IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES
Adulterated Feedstuff
NUTRITION
 The series of processes by which an organism
takes in and assimilates food for promoting
growth and replacing worn-out or injured
tissues.
 Encompasses several fields of discipline like
biochemistry, chemistry, physiology,
endocrinology, microbiology, genetics
NUTRIENTS
 Any feed constituent or a group of feed
constituents of the same general composition
that aids in the support of life
 May include synthetically produced vitamins,
chemical action, enzyme activity
 Its basic unit is the form of the nutrient which
may be absorbed.
DIGESTION
Is the process or breaking down food particles
mechanically, chemically and facilitated by
enzymes in preparation to absorption. Mastication
or wheing for instance, is a part of digestion
process as the teeth with the corresponding action
of saliva and the enzyme it contains are
mechanically or physically digesting food
ABSORPTION
Refers to the movement of digested nutrients
from the food/feed from the gastro-intestinal tract to
the circulatory system via the blood or lymph
METABOLISM
Refers to the chemical processes that
transform substances for utilization and the excretion
of waste products at the cellular level. It occurs only
after the basic units had been absorbed into the blood.
It is also defined as the combination of anabolic and
catabolic reactions that occur in the body with the
corresponding release of energy
 Feedstuff (feed ingredient) found to contain
any material that may be injurious or have no
food value.
Antioxidants
 Substances which prevent oxidation prevents
the oxidation of another substance.
Ash
 Mineral water of a feed ingredient remaining
after burning of the dry matter.
Base or Basal Ingredient
 The main or primary ingredient in a
concentrate mixture.
 Example: rice bran, corn meal/ground
yellow corn
By-Product
 Secondary products produced in addition to
the primary product.
o Palay Milled Rice (Primary)
o Rice Bran (By-product)
o Rice Hull (By-product
Concentrates
 Feedstuff low in fiber and high in total
digestible nutrients.
Mixed Concentrates
 These are mixed feed ingredients containing
high amount of protein, energy, vitamin
intended to be used as a complete feed.
Simple Concentrates
 These are single feed ingredients containing at
least 60% TDN. These are further mixed with
other ingredients to produce a complete feed.
Crude Fiber
 He coarse, fibrous portions of plants, relativity
low in digestibility and nutritive value.
 Composed mainly of cellulose lignin. More
CF content means less digestive feed.
Crude Protein
 Includes the true proteins and all other
nitrogenous compounds in feeds.
 Is one was to express the nutritive value of a
feed
 It is crude protein because some nitrogen
which are not part of protein gets included
during analysis.
 % N x 6.25 + C.P. (%)
 Nitrogen is 16% of protein (100/16 + 6.25)
 All protein foods contain 16% N
Crumbles
 Pelleted feed reduced to granular form
Digestible Protein
 That portion of the ingested feed protein,
which is absorbed.
Dry Matter Percent
 Feedstuff which do not contain water.
Energy Feed
 Concentrates with less than 20% crude protein
content.
Crude Fat
 Also called ether extract. It is crude fat
because other substances which are not fat
also get included.
Feed(s)
 Food taken by animal.
Food
 Any material eaten by an animal which
provide energy or fuel to the body.
 Any material that gives nourishment to the
body; gives fuel or energy to the body.
Nutrient
 Chemical substances necessary for the support
or maintenance of life
Fodder
 The green plant containing all the ears or seed
heads, grown primarily for forage feed.
 Refers to corn or sorghum for forage, fresh or
dry at dough storage
Forage
 Vegetable feeds for ruminants more than 18%
crude fiber in the dry state.
 Major feed of ruminants consisting of whole
plant above ground such as green chop, hay,
pasture or silage.
Forage Crop
 Plants primarily for livestock feed either
harvested for hay, soilage or green feeds, or
eaten by grazing animals.
Hay
 The aerial portion of grass off herbage
especially out and cured for animal feeding.
Mash of Mash Feed
 A mixture of feed ingredients in meal form.
Meal
 Grains that are ground with particle size larger
than those flour to avoid dustiness.
 Examples: corn meal; camote meal;
mungo meal; ipil-ipil leaf meal,
cassava meal.
Micro-Ingredients
 Vitamins, minerals, antibioitics, drugs and
other materials normally required.
Middlings
 A by-product of cereals milling (grains like
rice, wheat, etc.) comprising several grades of
granular particles containing different
proportions of endosperm, brain and germ.
Nutrient(s)
 Chemical substances compounds necessary for
the support of life.
Pellets
 Agglomerated feed formed by compacting and
forcing through die openings by a chemical
process.
 Under high pressure and with binders
(stickers) mash feeds can be made into pellets
to prevent dustiness and for higher density.
Protein
 Complex organic compounds composed of
largely carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen in the form of amino acids. Some
may contain sulphur phosphorus and small
amount of other elements.
Protein Feed
 Concentrates containing 20% or more crude
protein.
Ration
 The amount of feed which is provided to one
animal over a 24-hour period.
Rice Hull
 Consist primarily of the outer covering of the
rough rice.
Roughage
 Feeds that are high in fiber and therefore low
in TND. These include straw, stover, forage
grasses, and legumes.
Silage
 Forage preserved in a succulent condition by
partial fermentation.
 Fermented forage for animal feed.
Soilage, Soiling Crop
 Green forage crops that are cut and fed in
fresh condition to stock.
Stover
 The stalks and leaves of corn after the ears, or
in sorghum, after the seed heads have been
harvested.
Straw
 The plant residue remaining after separation of
the seeds in threshing. It includes the chaff.
(Ex. Rice straw)
Supplement (Feed Supplement)
 A feed used with another to improve the
nutritive balance or performance of the total,
and intended to be a fed undiluted as a
supplement to other feeds.
Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN)
 E.g., proteins, NFE, fat (x 2.25), digestible
fiber.
Trace Minerals
 Mineral nutrients required by the animals in
micro-amounts only.
Abomasum
 The true or glandular stomach of the ruminant.
It is the 4th compartment stomach.
Absorption
 Process when, usually, nutrients are taken up
from the small intestine into the circulatory
system.
Digestion
 To extract the nutrients from the food.
Utilization
 It is actually put the nutrients to work in a
biochemical process within the cell.
Acetic Acid
 It is sour usually elaborated in the vinegar
silage, or rumen ingest. It is a volatile fatly
acid I(VVA) which is the main energy source
in ruminants.
Additive
 Mixed into a formulated feed in order to
improve, usually added in small amount.
Ad-libitum
 Taken at liberty by the animal
 “Free-choice”
 As desired by the animal
Alimentary Tract
 The tube and enlargements (organs, glands,
etc.) from the esophagus to the anus.
Amino Acid
 These are the building blocks of protein.
When put together become protein.
Anabolism
 The building up of tissue by putting together
simple substrates to form complex ones.
Ascorbic Acid
 Also called vitamin C. It keeps cells cemented
together thru collagen.
Bacteria
 Single cell plant microorganism or micro-
flora.
Balance Daily Ration
 Provides all essential nutrients in correct
proportion for 24 hrs.
Bile
 Fluid produced by the liver and stored in the
gall bladder. Helps in the digestion of fat.
Booster-Ara-Lick
 A cheap but nutritious feed supplement.
Composed of dried poultry manure, cement,
molasses, urea and salt.
Bran
 The outer seed coat after removal of hulls. The
bran is removed to make the rice kernel/grain
white.
Butyric Acid
 Commonly occurs in the rumen and poor
quality silage as some of volatile fatty acid
(VFA)
Calorie
 Volume (amt.) of energy needed to increase
temperature of one gram of water by one
degree centigrade.
Carbohydrate
 One of the feed nutrients containing, C, H and
O, with ration of H and O like water – H2O,
H12, 06, C6 H12 06 I(glucose)
Carotene
 This term is derived from carrot, a yellow
organic matter (major/main) substance of
milk, coagulated by acetic acid or renin.
Catabolism Crude Fat

