⑧
21+ 1 =
sin
Def For F /R-IR3
:
the limit of FCH at a tIR
,
him rsts =
(1im xst
,
him xst ,
limest
if it exists , I is continuous a if
flal He st
=
at
,
is Psal =
himh(r(a +
4) -
r(a))
....a
~
- ------
+
* Note that :
ric+= (x '( +
,
y'x + ,
c +
1)
(H =
/im (8) + n) +
-
F(+1)
n+0
I
-n
-
- lim n(x) + n) -x1H y(t h) x|t) n(+
+
,
+ -
,
+
h) -
1)
x+
neo
=(x'(t) ,
y't) ,
z(+ 1)
t .
9 .
F(+) =
(1011+ ) ,
Sinc
,
+(
& (t =
(-linc) ,
10111 ,
1 (
then the
tangent vector to the parametric curve
I at t is I'Stol
The
tangent line at to the unit
tangent vector at to
rstol t 'Stal
vi all
+ .
Lecture 10 10/03/2023
if vst) =
(x(t) ,
y(t) ,
z(+ 1) then the
,
1 =
la x 'S +
x' 2'(2 dt +
of the helix
↑ (1) =
(c) (t)
,
sinc ,
t
&
r')
=
(-sinCt) ,
105(7) ,
1)
2π
! .
(-sinst)) + /CO11H"+1 &t
= 111 at
=
2πE
* Remark :
&
(1) =
(10112+ sinc2+1)
!*
,
*
**
115'still at =
( esin12+1 ,
<cos12+1) :
( in t)+d10s CHAA
! "Adt =2 .
CT = &H =
2 .
/circumference of a circlel
* Remark :
Sometimes
I x '(+2 y ' ( 1
+
+ +
2'(+12 At
if x '(+2 +
y'C+2 +
2'72 is not a square
=
Difficult
Eg find of an ellipse
b
(a) +
(*) =
1
a
r(+) =
(acost ,
brin1+1) +t [0 24] ,
rilt) =
)- asinIt ,
boist1)
Def
The function function I
arclength of vector valued
sit :
" I swill de
Harene* Your teaching Time +
"
r'(t)
=
1-sinst) ,
1091+)
,
1)
11t
=) H15's will du
Edu =
R A .
travelled E .
Observation :
S'1 =
115'(+) /l
11t
=) Fr swilldu =1 du =
S =
arclength
because :
11 r, xsll =
1r( +(11) -
+(11)
Sa = /I still -= +(l)
=Il rs+ 1) . ll
=( * ( .
11 +
(1) I =
1
M why it is = 1
Example find
arclength parametrication of the helix
*
Recall
8(+ =
, ,
solve for t =
* ->
writting
+
as a function of 1)
is+ (1) =
5 =
(cos( ) ,
sin (E) ,
(1)
Curvature
.
S
>
=> Unit tangent vectors
· · D
* around ob
,
the unit tangent vectors are changing direction faster than at oa
↑
-
Recall that if r : RMIR
,
↑ (+
the unit tangent vector TH) =
115'st11l
Def if I :
IR-IR is parametriced by the
arclength ,
then the curvature
k(s) =
11 T'xxill =
/I l
What if is by
our curve not parametrized arclength?
[(+)
we can compute S(H
,
T()
- rature antcomputeee
k(t) =
Lecture II 10/05/2023
t g
.
. Let 5 :
(acos(t) ,
asinc+1)
v'st) =
(- asin/t ,
acos(t)) a
IIr'll= acsiniC+) ,
accos"(H) =
a
T1 = = (-since (01(+1) ,
T'(H =
( - 101(H1 ,
-sin+1)
1IT'(tll =
COSH +(in'(+)= 1
k(+) =
a Does not depent on I
9 =
(x0 y0 , ,
20) +
t -
(a ,
b ,
c)
f'st) =
(a ,
b ,
c) 11 r'(+1) =
a2 +
b2 +
x
(a , b, c)
T(+) =
a +
b +
(2 T'( =
(0 0 01
, ,
11 T'( +) 11 =
k(H) =
0 for all to
Theorem :
if : RAIR is a
doubly differentiable
vector valued function .
T = SO ↓
=
11r'll .
T =
S'T
SO r
=
S"T +
S'T'
r'xr" =
((T) x (s"T +
(T)
=(ST) x(s"t) +
(s' +)x(s'T') vector croll-product of itself =
8
-"I
=0 +
1S'lTxT'
=
I'll TxT' .
Angle between
T & T T & T
=1 al are
orthogonal
110112 .
1 .
11 I'll .
Ilrxrll= I l .
Il T'll=lr' .
E
11 r'x r"ll
k
- end of proof
=
11 'll3
E .
g .
↑( +) =
(+ +
2 +
3)
,
,
ri(t) = (1 ,
2+ ,
3 +
2)
r"(t) =
(0 ,
2
,
6 t)
11r(t)11 =
12 +
9+ 2 +
9 +2
I
I
I
i k 2)i (6 + 08 (2-0)E
2
r(t) x r"(t) = =
(2 + -
61 -
3 + .
