AP Biology

1.1 Structure of Water and Hydrogen Bonding

& The subcomponents of biological molecules determine the properties of
that molecule, and water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen in a 2:1 ratio,
respectively.
# Covalent bond is a term used to describe the bond type in which atoms
SHARE electrons, usually between nonmetals and metalloids.
# Hydrogen bonding exists because oxygen is more electronegative than
hydrogen, which results in unevenly shared electrons.
# The differences in electronegativity results in polarity.
# A hydrogen bond is a weak bond interaction between the negative and
positive regions of two separate molecules.
# Water can form hydrogen bonds with other water molecules or with other
charged molecules.
# When two of the SAME molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other it is
called cohesion.
# When two DIFFERENT molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other it is
called adhesion.
# A charged or polar substance that interacts with and dissolves in water is
said to be hydrophilic.
# Nonpolar molecules do not interact well with water. They separate from it
rather than dissolve in it and are called hydrophobic.
& Living systems depend upon properties of water.
# Cohesion, adhesion, and surface tension allow for water to demonstrate
additional chemical behaviors known as emergent properties, and life depends
on them:
1. Surface tension is a result of increased hydrogen bonding forces between
water molecules at the surface.
2. Water's adhesive property gives water a high solvency ability in its liquid
state.
3. Water's cohesive property allows for unique hydrogen bond interactions to
occur when water is in a solid state, making ice (solid water) less dense than
liquid water.
4. Water's cohesive property allows it to absorb a lot of thermal energy before
changing chemical states, resisting sudden changes in temperature.
5. Capillary action is a result of both the adhesive and properties of water.

& Key Takeaways

# Water contains 1 oxygen atom and covalently bonded to 2 hydrogen atoms.
# Oxygen has a higher electronegativity compared to hydrogen resulting in a
water molecule having polarity.
# Polarity allows molecules to form hydrogen bonds when oppositely charged
regions of two molecules interact.
# The term cohesion refers to molecules of the same type forming hydrogen
bonds with one another, and adhesion refers to different types of molecules
forming hydrogen bonds with one another.
# Living systems depending upon water’s properties, like surface tension.
1.2 Elements of Life
& Living systems require a constant input of energy.
# The law of the conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created
or destroyed only transformed.
# Living systems follow the laws of energy.
# Living systems need a constant input of energy.
# Living systems mainly use the energy stored in chemical bonds.
# Atoms and molecules from the environment are necessary to build new
molecules.

& Biomolecules.
# There are four main biomolecules:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic acids

& Carbon is used to build macromolecules.

# Carbon can bond to other carbon atoms creating carbon skeletons to which
other atoms attach.
# Carbon skeletons allow for the creation of very large and complex molecules.
# Carbon containing molecules can be used to store energy.
# Carbon containing molecules can be used to form basic cell structures.
 # Carbon skeletons and structures can be chains, rings, or branches.

& Key Takeaways

# Living systems need a constant input of energy to grow, reproduce, and
maintain organization.
# Atoms and molecules from the environment are necessary to build new
molecules.
# Carbon is used to build all macro molecules, store energy and form cells.
# Nitrogen is used to build proteins and nucleic acids.
# Phosphorus is used to build nucleic acids and certain lipids.
1.3 Introduction to Biological Macromolecules
& Monomers have Important Properties.
# Monomers are chemical subunits used to create polymers.
# Polymer is a macromolecule made of many monomers.
# A covalent bond is formed between two interacting monomers.
# Monomers have specific chemical properties that allow them to interact
with one another.

& Dehydration Synthesis reactions from Covalent Bonds.

# Dehydration synthesis reactions are used to create macromolecules.
# The subcomponents of water molecules (H and OH) are removed from
interacting monomers and a covalent bond forms between them.
# The H and OH join to form a molecule of water, water is a byproduct of this
reaction.

& Hydrolysis Reactions Cleave Covalent Bonds.

# Polymers are hydrolyzed (broken down) into monomers during hydrolysis
reaction.
# Covalent bonds between the monomers are cleaved (broken) during a
hydrolysis reaction.
# A water molecule is hydrolyzed into subcomponents (H and OH) and each
subcomponent is added to a different monomer.

& A Dehydration Synthesis Creates Carbohydrates.

# Carbohydrate monomers have hydroxides (OH) and hydrogen atoms (H)
attached.
# One monomer will lose an entire hydroxide while the other monomer will
only lose the hydrogen from a hydroxide.
# A covalent bond will form where the hydroxide and hydrogen atom were
removed.
# The hydroxide (OH) and hydrogen (H) join forming a water molecule (H2O).

& A Dehydration Synthesis Creates Proteins.

# Protein monomers are called amino acids.
# Each amino group (NH2) terminus and a carboxyl group (COOH) terminus.
# A hydroxide (OH) is lost from the carboxyl group of one amino acid and
hydrogen atom (H) is lost from the amino acid group of another amino acid.
# A covalent bond will form between the two monomers in the location where
the hydroxide and hydrogen atom were removed.
# The hydroxide (OH) and hydrogen atom (H) will join forming a water
molecule (H2O)

& Proteins can Undergo Hydrolysis Reactions.

# Covalent bonds between amino acids can be cleaved (broken).
# A water molecule can be hydrolyzed and each subcomponent off water (H
and OH) will be bonded to different amino acids.
# The result is separate amino acid monomers.

& Key Takeaways.

# All monomers contain carbon and are used to build biological
macromolecules.
# Covalent bonds are used to connect monomers together.
# Dehydration synthesis reactions are used to create biological
macromolecules and water is an additional product.
# Hydrolysis reactions use water to break down biological macromolecules.