 Breakdown of complex materials or substance  Also called ether extract. It is crude fat
into simpler compound by organism at cell because other substances, which are not fat,
level. also get included.

Cecum Excreta

 Similar to the appendix of humans located at  Mainly feces and urine resulting from
the junction of the small and large intestine. excretion.

Cell Expeller/Process

 The basic structural of life of plants and  A mechanical procedure where oil is extracted
animal which are microscopic and where from seeds using screw to develop pressure.
essential life processes are made (cell
metabolism) Extruded

Cellulose  With screw pressure, feed with binders are

made into pellets.
 The most complex form of carbohydrate
mostly found in forage (roughage). Ruminants Fat
use cellulose much better than monogastric  Oil which hardens at low temperature.
animals such as pig and poultry.
Fat-Soluble
Chopped Roughage
 Substance which dissolve in fat. Vitamin A is
 Fresh forage cut into about one inch for easier as fat-soluble vitamin.
handling, feeding and storage as silage.
Fattening
Coagulate
 Excess energy taken by the animals is stored
 To curdle and clut. as fat, as in cattle fattening.
Collagen Fatty Acid
 A protein, which mainly supports connective  An organic compound having carbon,
tissues. hydrogen and oxygen which, when combined
Colostrum Milk with glycerol, forms fat.

 The highly concentrated, first few days milk Feces

after giving birth.  Undigested feed excreted thru the anus.
Commercial Feed Feed
 Mixed feed produced by a commercial  Food taken/eaten by an animal.
company for feeding.
Feed Bunks
Complete/Ration
 Feeding troughs
 Similar to balanced daily ration.
Feed Grade Gastric Juice

 Food good for animals only.  It is juice secreted by the stomach walls
containing hydrochloric acid (HCI), rennin,
Feeding Standard pepsin, and gastric lipase.
 Established amount (or weight) of nutrients Glucose
such as protein, carbohydrates, etc. needed by
animals growth, milk production,  Also called dextrose. It is the end product of
maintenance, etc. “These are also considered digestion of starch (a carbohydrates). It is
„farmers‟ feeding guide” absorbable thru the small intestines.