-
-
+
det 1 27 37 2 =
6t2Y -
6t +
2k
O 26t
118'() x = "(t) 11 =
36+9 +
36+ 2 +
1
k( +) = 36 + 1 +
36 +
2 +
1
19+1 +
1 +
2 +
1 13
A special is for
:
y
=
f(x)
[(x) =
(x ,
f(x) ,
0)
r(x) (1 f(x) 01
n
=
, ,
r"(X) =
(0 , f"(x) ,
01
Ilr'(XIII =
1 +
f11X12
af o)
↑ (x) x "(X) = 10-07-10-018 + (f(x)- 01E
=f "(x)E
If "(x1
3
ir(x1 x = "(xiIl= If " (x1) SO , k(x) =
1 +
f(X)
E The curvature of a parabola (y 2
g x
=
.
at point X
2
3
k(x) =
1 +
,
it equall to 2 k(01
TNB frame
r'( +)
↑ :
11 r'(r)1)
11 T H+D1) = 1 /O T T .
=
0
Ns+ =
Fin
The binormal rector
& (t =
F( + 1 xN(+)
&"
Remark
-
FCt
vectors
,
Ni
orthogonal
,
BC
to
are
each
unit
other
~
t 9
.
↑(1) =
/(01(+) ,
sinc ,
H
v'( =
1-cin1t ,
101111 14
,
IIr'(H)ll =
Sin +10P(+1
=
F1H =
( sinc I cost I
, ,
Y'st) ) =
-
cuit)
,
-cinit ,
of
NCH =
= crit ,
since
,
of
- (-2011) ,
sinct ,
ol
af
Si-Faxn-
= ( sinst
- cust .
Interpretations
we think of r :
IR+IRs as a motion of an object in IR
-
vi+= r(t) is its velocity
-
11H) :
distance travelled
distance travelled
sit) =
(Ir'still speed
s"() :
SHH) Scalar acceleration
Remark
*
1
1) speed 11 velocity
=
21 "H) be 11ast)))
might not
=
S"(t =
aq 11 I still
11 a it11) =
11 still
Theorem r: IR-IR3 Vector valued function
& Ht) =
S "(t)4( +) +
k(+) -
/ +2 . N(t)
I =
i = I
so r =
S' . F
fil
↳ derive to
get
a =
&" =
S . F + S .
F
11 I'll
= S"F +
S'll +'ll . N since = . k(t) =
II 'll
=
S . + (s') -
k . =11 I'll
Is' ⑪
End of proof
12/10/2023
Lecture 12
Helix
Example : Me
r( +) =
(10)) +
)
,
(int) ,
+)
rist) =
)-cinst) ,
1013+1 1) I'll =
E
,
↓
recall from last
TH =
/* ** (IA)(
NIH =
2
a
, ,
are equal
alt) =
v"(t) =
( -
x01(+) ,
-
(int) ,
0) =
N(t)
This means
:
3
by the theorem discussed last class .
so indeed S"(t) =
0
,
&
2
(S ' ( +11 =
=
2
so ,
k(+ =
ki + -
!" : =
I
functions of several variables
E .
g
f(x , y) =
1 -
x2 -
yz
+
m(y +
I)
we need
1 x2 y 20
I
·
-
-
x +
y
2 = 1
y
+
I >0 y > -
domain
:
all (x y ,
:
x +
y
=
1 "IIII) :
Domain
"IIIIIIn
y >
-
f(x , 4) =
C for some (
a ccuntan map .
E .
g
Let's /ketch a contour map of
f(x y) ,
=
Ny M :
domain
M
Domain :
(We need)
x 0
Y ,
-
M
x= 0 and Y= 0
contour map :
1 2
=
first ,
lets consider c
=
C = 1
f(x , y)
=
0 =
Xy
1 =
f(x y) ,
=
1 =
My -
y =
I
Xy G
f(x
-
y) 2 y
=
=
=
F(x , y ,
z)
IRC+
or more
generally IR
:
, ,
E .
g .
f(x , y , 2)
=
1000 -
x2 -
42 - z
f(x y 2) 0 - x2 + y 2 22 1000
-
+
= =
, ,
f(x y , 2) ,
=
500 - x2 +
y2 +
22
=
300 ·
-
f(x , y , z)
=
1000 - x2 +
y2 +
22 =
0
Recall
f :
IR IR a tIR ,
LEIR
Lim f(x) = L
x+a
~
BAD
~
EL = &
O
-
-
⑧
a
I
a
Def . Let F :
IRTIR and (a b) GIR2
,
L E IR
......
. . . . .
1x , y) approaches (a , b) is L
~
lim f(X , 4) =
L
x , y4(a , b)
I
if for every 230
,
there exists a 830 (a , b)
,
(x -al +
(y - b) < &