Fermentation Glycogen

 Enzymatic changes in feeds such as silage  Animal starch. This is a polysaccharide

procedure by lactic acid producing formed in the liver.
microorganism (largely).
Grains
Fiber
 Major source of energy for animals (cereal
 In feeds, it is largely made of cellulose, limits grains)
digestibility in non-ruminants. Ruminants
consumed large amount of fiber. Grass

Finish  Monocot plants that constitute a major part of

ruminant forage.
 Refers top fattening an animal for slaughter at
a certain age or weight. CLASSES OF NUTRIENTS

Flora Protein

 In nutrition, it refers to bacterial population
present in the rumen or gastro-intestinal tract.
Formulated Feed
 Mixed ingredients in correct proportion.
Fructose
Carbohydrates
 Sugar present in rife fruits and honey.
Galactose
 Results from lactose hydrolysis. (Breakdown)
Gastric
 Refers to the stomach. (Gastro)
 Protein is made up of amino acids that are
necessary for healthy animals. Amino acids
are the building blocks of protein, are used for
the formation of tissues, and muscle
production.
 Protein is needed for healthy growth,
reproduction, and maintenance.
 Carbohydrates are nutrients that provide the
main source of energy for activities the body
performs.
 Carbohydrates provide energy for growth,
maintenance, and reproduction. They also help
produce body heat for warmth.
 Carbohydrates come from plants and include
sugars, starches, and cellulose.
Water
 Water is vital for all animals and makes up
more than one-half of most animals‟ bodies! It
forms the basis of fluids in the body and is
essential for processes such as digestion,
blood circulation, and waste elimination.
 Water helps dissolve nutrients and also
regulates body temperature through
perspiration and evaporation.
Fats
 One may not think of fats as being essential,
but they are. Although fats are needed in small
amounts they are a necessary part of the diet.
 Fats provide energy and store excess energy.
 Fats help produce body heat and carry fat-
soluble vitamins in the body. Many sources of
proteins are also sources of fats. Fats are
found in both plants and animals.
 Plant fats include oils that are within seeds,
which are the main source of fats in
agricultural feeds.
Minerals
 Minerals provide material for growth of
bones, teeth, and tissue and also help regulate
many of the body‟s chemical processes.
 Minerals also help in muscular activities,
reproduction, tissue repair, and body heat.
Although mineral intake may account for a
small portion of the total diet, it is essential.
Minerals
 Minerals can be categorized as macrominerals
or microminerals. Macrominerals are needed
in larger amounts by the body, and
microminerals are needed in smaller amounts.
 Macrominerals include calcium, chlorine,
magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium,
and sulfur.
 Microminerals include chromium, cobalt,
copper, fluorine, iron, iodine, manganese,
molybdenum, nickel, selenium, silicon, and
zinc.
Vitamins
 Vitamins are essential for normal body
functions such as digestion, cell metabolism,
growth, and reproduction. Like minerals, they
are also needed in relatively small quantities.
 Vitamins help in tooth and bone formation,
assist the body in fighting stress, and prevent
infection in the body. Vitamins can be
obtained from many different sources such as
forages, hay, and cereal grains. Just as in
minerals, it is important for the producer to
provide the appropriate vitamins
 Fat-Soluble Vitamins - vitamins are dissolved
in fat
o Vitamin A
o Vitamin D
o Vitamin E
o Vitamin K
 Water-Soluble Vitamins - vitamins are
dissolved in water
o Vitamin B-Complex
 Thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine,
pantothenic acid, biotin, folic acid, benzoic
acid, choline, and cobalamin.
o Vitamin C
 Reproduction is the process by which animals
produce offspring for the purpose of
continuing the species. The process begins
with the mating of a male and female of the
species, a process called copulation.
 During copulation, sperm cells (spermatozoa)
are transferred from the male reproductive
tract to the female reproductive tract. In the
female reproductive tract, the sperm unite with
the egg cell (ovum) produced by the female to
form an embryo.
 The embryo attaches to the wall of the uterus
of the female reproductive tract where it is
protected, receives nourishment, and develops
until the new offspring is delivered from the
female reproductive tract in a process called
parturition
THE AIMS OF REPRODUCTION
 Perpetuation of the species
 Genetic improvement
MALE PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
ANATOMY OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
The major function of the male reproductive
system is the production, storage, and deposition of
sperm cells. It also functions by producing male sex
hormones and serves as a passageway for expelling
urine from the urinary bladder.
THE TESTICLES
 The testicles are the prime reproductive part.
The testes are paired, ovoid-shaped organs
that produce sperm cells (spermatozoa) and
the male sex hormone testosterone.
 The testicles are made up of seminiferous
tubules, which are tiny coiled tubes that
produce the sperm, as well as interstitial cells
(Leydig cells) located between the tubules that
secrete reproductive hormones.
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE TESTIS
SPERMATIC
SPERMATIC CHORD
 A protective fibrous sheath consisting of
smooth muscles, blood vessels, and nerves.
Extends through the inguinal ring and attaches
to the testes to suspend them within the
scrotum.
 The spermatic cord and its testicle are doubly
invested with peritoneum, a serosal sac
referred to as the vaginal tunic (Latin vagina,
sheath).
SCROTUM
 The scrotum is a sac or pouch of skin that
provides a favorable environment for the
production and maturation of spermatozoa.
 The cremaster muscle (internal abdominal
oblique muscle that lies on the spermatic
cord), spermatic cord, and tunica dartos
muscle (a layer of fibroelastic tissue mixed
with smooth muscle fibers).
 In the wall of the scrotum raises or lowers the
testes to maintain a constant testicular
temperature of approximately four to six
degrees below body temperature, because
sperm must develop under conditions cooler
than body temperature.
SUPPORT STRUCTURES
 The remaining structures support the
spermatozoa in reaching their ultimate
purpose (the ovum of the female) in a
condition conducive to fertilization of the
ovum.
 These structures include the epididymis and
ductus deferens, accessory sex
glands(ampullary glands, vesicular glands,
prostate, and Bulbourethral glands), the
urethra, and the penis.
THE EPIDIDYMIS
 The epididymis is a coiled tube connected to
each testis with three parts: a head, body, and
tail. Sperm is stored in the epididymis for
maturation.
 It also concentrates the sperm and transports it
from the testicles to the vas deferens.
a) Caput epididymis
b) Corpus epididymis
c) Cauda epididymis
THE DUCTUS DEFERENS
 Formerly vas deferens.
 Originates from the epididymis
 A tube that transports sperm from the
epididymis to the urethra.
THE PENIS
 The penis is a copulatory organ that
deposits semen into the female
reproductive tract. It also excretes urine
from the body.
  Sigmoid flexure – This S-curved muscle
extends the penis outside the body during
mating.
 Retractor muscle – This muscle pulls the
penis back into the body.
 Sheath – The sheath is a fold of skin that
covers and protects the penis when it is
relaxed.
THE ACCESSORY SEX GLANDS
 The male accessory sex glands produce
the bulk of the ejaculate, or semen, the
medium for transport of sperm. Semen
provides favorable conditions for nutrition
of sperm and acts as a buffer against the
natural acidity of the female genital tract.
Accessory Gland of the Bull
 They are responsible for the production of
secretions that contribute to the liquid
noncellular portion of semen known as the
seminal plasma. Semen and ejaculate are
terms given to the sperm plus the added
accessory fluids.The accessory sex glands
include the ampulla of the ductus deferens,
vesicular gland, prostate gland, and
bulbourethral gland.
AMPULLAE
 The Ampullae are glandular enlargements
associated with the terminal parts of the
ductus deferentia.
 Glands of the ampullae empty into the ductus
deferentia and contribute volume to the
semen. And the enlargement of the deferent
duct that opens into the urethra and may serve
as a temporary storage depot for sperm.
VESICULAR GLANDS
 (Seminal vesicles) are paired accessory glands
that secrete seminal fluid that adds fructose
and citric acid to nourish the sperm and
functions as a protection and transportation
medium for sperm upon ejaculation.
THE PROSTATE GLAND
 Secretes a thick, milky fluid that mixes with
the seminal fluid and also provides nutrition
and substance to the ejaculate. The
combination of the sperm with the fluids from
the seminal vesicles and prostate gland is
referred to as semen.
BULBOURETHRAL GLANDS (COWPER’S
GLANDS)
 This gland releases a fluid into the urethra that
cleanses and neutralizes it to allow the sperm
to survive the passage to the penis. The
secretions pass through the urethra prior to the
semen
COMPARISON OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE
ORGANS
The reproductive system of the fowl, however,
differs in form and function from the other domestic
animals.
ANATOMY OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
Testicles
 As in the other animals, sperm and hormones
are produced in the testicles. In fowl, they also
secrete the seminal fluid.
Vas deferens
 Sperm and seminal fluid are transferred from
the testicles to the cloaca through the vas
deferens.
Cloaca
 The reproductive and digestive systems meet
at the cloaca. The male cloaca joins the female
cloaca in the mating process.
o Papillae – Attached to the inside wall
of the cloaca, the papillae transport the
sperm to the female reproductive tract
during mating.
Vent FEMALE PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

 The vent is connected to the cloaca. It releases ANATOMY OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE

the reproductive and digestive products SYSTEM

The purpose of the female reproductive

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF system is to produce the eggs (ova) to be fertilized by
LIVESTOCK sperm. It also serves as a receptacle for the penis
during copulation and houses and nourishes the fetus
ANATOMY OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM until parturition. The female reproductive tract is
made up of several organs, each having a specific
The male reproductive tract is made up of
function.
several organs, glands, and muscles, each having a
specific function. The male animal possesses special
reproductive organs. These organs are similar in all
male mammals, although some differences in form
and function do exist

THE OVARIES

 Two ovaries function to produce eggs and the

female hormones, estrogen and progesterone.
 The ovaries, along with the remainder of the
female reproductive tract, are supported in the
abdominal cavity by the broad ligaments. The
arteries, veins, and nerves of the ovaries are
also located in these ligaments.

FOLLICLE

 The follicle appears as a clear blister-like on

the surface of the ovary. The function of the
follicle is to hold the growing ovum and to
produce and store the hormone estrogen.
 Estrogen is secreted from the follicle as a
signal to the remainder of the reproductive
anatomy to prepare for the ovulation of an
ovum.
The Ovaries
CORPUS LUTEUM
 After ovulation, the ruptured follicle collapses
and a small hemorrhage occurs. This
bloodclotted area is called a corpus
hemorrhagicum and only lasts two to three
days. This area begins to be filled by a yellow
mass of cells called the corpus luteum.
CORPUS LUTEUM
 Its cells have the primary purpose of
producing the female sex hormone,
progesterone. Production of progesterone
prepares the female reproductive anatomy for
pregnancy and lasts approximately twelve
days unless the ovum is fertilized.
OVIDUCTS
 The oviducts (fallopian tubes) are the paired
tubes that transport the eggs from the ovaries
to the uterus. The oviduct is the site where the
sperm and the ova meet and where
fertilization occurs. Two funnel-like openings,
called infundibulum, pick up the eggs at
ovulation and direct them into the body of the
oviducts.
The Ovaries
 This is the connecting tube between the ovary
and the uterus. The oviduct can be subdivided
into 3 parts, namely, the infundibulum, the
ampulla and the isthmus.
THE UTERUS
 The uterus consists of a body and horns. The
embryo attaches to the uterine body, or to the
wall of the uterine horn, depending on the
species of the animal.
 The uterus functions as a passageway for
sperm during copulation, incubates the
embryo during pregnancy, and contracts to
expel the fetus during parturition. It is in the
uterus that the embryo receives nourishment
and develops until parturition.
Functions of the uterus include:
a. Sperm capacitation
b. Nutrition of the zygote by the uterine
fluid before implantation
c. Sperm transport (contractions of the
myometrium)
d. Gestation
e. Parturition (fetal expulsion)
f. Secretion of prostaglandin which
causes luteolysis.
THE CERVIX
 The cervix is a sphincter-like structure lying
between the uterus and the vagina. It is
characterized by a thick wall and constricted
lumen. It closes the uterus to intruders thereby
preventing infection. It however relaxes
during oestrus, permitting sperm to enter the
uterus.
THE VAGINA
 The vagina is the female copulatory organ and
passageway for foetal and placental delivery.
It extends from the urethral opening to the
cervix.
 The vagina serves as the receptacle for the
penis during copulation and as the birth canal
at parturition. The vagina also serves as a
passageway for expelling liquid wastes, as the
urethra joins the bladder to the vagina prior to
the opening at the vulva.
EXTERNAL GENITALIA
 The external genitalia comprise of the
vestibule, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris
and vestibular glands.
 The junction of the vestibule and vagina is
marked by the external urethral orifice and
hymen. The hymen is torn and disappears or
becomes vestigial by the time reproductive
age is attained.
 The vulva is the external portion of the female
reproductive tract that serves to protect the
internal system from infection, to initially
 receive the penis at copulation, and to act as a
passageway for urine.
 Just inside the vulva is a sensory erectile organ
called the clitoris
The basic principles involved in the
inheritance of traits of farm animals and how these
traits can be improved further. It covers topics such as
genetics, genes and their role in animal productivity,
gametes, genotypes, phenotypes and gene actions. It
also discusses the principles in quantitative and
population genetics.
Genetics
 Branch of biology that deals with heredity and
variation. It stands as the unifying discipline in
biology by allowing us to understand how life
can exist at all levels of complexity, ranging
from the molecular to the population level.
 Genetics is centered on the study of genes. A
gene is classically defined as a unit of
heredity. At the molecular level, a gene is a
segment of DNA that produces a functional
product. In addition, genes are commonly
described according to the way they affect
traits, which are the characteristics of an
organism.
Genes and their Role in Animal Productivity
 Among the greatest wonders of nature are the
similarities and differences among individuals.
Various animals belonging to the same family
are similar to each other in a manner that still
allows for differences such that even identical
twins in humans are very much similar but not
exactly the same.
 Animals belonging to each species are able to
reproduce their own kind. For instance,
horses, zebras, and donkeys, each having
originated from a common ancestor have a
close similarly in body conformation but each
species is unique, like the black and white
stripes found in zebras which are actually an
adaptational feature.
Genes and their Functions
 A gene is the unit of inheritance necessary for
the transfer of traits from one generation to the
next. It is located in the chromosomes. Gene is
to heredity as cell is to life.
 Gene is the basic unit of heredity.
 Heredity is the process of transmission of
genes from parents to offspring.
In order to fulfill its general role in the
maintenance of the similarities and spawning of
differences among individuals, the genes must possess
the following characteristics:
a. Stable molecular structure
b. Can constantly duplicate itself
c. Ability to store and transmit biological
information
d. Allow decoding and translation of the
information it carries.
e. Allow duplication of mutation or
error, which would then be copied
permitting natural selection.
Gentoype and Phenotype
 Genotype - The genotype of an individual
refers to its genetic makeup.
 Phenotype - is the expression, that is, the
physical traits seen and measured.
 The expression of the phenotype is actually
dictated by its genotype, the environment
where it is located and the interaction of these
two factors.
Gene Action
 A gene usually comes in pairs of alleles.
Allele is an alternative form of a gene. One is
called dominant allele as it expresses itself in
the phenotype; and the other is the called the
recessive allele as it is being masked or
covered in the phenotype.
 The dominant allele is usually represented by
a capital letter whereas the recessive allele by
 a small letter. The gene is responsible for the
transmission of characters/traits from parents
to offspring. One gene represents one trait.
Mendelian Inheritance and Probability
 Johann Gregor Mendel is the father of
genetics. He was the first to write about the
principles of inheritance as a result of his
study on traits of the common garden pea.
Focusing on one trait at a time, he was able to
successfully arrive at conclusions that became
the pillars of what we call genetics nowadays.
The Mechanics of Inheritance
 The principle of inheritance is one strong
proof of equality between the sexes. This is
because the Inheritance in animals, along with
other organisms, is being done via the
reproduction process, which involves the
process of gametogenesis and fertilization.
 The biological information and individual
carries comes from the mother and the father;
thats 50% carried by the egg and the other
50% carried by the sperm. The male and
female parent contributes equally to the
genetic make-up of their offspring.
Genes in Populations
 A population may be defined as a group of
sexually interbreeding individuals that inhabit,
survive and reproduce in a particular area. As
such, these are individuals that share a
common gene pool. A gene pool refers to the
totality of genes in the reproductive gametes
of a population.
TERMINOLOGIES
ANATOMY
 Refer to the science that deals with the form
and structure of all organisms.
 From the Latin word “ana” means again or go
back and “tome” meaning to cut which
implies to “cut again” or “go back and cut”.
 The study of the structure of the animal body
and the relationship of its many parts.
PHYSIOLOGY
 The study of the integrated functions of the
body and the functions of all its parts
(systems, organs, tissues, cells, and cell
components), including biophysical and
biochemical processes.
 The study of the functions of living things.
MITOSIS
 Is a type of cell division in which one cell
divides to produce two new cells that are
genetically identical to itself. This process is
required for growth, repair and embryo
development.
MEIOSIS
 Is a type of cell division in sexually
reproducing organism that reduces the number
of chromosomes in gametes. It is the process
where a single cell divides twice to produce
four cells containing half the original amount
of genetic information.
DIPLOID CELLS
 Are cells that contain two complete sets of
chromosomes. Diploid cells reproduce by
mitosis making daughter cells that are exact
replicas.
HAPLOID CELLS
 Are cells that have half the number of
chromosomes. These cells are a result of the
process of meiosis
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
 Also known as paired chromosomes. The
chromosomes in a homologous pair each have
the same genes in the same order.
CHROMATID

 A chromatid is one half of a duplicated

chromosome. It is one of the two identical
halves of a chromosome that has been
replicated in preparation for cell division.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGY

Spermatogenesis and Sperm Cell Morphology

THE SPERMATOGENESIS

SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES AND

SPERMATOGENESIS

 The epithelium lining of the seminiferous

 It includes several mitotic cell divisions
tubules contains two cell types, the Sertoli
followed by two meiotic cell divisions,
cells, and theirprecursor Germ cells.
during which the chromosome number is
 Interstitial cells (Leydig cells) in the reduced from diploid to haploid. This
connective tissue between seminiferous series of cell divisions is termed
tubules secrete testosterone, the primary spermatocytogenesis.
androgen originating in the testicles.

 The mitotic cell divisions double the

number of cells at each step, so a single
spermatogonium gives rise to many
spermatozoa.

 Spermatogenesis is the term for all processes

involved in the formation of mature male
gametes from the most undifferentiated germ
cells.
 Interstitial cells (Leydig cells) in the
connective tissue between seminiferous
tubules secrete testosterone, the primary
androgen originating in the testicles.
 Spermatogenesis is the term for all processes
involved in the formation of mature male
gametes from the most undifferentiated germ  During the first meiotic division, one
cells. chromosome of each homologous pair moves
into each daughter cell. Which individual
 chromosome of the homologous pairs moves
to which daughter cell appears tobe random.
 This mixing among homologous pairs
provides for genetic variation among the
offspring.
 After the first division, each daughter cell has
a haploid number of chromosomes, but each
chromosome consists of two chromatids.
During the second meiotic division of the two
daughter cells, each of the resulting four cells
receives one of the chromatids.
 The overall result of meiosis is the production
of four daughter cells, each of which has a
haploid number of chromosomes.
 Spermatid is the term for the cells resulting
from the second meiotic division in the
seminiferous tubules.
 Spermatids undergo a series of functional and
structural changes to become spermatozoa,
and this process is termed spermiogenesis.
MORPHOLOGICAL PARTS OF
SPERMATOZOA
SPERMATOZOA MORPHOLOGY
 When first produced, spermatids are round
immobile cells, while fully formed
spermatozoa are mobile and consist of a head
and tail.
 The head contains the nucleus, primarily
consisting of condensed genetic material
(DNA), and an acrosome, a membranous sac
that lies immediately under the plasma
membrane at the tip of the head and extends
down over the nucleus.
 The acrosome is essentially a membranous sac
of hydrolytic enzymes, including acrosin and
hyaluronidase. Some of these enzymes are
released from the acrosome during
fertilization and facilitate the fusion of the
male and female gametes.
 The acrosome is essentially a membranous sac
of hydrolytic enzymes, including acrosin and
hyaluronidase. Some of these enzymes are
released from the acrosome during
fertilization and facilitate the fusion of the
male and female gametes.
  The tail has a central core of microtubules and
filaments that provide motility. The middle
piece of the tail contains a dense collection of
mitochondria that provide energy for
spermatozoan motility.
TESTOSTERONE AND ITS EFFECTS
 Testosterone is a steroid hormone that enters
its target cells to exert its effects. Testosterone
promotes the development and function of
male accessory sex organs, causes
development of secondary sex characteristics.

HORMONES OF MALE REPRODUCTION  These characteristics may include a coarse

hair, horns that are long and large at the base,
ENDOCRINE REGULATION AND TESTICULAR deep voice, heavy muscling, and
FUNCTION aggressiveness; in fowl, sex characteristics
may consist of plumage, a wattle and comb,
and crowing, and promotes male sexual
behavior.

 Sex drive, which is the desire and ability to

mate, is similarly stimulated by androgens.

 Lack of libido (sex drive) and inability to

produce offspring are two of the most obvious
effects of castration and the resultant lack of
testosterone.
 Follicle - stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH) from the
adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary), are the THE SEMEN VOLUME AND COMPOSITION
primary endocrine regulators of testicular ON DIFFERENT FARM ANIMALS
function.
SEMEN % VOLUME FROM ACCESSORY SEX
 Their overall effect is to stimulate testicular
GLANDS
function, so both are considered to
begonadotrophins. ANIMAL SOURCES
 FSH promotes spermatogenesis by its actions Epididy Vesicula Prostat Bulboure
on the germ cells in the seminiferous tubules mis and r Glands e thral
and the Sertoli cells that support the Vas Gland glands
Deferen
development of thespermatozoa.
s
 LH acts on testicular Leydig cells to promote BULL 5-15 60-80 10 5
the secretion of androgens, BOAR 2-5 15-20 50-75 10-25
primarilytestosterone.
 The testosterone produced by the Leydig cells
is necessary for the completion of
spermatogenesis, so both FSH and LH are
required for normal spermatogenesis.
Testosterone also has direct effects on the
anterior pituitary gland to suppress LH release
directly.
 When stimulated by FSH, Sertoli cells
produce a proteinhormone, inhibin.
AVERAGE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGY
SEMEN FROM DIFFERENT SPECIES
(MG/100ML) Oogenesis and Estrus Cycle

CONSTITUENT FARM ANIMAL TERMINOLOGIES

B RAM B STA
OOGENESIS
U O LLI
L A ON
 Formation of ova.
L R
FRUCTOSE 530 250 13 2
ESTRUS (HEAT)
SORBITOL 75 75 12 40
GLYCERYLPHOS 350 1650 175 70  The period of sexual receptivity in the female.
PHORYLCHOLINE
INOSITOL 35 12 530 30 ESTROUS CYCLE

 The interval from the beginning of one estrus

CONSTITUENT FARM ANIMAL to the beginning of the next.
B RAM B STA
U O LLI MONESTROUS
L A ON
L R  Animals that have only one estrous cycle per
CITRIC ACID 720 140 130 26
year
ERGOTHIONINE 0 0 15 75
PLASMALOGEN 60 380 - - POLYESTROUS
SODIUM 230 190 650 70
 Animals that have several estrous cycles per
year
CONSTITUENT FARM ANIMAL
B RAM B STA SEASONAL POLYESTROUS
U O LLIO
L A N  An animals which estrous cycles were the
L R
timing of periods is often determined by
POTASSIUM 140 90 240 60
CHLORINE 180 86 330 270 seasonal changes in length of day, so these
CALCIUM 44 11 5 20 animals are seasonally polyestrous.
MAGNESIUM 9 8 11 3
THE OOGENESIS

OOGENESIS CAN BE CATEGORIZE INTO TWO

CHARACTERISTIC OF SEMEN FROM FARM
SIMULTANEOUS EVENTS
ANIMALS
1. Meiotic Cell Division
CHARACTERISTIC FARM ANIMALS
IN TERMS OF:
CATTLE SHEEP SWINE HORSE 2. Follicular Development
DAIRY BEEF
Volume (mL) 6 4 1 125* 60*
Sperm conc. 1.2 1.0 2.0 0.2 0.15
(billion/mL)
Total sperm (billion) 7 4 3 45 9
Motile sperm (%) 70 65 75 60 70
Morphologically 80 80 90 60 70
normal sperm (%)
pH 6.5-7.0 6.5-7.0 5.9-7.3 6.8-7.5 6.2-7.8
THE BEGINNING OF OOGENESIS
 In the fetus, primordial germcells migrate
from the yolk sac to the developing ovaries,
where a single layer of follicular cells
surrounds a germ cell destined to become an
ovum.
 The central germ cell (now termed an
oogonium) enlarges and begins meiosis.
MEIOTIC EVENT
FOLLICULAR DEVELOPMENT
 At the time of birth, all future eggs are in the
prophase stage. The oogonium does not
complete meiosis; it stops in the first prophase
before the firstdivision.
 At this stage, the developing ovum is a
primary oocyte, and the combination of a
primary oocyte and its surrounding cuboidal
follicular cell (granulosa cell) layer is a
primaryfollicle
 At adolescence, anterior pituitary hormones
cause the development of a number of follicles
in an ovary. This results in the primary oocyte
finishing the first meiotic division.
 The cell divides unequally, with most of the
cellular material and organelles going to one
cell, called a secondary oocyte, and only one
set of chromosomes and a small amount of
cytoplasm going to the other cell. This second
cell is called a polar body and usually dies.
 A secondary meiotic arrest occurs, this time at
the metaphase II stage. At ovulation, this
secondary oocyte will be released and travel
toward the uterus through the oviduct.
 If the secondary oocyte is fertilized, the cell
continues through the meiosis II, completing
meiosis, producing a second polar body and a
fertilized egg containing all the chromosomes
of the organism, half of them coming from the
sperm.
  The developing ovum is a primary oocyte, and shed through menstruation when pregnancy
the combination of a primary oocyte and its does not occur and in which the female may
surrounding cuboidal follicular cell (granulosa be sexually receptive at any time during the
cell) layer is a primary follicle. cycle.

 The secondary follicle have an oocyte OESTROUS AND ESTRUS OF FARM ANIMALS
surrounded by multiple layers of follicular
FARM ANIMAL LENGTH OF LENGTH OF
(granulosa) cells in which an antrum can be CYCLE HEAT
seen. (EOSTRIUS) (ESTRUS)

 The antrum is a fluid-filled space that EWE 16-17 DAYS 24-36 HOURS
develops among the follicle cells
GOAT 21 DAYS 32-40 HOURS
LUTEAL PHASE
SOW 19-21 DAYS 48-72 HOURS
When the follicle erupts and releases the egg
to the oviduct, the follicle becomes a corpus COW 20-22 DAYS 18-24 HOURS
hemorrhagicum and then a corpus luteum that secretes
MARE 19-25 DAYS 4-7 DAYS
the hormone progesterone.

WHAT IF THE OVUM IS NOT FERTILIZE?

 The corpus luteum develops, matures, and PHASES OF OESTROUS CYCLE

eventually regresses if the female‟s ovum is
not fertilized. During the regression of the
corpus luteum, a new developing follicle on
the ovary begins to release estrogen.
 Estrus will occur in response to the increasing
amount of estrogen produced by the maturing
follicle, and also by the decreasing amount of
progesterone produced by the regressing
corpus luteum.
THE ESTROUS CYCLE
1. Follicular Phase
2. Luteal Phase
FOLLICULAR PHASE
1. Follicles the dominate ovarian structure
2. Estrogen the dominate hormone
3. Period from regression of CL to ovulation,
short (20% of entire cycle)

OESTROUS CYCLE 4. Dominant follicle produces estradiol

 The estrus cycle is the reproductive cycle LUTEAL PHASE

found in most mammalian placental females
1. Corpora lutea the dominate ovarian structure
whereby there are recurring periods when the
female is fertile and sexually receptive 2. Progesterone the dominate hormone
(oestrus) interrupted by periods in which the
female is not fertile and sexually receptive 3. Period from ovulation until CL regression,
(anoestrus). longer phase (80% of entire cycle)
 Some animals that have oestrous cycles
4. CL produce progesterone
reabsorb the endometrium (inner membrane of
the mammalian uterus) if conception does not 5. Follicles still grows during this phase, but do
occur during that cycle. not produce high amounts of E2
 The oestrous cycle is contrasted with the
menstrual cycle in which the endometrium is
STAGES OF OESTROUS CYCLE

1. Pro-oestrus (Follicular Phase)

2. Oestrus (Follicular Phase)

3. Metoestrus (Luteal Phase)

4. Dioestrus (Luteal Phase)

5. Anoestrus

ESTROUS CYCLE AND STAGES OF ESTROUS

OF SOME ANIMALS

FARM ANIMAL COW EWE SOW MARE

ESTROUS 21 17 21 21
CYCLE (DAYS)
PROESTRUS 3-4 2-3 3-4 2-3
(DAYS)
ESTRUS(HOURS) 12-18 24-36 48-72 4-8

METESTRUS 3-4 2-3 2-3 2-3

(DAYS)
DIESTRUS 10-14 10-12 11-13 10-12
(DAYS)

OVERVIEW OF THE HORMONAL CHANGES

DURING THE OESTROUS CYCLE: