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THE ART
OF MOSAICS
The Lerner Archaeology Series
DIGGING UP THE PAST
THE ART
OF MOSAICS
by Michael Avi-Yonah
retold for young readers by Richard L. Currier
Lerner Publications Company Minneapolis

ACKNOWLLDGMI NTS
The illustrations arc reproduced through the courtes) of: p 6; 14; 17. 26; 27; 31;
13; S2; 83; SS; K9 I ratelh Almari. I ircn/e. p. 8; 9. II Kunsthisionsches

Museum. Vienna, p. 16; 70; 71 ; 73, 77; 85; K7; 90 Albert Skira. Geneve, p, 33 36.
55; 56; 60; 62 64; 66; 67; 69; 72 Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums.
p. 74 Mansell Collection, London,
Designed by Ofra Kamar
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING IN PUBLICATION DATA
Currier, Richard L.
The art of mosaics.
(Digging up the Past: The Lerner Archaeology Series)

SUMMARY: An introduction to mosaics, including the
techniques of making mosaics and the history of wall and pave-
ment mosaics in Greece, Egypt, Rome, Africa, the Holy Land,
and the Byzantine world.
1. Mosaics — Juvenile literature. |1. Mosaics] I. Avi-Yonah,

Michael, author. II. Title.
NA3750.C87 1974 729'.7'093 72-10793

ISBN 0-8225-0828-1
First published in the United States of America 1975

by Lerner Publications Company. Minneapolis. Minnesota.
Copyright © 1974 by G. A. The Jerusalem Publishing House.

39, Tchernechovski St., P.O.B. 7147. Jerusalem.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.
International Standard Book Number: 0-8225-0828-1

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 72-10793
Manufactured in the United States of America

CONTENTS
PART I. WHAT ARE MOSAICS? 7
1. Pavements 7
2. Wall Mosaics 12
3. The Technique of Mosaic Art 13
PART IT. THE BEGINNINGS OF MOSAIC ART 18
1. The First Mosaics 18

2. Early Greek Mosaics 18
3. The Mosaics at Pella 19
PART III. THE FLOWERING OF MOSAIC ART 25
1. "The Unswept House" 25

2. Scenes of Egypt 25
3. Scenes of the Theater 29
4. Darius and Alexander 39
PART IV. PAVEMENTS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 45
1. African Mosaics 45
2. Ostia, the Seaport of Rome 45
3. The Declining Days of Rome 48
PART V. PAVEMENTS OF THE BYZANTINE WORLD 52
1. Early Christian Churches in the Holy Land 53

2. The Ancient Synagogues of Palestine 59
PART VI. BYZANTINE WALL MOSAICS 68
1. The Mosaics of Ravenna 75

2. The Great Mosaics of Constantinople 81
PART VII. MOSAICS TODAY 91
GLOSSARY 93
INDEX 94
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I WHAT ARE MOSAICS ?
Mosaics are pictures made with these characteristics in common : they

small pieces of colored material ce- are made of many small pieces of
mented together to form a pattern material cemented together into a
or design. These colored pieces may solid mass and arranged to form a
be bits of stone, small tiles made picture or a design.
of baked clay, or tiny squares of The mosaics described in this book
glass. Some pieces are as large as a are mostly elaborate decorations,
playing card, while others are as done in many different colors, that
small as the head of a match. Most, covered the interiors of large, im-
however, range in from the di-
size portant buildings. Almost all of these
mensions of a postage stamp to the mosaics were made hundreds or even
size of a small pea. thousands of years ago by people
There are a great many different such as the Greeks, Romans, and
ways of making mosaics. They can Byzantines, who lived on or near the
be made on the surfaces of walls, Mediterranean Sea. In those ancient
floors, furniture, and even the han- times, mosaics were one of the most
dles of tools or weapons. The pieces important ways of decorating the
themselves may be square, round, walls of important buildings. While
or irregular in shape. The mosaic many of these ancient mosaics have
may consist of many colors, a few been destroyed, a number of beauti-
colors, or just black and white pieces. ful examples have survived to the
The mosaic picture itself may be present day. You will see pictures of
small —just a few inches across — many of them in this book.
or large enough to cover the entire
wall, floor, or ceiling of a large Pavements
church. In spite of their many dif- When mosaics are cemented into
ferences, however, all mosaics have the floor of a building, we call them
Left: Two thousand years ago, the ancient

Romans used mosaic tiles to make these illus-
trations of sea life.
WHAT ARE MOSAICS?
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This Roman mosaic covers the entire floor of a room. The pictures set into the four boxes on the
floor tell the story of a mythical princess named Ariadne.
WHAT ARE MOSAICS?
Ariadne leaves her native island of Crete with her lover Theseus and sets sail for Greece.
WHAT ARE MOSAICS? 10
"pavements." Many
most of the colors — with the exception of some
beautifully preserved mosaics from of the blue and green shades — were
ancient times are pavements. Their made with natural stone.
survival is due to the fact that when The mosaic artists of ancient times
the old buildings collapsed, their used two main methods for making
walls caved in, destroying the wall mosaic pavements. The Romans
mosaics but safely burying the pave- prepared mosaic pictures in
their
ments under a pile of rubble. Even special workshops, rather than in
after the passage of many centuries, the building where the mosaic was
these buried pavements can still be going to be laid. After the floor of
unearthed, cleaned off, and admired the building had been decorated with
again. a simple background mosaic —
A detailed description of how to usually a geometric design — the
prepare the foundation for a mo- pictureswould be brought in from
saic pavement has survived in an the workshop and inserted in the
ancient piece of writing by the Ro- spaces left for them among the
man architect Vitruvius, who lived designs.
around the time of Christ. Vitruvius The other method for laying pave-
describes three foundation layers. ments was practiced by the Byzan-
First the workmen prepared a thick tines, a Greek-speaking people who
layer rough pebbles. This was
of produced the finest and most beauti-
covered over by a second layer con- ful mosaics of all. The Byzantines
sisting of smashed bricks and cement. did not prepare their mosaics in the
The layer was composed of
third workshop instead, they laid the en-
;
finelyground bricks and cement, into tire mosaic right inside the building
which the mosaic cubes themselves where it was to remain.

were inserted. After the foundation had been
Mosaic pavements were usually prepared, the Byzantine artist would
made of different kinds of natural draw a rough outline of the picture
stone in a variety of colors. One he intended to create on the surface
ancient mosaic contains two shades of the fine cement of the foundation's
of yellow, two of orange, two of second layer. (Usually, he only drew
pink, four of red (from brick red to in as much of the picture as he could
purple), three of gray, three of blue fill in on that day.) A batch of fresh
and four of green. All of these cement was prepared, and the artist
Right: Ariadne discovers that Theseus has aban-
doned her on the island of Naxos.
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began to work. He would slowly and Wall Mosaics

carefully press the small colored However fine the artistic work used
cubes into the wet cement, until he in their mosaic pave-
construction,
had finished as much of the picture ments had to be solid enough so that
as he intended to complete that day. people could walk on them for many
When this was done, he would place years without really harming them.
a single row of white cubes around When mosaics were attached to walls,
the border of the figure. The rest however, they did not need to be
of the work (usually just a simple durable, and the artist was free to
white background) was completed by use all the delicacy and complexity
his assistants. that his would allow. Thus,
skills
The amount of work involved in the pictures and designs in wall mo-
making some of the larger pavements saics tended to be more complicated
was enormous. For example, a mo- than those in mosaic pavements. The
saic map of the Holy Land found cubes used were also smaller and
in a church in what is now the more delicate, and the number of
country of Jordan is so large and cubes in each mosaic tended to be
complicated that scholars estimate far greater.
it must have taken several workers In one church in northern Greece,
about a year and a half to complete each mosaic cube is less than one-
it. This single mosaic contained ap- fourth of an inch across, and every
proximately one and one-half million square yard of mosaic contains more
mosaic cubes than 33,000 cubes. A mosaic that
In a good pavement, the size and covers the inside of the dome of
shape of the cubes might vary from this church contains no less than
one part of the picture to another. 36 million mosaic cubes! In Raven-
The pictures of people — partic- na, Italy, one wall mosaic contains
ularly their faces —
would be made cubes that are only three millimeters
of especially small and fine cubes, across — so small that over 60,000
while the background would be of them could be placed on a single
made of larger and rougher cubes. sheet of typing paper.
Even so, a good mosaic pavement Another technique that could be
usually contained almost a thousand used for the delicate wall mosaics
cubes in each square foot of floor was that of making the cubes them-
space. selves out of glass. This gave the
13 WHAT ARE MOSAICS
artist a great range of colors, since off the surfacewould be scattered in

— with the addition of the proper many directions. This created a more
chemical substances — glass can be pleasing and exciting effect, just as
manufactured in a variety of strong, the rippling waters of a stream are
bright hues. more beautiful to watch than the
The Byzantines used glass to make flat, motionless surface of a shallow
a very special and beautiful mosaic puddle.
piece: the gold cube. This cube was
made of clear glass, with a thin The Technique of Mosaic Art
sheet of gold foil attached to one Although mosaics are composed
surface. The gold foil was then cov- of many individual pieces, each piece
ered with a thin coating of glass to of only one color, the overall effect
prevent it from tarnishing. Normally, of a mosaic picture is one of many
the gold cubes were cemented onto colors that blend and shade into
the wall with the foil side facing each other in subtle and complicated
out. But when many gold cubes were ways. This is due to the fact that,
used together to cover a large area, when mosaics are viewed from a
would deliberately turn some
the artist distance, the individual spots of color
of the cubes around and cement tend to blend together to produce
them in backwards, with the gold an effect that is lost when the mo-
foil facing in. The gold color could saic viewed from up close. The
is
still be seen, but it was partly ob- ancient masters of mosaic art under-
scured by the thickness of the glass stood this principle well, and they
cube itself, since the viewer had to used it skillfully in many of the
look through the cube to see the gold elaborate and beautiful mosaics that
color. This technique gave the gold have survived from ancient times.
surfaces of these Byzantine mosaics These ancient mosaic artists used
a beautiful texture, instead of a contrasting colors to create visual
monotonous, metallic appearance. effects that have seemed
might
This same effect was sometimes strange or unnatural from close up
also achieved by using plain glass but would appear pleasing and in-
cubes among the more numerous teresting at the distance from which
gold ones and by deliberately setting a mosaic was usually viewed. They
some of the cubes into the wall at knew that if similar colors were used
an angle, so that the light reflected next to each other, the colors would
15 WHAT ARE MOSAICS?
tend to blend together when seen cannot decay and are not easily worn
from a distance, and the outlines or or broken.
contours of the objects in the picture Mosaic pavements in particular
would become blurred and difficult are astonishingly solid. Moreover,
to make out. Thus the part of a blue since mosaic cubes are the same
mountain that was in shadow might color throughout their thickness, a
be colored purple instead of darker pavement could be worn down by
blue, or the shadows in the folds being walked on and still retain its
of a red dress might be colored blue original pattern of bright colors.
or even dark green. In some mo- Sometimes, however, mosaic pave-
saics, the folds of a black dress were ments would become worn clear
colored gold, and although you through and have to be replaced.
might never see a black dress with Wall mosaics —
which were never
gold shadows, the overall effect was in danger of wearing out — lasted
neither unnatural nor strange. only as long as the wall they were
Of all the forms of art in which attached to remained standing. Un-
color is of great importance, mosaics fortunately, many wall mosaics were
are the most durable. Most of the destroyed when wars, earthquakes,
frescos (wall done on
paintings or the eroding action of wind and
plaster) of ancient times have been water toppled the walls of the build-
lost, because their plaster bases have ings which they adorned.
gradually crumbled away, or their Most of this book is devoted to
thin layers of paint have been de- describing the famous and interest-
stroyed by centuries of contact with ing mosaics of ancient times. You
dust and water. Paintings on canvas, will soon see how much can be
paper, and wood have survived only learned from examining an ancient
when they have been kept clean and mosaic that has survived to the pres-
dry. The same is true of tapestries ent day. But before we begin this
(pictures woven into large sheets of tour of the world's great mosaics, we
cloth). Unless its cement foundation thought you might be interested in
is broken or disturbed, however, a reading about some of the oldest
mosaic is practically indestructible. mosaics, the earliest of which are
The cubes of stone, clay, or glass older than recorded history.
Left: This mosaic of fighting cocks was found in

the ruins of the Roman city of Pompeii.
17 WHAT ARE MOSAICS
. i' "" "

'» ' '
Lc/r: The saints and angels of this mosaic adorn the ceiling of a 12th-century church in Sicily.
Above: Another mosaic from Pompeii. The cat at the top of the picture has caught a partridge, a
member of the pheasant family.
II THE BEGINNINGS OF MOSAIC ART
The First Mosaics mosaic was found in the famous

As far as we know, the art of "ivory house" of King Ahab of
making mosaics began about 10,000 Israel, who ruled during the ninth
years ago, when prehistoric people century B.C. Small depressions were
first began to decorate the wood or carved into the surface of ivory
bone handles of some of their stone plaques, and pieces of colored stone
tools with small bits of colored stone. were inserted into these depressions
These bits of stone were usually in- to form a mosaic design.
serted into holes that were hollowed During the next three centuries,
out to receive them. some of the earliest of the true mo-
Later, in about 2600 B.C., the peo- saic pavements were laid in the city
ple of the very ancient culture of of Gordion in what is now the mod-
Mesopotamia made mosaic decora- ern nation of Turkey. The Gordion
tions using blue and red stones along pavements were made of pebbles ar-
with seashells, all of which were ranged in a variety of geometric
cemented together with the black, designs. They represent a transition
tarry substance known as "pitch." between the very simple mosaic dec-
Another type of Mesopotamian mo- orations of people such as the Meso-
saic was used to adorn the walls and potamians and the large and elabo-
columns of important buildings. The rate mosaics of the Greeks, Romans,
Mesopotamian artists would make and Byzantines.
many small cone-shaped pieces of
clay, them in the colors they
paint Early Greek Mosaics
desired, and press them into a kind The Greeks first began to make
of plaster made of sticky mud. mosaics in the fourth century B.C.,
Another interesting kind of early and some of the best examples of
19 THE BEGINNINGS OF MOSAIC ART
their early mosaics have been found One mosaic, for example, shows a
in the ruins of the ancient city of procession of sea goddesses mounted
Olynthus. Olynthus was destroyed by on dolphins and hippocampi (mythol-
the conqueror Phillip II of Macedo- ogical sea creatures with the head
nia in 356 B.C. Thus everything and front legs of a horse and the
found there must have been made on hindquarters of a fish). The goddesses
or before that date. are carrying the weapons and armor
The mosaics of Olynthus were of the legendary Greek warrior
made of colored pebbles, but each Achilles as they ride over the sea
mosaic was made of only two colors. on mounts. In another
their strange
At that time, the Greeks were produc- mosaic, hero is shown
a mythical
ing a type of pottery vase decorated mounted on a winged horse, attack-
with red figures on a black back- ing a monster with the head of a
ground. These vases were admired by lion, the body and tail of a dragon,
people all over the ancient world, and the head of a goat rising from
and the Greeks exported countless its back.
thousands of them to the many dif- Other mosaics from the fourth
ferent ancient societies of those times. century have been found at Olympia
Thus the mosaics of that period (where the first Olympic games were
deliberately imitated the artistic style held by the ancient Greeks), and still
of famous and beautiful vase

the others have been found on the island
paintings. The background of the of Sicily (which is now a part of
mosaic was done entirely in black Italy but which in ancient times was
pebbles, while the figures were made colonized by the Greeks). All of these
of white pebbles or of pebbles in light mosaics are pavements made of
colors of red, green, or blue. colored pebbles. If there were any
The pictures represented in these wall mosaics from that period, none
mosaic pavements had religious and have survived.
magical significance for the ancient
people of Olynthus. Some pavements The Mosaics at Pella
are decorated with certain signs that Pella was a city in northern Greece
were supposed to bring luck or to that —in ancient times was the—
ward off evil. Others contain pictures capital of Macedonia, the kingdom
of the gods and goddesses of ancient ruled by Alexander the Great. A
mythology. number of mosaics have survived
THE BEGINNINGS OF MOSAIC ART 20
In this early Greek mosaic from Olynthus, the mythical hero Bellerophon battles a fearsome monster
called the Chimera.
The famous lion-hunt mosaic from Pella
from them made around

Pella, all of A two of these
brief description of
300 Like
B.C. the mosaics from famous mosaics will show how com-
Olynthus, Olympia, and Sicily, the plicated and advanced they are.
Pella mosaics are made of natural One mosaic shows a hunting scene
pebbles, but they are done in several in which a lion is standing on the
different colors, not just one color on foot of one of the hunters. The
a black background. There are sever- hunter's face wears an expression of
al fine mosaic pictures, each enclosed pain and fear. Another hunter, who
in wide borders decorated with has approached from behind the lion,
designs of animals and leaves. One is carrying a curved Macedonian
of the most unusual features of the sword. This second hunter is in the
Pella mosaics is that the different act of swinging the sword in a mighty
parts of the drawing are separated stroke to kill the lion and to save his
by thin strips of lead, which outline companion. The arms and legs of
the different parts of the human body. the figures in this pavement seem to
have the quality of motion because surface, the work was done so skill-
of certain tricks of shading that the fully that the figures seem almost
artists employed. This mosaic is said solid, like sculpture. The mosaic is
to represent an incident in the life decorated with an elaborate border
of Alexander the Great, who was of lilies and acanthus (a kind of
supposed to have been saved by his thorn plant) that winds around the
companion Cassander during a hunt. picture of the deer hunt.
Another famous mosaic at Pella Not long after they created the
depicts a deer hunt. Two hunters pebble mosaics of Pella and Olyn-
are shown with their cloaks floating thus, Greeks began to make
the
wildly in the wind. One of the hunt- pavements of sophisticated design and
ers has seized a deer by the antlers great imaginativeness. Instead of
and is trying to stab it ; the hunter's simple pebbles, the mosaic artists
hat has flown off of his head in the began to use pieces of carefully cut
excitement of the struggle. Another stone, fired clay, or colored glass.
hunter is ready to kill the deer with These new materials were capable of
a axe once the first hunter
battle fine detail, and their more brilliant
has wounded it and brought it down. colors outshone the simple stones of
A hunting dog is holding on to the the earliest mosaics. But the basic idea
deer as well. of mosaics —
an arrangement of small
Although mosaic is composed
this pieces of some mineral substance set
only of pebbles cemented onto a flat in cement — remained unchanged.

The deer-hunt mosaic from Pella. Notice the solid, sculptured quality of the figures, especially evident
in the close-up on the following page.
Ill THE FLOWERING OF MOSAIC ART
"The Unswept House" head on the water. Other doves are

One of the first times that mosaics pluming their feathers in the sun on
the lip of the goblet.
were mentioned in ancient literature
occurred in the works of the great Although the original mosaic de-
Roman naturalist Pliny. Pliny described by Pliny has disappeared, two
scribed a pavement at Pergamon, an other mosaics that copied the idea of
ancient Greek city noted for its learn- "the unswept house" have survived
ing and culture. A certain house in to the present day. A pavement found
Pergamon had been decorated with in Rome shows the remains of a
a mosaic pavement showing many meal: the wishbone of a chicken, the
objects that might normally be found empty shells of crabs, the spine of
on the house in ancient
floor of a a fish, nutshells, and various kinds
times. In those times, wealthy people of fruits. All of these bits of refuse
often threw the things they wished are shown lying about on the floor
to discard onto the floor, to be swept casting shadows on the floor's sur-
up later by the servants of the house- face. The other mosaic was found
hold. The house that contained this in the ruins of a villa (a large coun-
famous mosaic, said Pliny, was known try house) owned by the Roman
as "the unswept house," because the emperor Hadrian. In Hadrian's mo-
artist saic pavement, a group of doves are
represented in various positions,
represented in small bits of many-
drinking, preening, and sitting around
colored mosaic the scraps from the
tableand everything that is usually a vase full of water.
swept away, as if they had been left
lying on the floor. Among these Scenes of Egypt
mosaics is a marvellous dove drink-
ing and casting the shadow of its During the period in history when
THE FLOWERING OF MOSAIC ART 26
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"The Unswept House" — a mosaic from Rome
27 THE FLOWERING OF MOSAIC ART
In this mosaic from Pompeii, birds are shown drinking from a goblet, seemingly unaware of the cat
stalking them from below.

ancient Greece was the most power- Nile Valley, showing the Nile River
ful and important society in the running down through the valley
Mediterranean, the Greeks settled in from the wild country of the Sudan
many locations outside of Greece it- in the south to the Mediterranean
self. One of the most important of Sea in the north. The map also shows
these Greek cities was Alexandria, the port city of Alexandria, with its
located on the southern shores of the Greek villas and ships. In the fore-
Mediterranean Sea, west of the Nile ground, there is a scene of boats
River. Since all the great cities of arriving and a feast being held out-
Egyptian civilization were located in doors under a tent. Behind this
the Nile Valley, the Greeks living in scene, the Nile River shown with
is
Alexandria had a unique opportunity boats traveling along it. The small
to learn about Egyptian life and huts of the ancient Egyptian farmers,
culture. with their roofs of thatched straw,
The culture of the ancient Egyp- are scattered over the countryside,
tians made a great impression on and there are the remains of an an-
the ancient Greeks, because Egyp- cient temple, complete with the co-
tian was thousands of
civilization lossal statues that stood near its
years older than Greek civilization. gates. Next to it, there is pictured a
The temples and pyramids of Egypt sanctuary for the ibis, a river bird
aroused as much admiration and that was considered sacred in ancient
wonder in the ancient Greeks and Egypt. Another ruin and a temple
Romans as their own achievements beyond it complete the portion of
arouse in us today. Through their the map that shows the "civilized"
many contacts with the Egyptians at part of the Nile Valley. Farther up
Alexandria, the Greeks developed a the valley, the wilderness of the
high appreciation for Egyptian styles Sudan shown, with the tribal peo-
is
of art, and this Egyptian influence ple of Africa hunting wild game. At
began to appear in many Greek mo- the end of the picture, the mysteri-
saics of the period. ous, unknown interior of Africa is
One of the first of these mosaics represented by a number of dragons

of Egyptian influence was made and other mythical beings.
during the first century B.C. and was Other mosaics similar to this one
later found in Italy, near Rome. It have been found throughout the an-
is a kind of illustrated map of the cient world, where scenes of the
-
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Illustrated map of the Nile Valley. A close-up of this scene appears on the next page.
strange and fascinating Nile Valley Scenes of the Theater

were popular throughout Greek and Other mosaic pavements by Greek
Roman times. From Alexandria it- artists have been found in the ruins
self a mosaic has survived that de- of the ancient town of Pompeii, in
picts the city as a woman with wide- southern Italy. Pompeii was de-
open eyes, wearing a galley (a kind stroyed in the year A.D. 79 by a
of ancient ship) on her head for a sudden eruption of the volcano
crown. Vesuvius, located nearby. When
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Another scene of the Nile River. The Nile was a subject that fascinated mosaic artists throughout
the ancient world.
Pompeii was buried in lava and ashes, important to the people of Pompeii.
many examples of Greek art were It is no surprise, then, to discover
buried — and thus preserved — at that many of the mosaics found at
the same time. Archaeologists, who Pompeii represent theatrical scenes.
study the remains of the past, have One pavement shows a producer dis-
been digging Pompeii
in the ruins of tributing masks to a group of actors
for over 200 years now. They have un- while they are putting on their cos-
earthed many buildings, tools, house- tumes. Another shows a scene from
hold objects, writings, and works of an ancient comedy. In this scene, a
art from ancient times that have add- lovesick maiden comes to consult a
ed much to our knowledge of the an- hideous old woman who pretends to
cient societies of Greece and Rome. predict the future. Instead of gazing
Pompeii was originally a Greek into a crystal ball, however, she is
town — although it later became part gazing into a vase. The girl is ac-
of the Roman Empire —
and thus companied by a friend, and at the
the theater, which was of great im- edge of the picture we can see the
portance to the ancient Greeks, was fortune-teller's slave.
Above: A group of actors is shown preparing for Overleaf left: The seven-branched candlestick, or
a performance in this mosaic from Pompeii. menorah, one of the sacred objects of the Jewish
religion. Shown in a mosaic pavement from a
synagogue in the Holy Land.

Right: A mosaic of a leopard from a Byzantine
synagogue in the Holy Land. (See pp. 59 and 60 Overleaf right: Part of a pavement showing the
for a discussion of such pavements, i Sacrifice of Isaac. (See pp. 65 and 67 for more
information on this mosaic.)
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The roving street musicians of Pompeii. A close-up of this scene appears on the next page.
The third mosaic shows a group flute. Behind them, a street child with
of roving street musicians, wearing a sad expression stands without a
masks. One musician is playing a mask, perhaps to represent the sad
drum, another is dancing and playing reality of street life behind the smil-
castanets,and the third is playing a ing masks of the musicians.
Left: Plants and birds on a mosaic pavement from
an ancient Christian church by the shores of the
Sea of Galilee
• •
—*- -
An actor's mask, from Pompeii
Darius and Alexander empires. In the west was the Greek

In the fourth century B.C., two king Alexander the Great, who ruled
great kings of ancient times struggled over the Macedonian Empire. To the
for control of the lands that lay east was the Persian king Darius, who
between their large and powerful ruled the Persian Empire. In 333 B.C.,
Overleaf: A mosaic from Pompeii showing

a famous battle between Darius and Alexander
m hn i m i ; ; i M 1 1 m iijimmmmi
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The Greek king Alexander, courageous and determined. He was 25 years old at the time of this battle.
the two kings, with their armies be- to protect him. He pays for this act
hind them, met in battle. Inspired by of courage with his life, however,
this great conflict, from which Alex- because his horse is wounded and he
ander emerged victorious, the artists himself is pierced by Alexander's
of a later age created a moving and lance. Another Persian nobleman has
beautiful mosaic pavement at Pom- dismounted to assist the first one,
peii. but he is too late. The efforts of the
On the left side of the battle scene, Persian nobles, however, have saved
Alexander is storming forward at King Darius, who is galloping away
the head of his cavalry. On the right, at great speed. Meanwhile, the Per-
Darius is standing in his chariot (a sian cavalry is advancing into the gap
two-wheeled wagon used in ancient between Alexander and Darius, and
warfare). Darius seems in great dan- more help is coming in from the right
ger of being captured by Alexander's in reply to urgent hand signals.
forces, but a Persian nobleman has Darius himself appears in this
thrown himself in front of Darius mosaic exactly as the ancient kings

The Persian king Darius, with his high tiara and gold necklace
of Persia are described in the liter- to be thrusting forward with a deter-

ature of those times. With his high mination that cannot be stopped.
tiara and necklace, he is truly a royal Aside from these interesting and
figure. Although he is in great danger lively figures, the mosaic depicts the
of being captured, Darius does not bleakness that is appropriate to war-
think of his own peril. Instead, he fare. The artist has used very few
is reaching out to help the nobleman colors, and the landscape is stark
who has sacrificed himself for Darius' and bare. In the background, there
sake. Although Darius lost this fa- is only a barren tree and a row of
mous battle, his kindness and loyalty lances.
show how truly noble a ruler he was. Mosaics of this type were set into
Alexander,on the other hand, is a floor that had been completely filled
shown with an expression of great with ornamental designs, except for
concentration, a reflection of the iron the area where the picture itself was
will of this Macedonian conqueror. to be placed. The pictures were pre-
His eyes are wide open, and he seems pared beforehand in special work-
shops and then brought into the these reflecting designs occurred in
house to be cemented in place on the pavements that were set in passage-
otherwise finished floor. The orna- ways that were open to the sky. Since
mental pavements that surrounded ancient times, these passageways have
the pictures (and often covered other often been covered by a framework of
areas of the floor as well) were some- wood with vines growing upon it, call-
times done in patterns that were ed a "pergola." Numerous mosaic
copies of designs on the ceiling. This pavements have been found that depict
would give the illusion that the deco- a vine-covered pergola, as if the real
rations on the ceiling were being re- pergola overhead and the real vines
flected on the floor, as if in a mirror. growing on it were being reflected in
One of the most interesting of the floor of the passageway itself.
IV PAVEMENTS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
During the two centuries after

first they portray are sometimes rather
the birth of Christ, the power and violent.
influence of Rome grew steadily. One pavement from Libya depicts
Eventually, most of Europe and the the fights between gladiators -- men
lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea (usually slaves or prisoners) who
became part of one vast empire con- fought each other to the death for
trolled by Rome. The mosaic art that the amusement of an audience of
had become so well developed in spectators —
and the execution of
Greece and Italy soon spread to all prisoners by wild animals. The scenes
corners of the Roman Empire, from in these mosaics are the most de-
England in the west to Syria in the tailed representations of these bloody
east, and from Germany in the north activities that have ever been found.
to North Africa in the south. Every detail of the gladiatorial con-
tests isshown, including the musical
African Mosaics performance with which the games
Thousands of mosaics have been begin, the actual fighting between the
found in the Roman provinces of gladiators, the prisoners bound to the
North Africa, where they adorned the stake, and the attacking animals.
floors of villas, temples, bath houses,
and other public buildings. These Ostia, the Seaport of Rome
mosaics illustrate all aspects of an- By this time, the multicolored,
cient life, including mythology, realistic mosaic pavements had been
sports, contests, and the life of the made for so long in Italy that the
poor farmers in the countryside. In artists who lived there began to try
general, the mosaics of the North new techniques. One of these was
African provinces are vivid and the black and white style of mosaic
colorful, and the realistic scenes pavements, made, not with pebbles
PAVEMENTS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 46
A mosaic from Libya showing the execution of prisoners by wild animals
like the early mosaics of Olynthus, decided that instead of trying to make
but with carefully prepared mosaic their mosaic pictures look as realis-
cubes. Some of the best examples of tic as possible, they would try to use
this black and white style have been the special qualities of the mosaic to
found in Ostia, the seaport nearest create a type of picture that could
to Rome. During the second century not easily be achieved with any other
A.D., the mosaic artists of Ostia form of art.
47 PAVEMENTS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
Since many of the mosaics of Empire; it contains scenes in which

Ostia were located in public bathing the seamen of distant lands are work-
houses, and since Ostia was a sea- ing on the boats in these many dif-
port, it is not surprising that these ferent harbors. Together, the mosa-
mosaics often depict scenes of mari- ics of Ostia give us a fascinating
time life. One mosaic is a picture of glimpse of harbor life in the days of
the sea-god Neptune, who is shown the Roman Empire.
driving a drawn by four
chariot Throughout this period in the
horses with fishes' tails. Around the development of mosaics, it was com-
figure of Neptune float a number of mon to divide the floor of a great
different animals and mythological room into a number of different sec-
which are half human
creatures, all of tions. This was done by laying a series
and half fish. There is also a whole of bordering designs that divided the
series of mosaics from Ostia con- space into geometrical sections. Each
taining the figures of a sea-bull, a section would then be filled with a
sea-goat, a sea-horse, and other ani- different mosaic picture representing
mals of this kind. one of a series of works on a common
Some of the less fanciful mosaics theme, such as the 12 months of the
of Ostia provide us with valuable year or the 12 labors of Hercules.
glimpses of life in the days of the Roman mosaic art developed in
Roman Empire. One mosaic shows the eastern part of the Empire as
the various types of horse-drawn well as in Italy and Africa. Some fine
carriages used by the Romans. Vari- examples of mosaic art have been
ous means of transportation by land found at Antioch, the capital of
and sea are shown, and the mosaic Roman Syria. The older mosaic pave-
also pictures four giants holding up ments at Antioch consisted of a
a square-shaped city, which repre- number of individual pictures, each
sents the plan of a Roman colony. surrounded by an elaborate border.
Because Ostia was such an im- But as time went on, the area of the
portant harbor at that time, mer- picture was enlarged until it covered
chants from all over the Roman almost the entire surface of the
Empire brought their ships into the pavement.
port. One famous of all
of the most The subject of most of these mo-
the mosaics of Ostia shows the many saic pictures are the gods and other
different harbors throughout the characters from Greek mythology,
A mythological sea creature in a mosaic from the public baths of Ostia
especially those concerned with the Hercules. This was a particularly fit-
worship of Dionysus, the Greek god ting subject for a banquet hall, where
of wine. Many of the pavements were the guests often competed with each
laid down in the center of large rooms other to see who could drink the most
used for banquets. The couches on wine!
which the Romans reclined while
they ate and drank would be ar- The Declining Days of Rome
ranged around the central mosaic, After A.D. 200, the Roman Em-
and the guests could admire the work pire began to experience the first of
of art as they feasted. Three of these the politicaland economic problems
mosaics that have survived show that led eventually to its decline and
scenes of the competition in which disintegration. By A.D. 300 these
the wine-god Dionysus defeats the problems had become quite serious.
famous hero of Greek mythology The people of the Roman Empire
longed for a sense of security and crushing financial demands of the

for the return of a peaceful life, with Imperial Roman government. Thus
its simple demands. Thus, the Roman the Roman nobles of this time had
mosaics of this time began to ex- their luxurious villas decorated with
press religious and philosophical ideas mosaic pavements that illustrate
that gave people hope. own special interests.
their
For example, there were mosaics One of the best examples of the
depicting the yearly cycle of the sea- mosaics of this period comes from
sons, which encouraged the hope that the island of Sicily, where the most
the difficult winter of hard times splendid of all these villas has been
would pass and the good times of discovered. A mosaic portrait in-
spring and summer would return dicates that owner of the villa
the
again. Other mosaics expressed the was probably Herculius Maximinus,
ideas of security, freedom from worry, one of the rulers of the Roman Em-
tranquillity, generosity, strength, and pire in A.D. 300.
— most commonly of all having — The villa itself covers a vast area,
enough to eat. These mosaics are most of it paved with mosaics. One
pathetic, in a special sense of the group of mosaics concerns the life
word. They are pathetic not because and activities of the Imperial court.
their artistic quality is poor, but rath- In one scene, for example, we see
er because they show us what the the lord of the estate arriving home.
people of those times were lacking He is being greeted by his servants,
most and how difficult life must have who are holding lighted candles and
been for them. palm branches ; the ecstatic expres-
During this period of decline, the sions on their faces show that they
great cities of the Roman Empire consider him almost the equal of the
began to fall into disorder. The rich gods. In another part of the picture.
and powerful Romans, who had once the lord's family is shown enjoying
spent most of their time in the cities, the pleasures of a bath, as servants
began to retreat to their villas and wait on them from every side. Two
estates in the countryside, where life other pavements are devoted to hunt-
was and more pleasant. There,
safer ing scenes. One is called the "Little
surrounded by their servants and by Hunt," and it shows the sacrifice of
the tenant farmers who lived on hares to Diana, the goddess of the
their lands, they could escape the hunt. The mosaic also pictures birds
and deer being caught and a hunter who performed 12 difficult and coura-
who has been severely wounded geous deeds in penance for murder-
in his efforts to capture a wild boar. ing his wife and children while in a
The hunt ends in a picnic under a fit of madness. Curiously, however,

tent, with food being served to the Hercules himself does not appear in
participants. any of these mosaics. Instead, the
The other hunting scene is called mosaics depict the victims killed in
the "Big Hunt" ; it is devoted to the the course of his labors ; all the
capturing of wild animals for use in pavements are strewn with the dead
the Imperial circus. Servants are and bleeding monsters, animals, and
shown catching wild boars, elephants, people whom Hercules defeated.
rhinoceri, and lions. These animals Another of group of mytholog-
this
are being herded into large boxes and ical scenes shows the punishment of
dragged aboard a waiting ship, prior an ancient king who dared to doubt
to leaving for Sicily and Rome. the power of the wine-god Dionysus.
A second group of mosaics in the Still another depicts the one-eyed
villa deals with the subject of games. monster Cyclops, who was blinded
One very detailed pavement shows by Odysseus, perhaps the most fa-
the chariot races at the Roman cir- mous of all the legendary heroes of
cus. The charioteers are wearing the ancient Greece. These mosaics were
colors representing the four seasons: all meant to show the terrible fate
white for winter, blue for spring, which would await any enemy of
green for summer, and red for fall. the Roman Emperor and his gods.
The green shown winning
chariot is The fourth (and perhaps most in-
the race apparently this was Her-
; teresting) group of mosaics illustrates
culius Maximinus' favorite color. In the pleasures of the rich and fortunate
another pavement, a similar circus in this period of decadence and de-
scene is repeated. In this scene, how- cline. Some pavements are scenes of
ever, the contestants are pictured not people bathing and of Cupids fishing
as grown men driving horses but as in the sea. One of the most famous
children driving deer, geese, flamin- shows a group of female acrobats

gos,and doves. in scanty costumes, engaging in an
A third group of mosaics consists athletic competition. At the end of
of symbolic and mythological scenes. the competition, one of the contest-
Some show the labors of Hercules, ants is crowned for her performance.
!
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'The Big Hunt," from Herculius Maximinus' villa on the island of Sicily.
These last mosaics seem curiously in their origins and as having

modern, as if these same scenes changed little in the last 2,000 years.
might have occurred only a few Without the example of these Ro-
years ago. Perhaps would be more
it man mosaics before us. we might
realistic to think of some of our own have forgotten how old-fashioned we
customs — such as acrobatic com- "modern" people really are in some
petitions — as being quite ancient ways
PAVEMENTS OF THE BYZANTINE WORLD
During the waning days of the Greeks, the pictures were arranged
Roman Empire, the artistic style of in groups, theywere realistic in ap-
Roman mosaics changed noticeably. pearance, and they seemed to have
The mosaic artists stopped trying to depth. This meant that the person
make their pictures as realistic as standing on the pavement and looking
possible and began instead to make at the mosaic might feel as though
them more fanciful. According to he was sinking right into the floor
this new style, it was not how some- itself. When a pavement was laid
thing looked to the eye but rather in the newer, more oriental style,
how it could be imagined in the mind however, the whole floor was divided
that was most important. up and
into medallions or squares,
In one mosaic, for example, a lion the pictures —
which were decora-
is shown walking through a field tive rather than realistic were set—
that is covered with diagonal rows within these divisions.
of flowers. Wherever necessary, the In time, the power of Rome de-
artist simply interrupted the flower clined so seriously that the city of
pattern so that the entire lion could Rome was repeatedly attacked
itself
be shown, even though the overall by warlike tribes from the north of
effect does not look at all like a real Europe. After A.D. 300, a Roman
lion walking through a real field of city by the name of "Byzantium"
flowers. began to grow in importance. (By-
These changes show that the in- zantium was far to the east of Rome,
fluenceof oriental styles was in- in what is now the northwestern
creasing during the last years of the corner of Turkey.) Partly because
Roman Empire. When a mosaic pave- Rome itself had grown unsafe, the
ment was done in the old style, which Emperor Constantine moved the
the Romans had learned from the capital of the Roman Empire to By-
53 PAVEMENTS OF THE BYZANTINE WORLD
zantium in the year 330. At this time Early Christian Churches

Byzantium was rebuilt and named in the Holy Land
"Constantinople" in his honor. After The Holy Land was ruled by the
Constantine died, the rule of the Byzantines for many years, and the
Empire came be divided between
to Christians and Jews who lived there
Rome in the west and Constantinople installed vast numbers of mosaic
in the east. As time passed, Rome pavements in their many churches
grew still weaker and Constantinople and synagogues. These small places
stronger. Finally, in the year 476, of worship were quite unlike the
Rome itself was captured by invaders luxurious palaces and villas of
from the north and west, The west- Greece and Rome, yet their humble
ern part of the old Roman Empire pavements have an important place
collapsed, and only the eastern part, in the history of mosaic art.
with Constantinople as its capital, In the early days of the Roman

survived. Empire, Christianity was considered
This eastern empire came to be a troublesome and dangerous religion
known as the "Byzantine Empire," practiced only by outlaws and fa-
because it was ruled by the Byzan- natics. Christianity was declared

tines — the inhabitants of the city illegal, and Christian believers were
that had once been called "Byzan- relentlessly persecuted. They had to
tium." The Byzantine Empire was to practice their religion in secret. Short-
last nearly a thousand years much — ly after A.D. 300. however, the
longer than the original Roman Em- fortunes of the Christians changed
pire itself had endured and it for the better. The Roman Emperors
produced great music, architecture, finally decreed that Christianity would
and art. The oriental influence that be tolerated, and the Emperor Con-
had begun to appear during the last stantine himself became a Christian
years of the old Roman Empire came convert. When Constantine moved
into full flower during the rule of the capital of the Empire to Byzan-
the Byzantines. This influence even- tium, he introduced Christianity there
tually produced some of the most at the highest levels of government.
celebrated masterpieces of mosaic Eventually, Christianity became the
art. (We shall discuss some of the principal religion of the Byzantine
most important of these Byzantine Empire. Thus, some of the best ex-
masterpieces in the next chapter.) amples of early Christian churches
PAVEMENTS OF THE BYZANTINE WORLD 54
are to be found in the lands under decree forbidding the use of crosses
Byzantine rule, particularly in Tur- in the decoration of church pave-
key, Greece, and Palestine. ments. Not only were no new pave-
The most splendid churches of this ments allowed to be made containing
time were not decorated with mosaics crosses, but the crosses in the older
at all but rather with marble slabs pavements also had to be torn up
fitted together in a variety of patterns. and replaced with some other kind
Only more humble churches in
the of design. After that, the cross could
the poorer towns and villages, which only be used in rooms used by priests
could not afford marble, used mosa- that had been ordained in the Chris-
ic pavements. Nevertheless, mosaics tian faith.
were enormously popular at this Eventually, as the memory of the
time, and their use spread far and older Greek and Roman pavements
wide over the whole Byzantine Em- (with "immoral" pictures of
their
pire. Curiously, the province with heroes and gods) began to fade, these
the greatest number of mosaic pave- restrictions were lifted. After the
ments for its size was Palestine, the middle of the fifth century, mosaic
homeland of the Jews and the birth- pictures were used in decorating
place of Jesus Christ. Christian churches according to a
The early Christians •
considered definite plan. Christ as the Ruler of
pictures of the Greek gods and he- the World was depicted on thedome
roes shocking and immoral, and such of the church, the Virgin Mary ap-
subjects were strictly prohibited from peared on the arched ceiling behind
use in church mosaics. At first, the the altar, the story of Christ's life
early Christians would not allow any was depicted on the corners below
pictures of people, animals, or gods the dome and on the upper part of
to be used in the decorative pave- the church walls, and pictures of
ments. Thus, Christian churches were various saints, prophets, and donors
decorated only with simple geomet- to the church filled the lower part
ric patterns, including the symbol of of the walls. The floor of the church
the cross. But as time went on, was a mosaic pavement that often
religious authorities began to frown contained scenes of village life in
even on the practice of including those times.

crosses in mosaic pavements. In 427, One of the oldest and most beau-
the Byzantine Emperor issued a tiful of these early pavements was
r
TOE?rONEMXPoHCIC
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A pavement from the Holy Land made during Byzantine times. It depicts scenes of village life.
spot where Christ supposed to have

This pavement adorns an early Christian church built on the
is
performed the miracle of the loaves and fishes.

found in the ruins of a church by other cities grouped around it. Var-
the Sea of Galilee, in Palestine. Right ious important places mentioned in
below the altar, there is a pavement the Bible are shown, and the im-
showing a basket of loaves and portant geographical features of the
fishes. In fact, according to one Holy Land are depicted in some
tradition, performed his fa-
Christ detail. For instance, there is a remark-
mous miracle of the loaves and fishes able picture of the Dead Sea and of
on the spot where this church was the Jordan River, which flows
built. Other parts of the pavement into it.
show buildings and trees pictured in In ancient times it was common

the usual Byzantine manner and a for east to be at the top of the map,
device used to measure the level of instead of north, as is typical of our
water in a lake or river. Along the modern map-making style. The map
sides of the church floor, there are found at Madaba is made according
pavements containing pictures of the to this ancient custom. East is up.
various animals and plants that live north and south are to the left and
along the shores of the Sea of right,and west is down toward the
Galilee. This beautiful pavement bottom of the map. Since the area
must have attracted many worship- shown on the map extends from the
ers and visitors to the ancient Holy Land all the way to the Nile
church, a factor that doubtless en- Valley in Egypt, the map was prob-
couraged the use of mosaics in many ably meant to represent the entire
other churches throughout the Holy biblical world.
Land. In the seventh century, a new
During the next 150 years, mosaic religion called "Islam" appeared in
pavements were laid down in almost the Middle East. Islam began in
a thousand churches and other im- Arabia, but it quickly spread to
portant buildings in the Holy Land. neighboring lands. Soon the follow-
One of the most famous of these ers of Islam came to rule over most
pavements is a map —
the oldest map of the Middle East. The teachings of
of the Holy Land that has ever been Islam prohibited all paintings and
found. It was discovered in a church drawings of living beings, such as
at a place called Madaba, east of the birds, fish, animals, or people. Thus,
Dead Sea. The city of Jerusalem is in many of the lands with Islamic
shown in the center of the map, with rulers, all existing pictures were or-
OAtf*tAQ£b TFTt
& POCAAN
NATiTura
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The famous mosaic map from Madaba. The map shows all the important Christian shrines and holy
places of Palestine.
!
dered to be destroyed. At this time, The Ancient Synagogues

the Christians were forced to remove of Palestine
all the mosaics that contained any The Jews had used mosaics since
pictures of deities or living beings. at least the first century A.D. —
Sometimes the pictures were replaced possibly even earlier than that. The
with geometric designs. In other earliest mosaics in Palestine that can
mosaic cubes were simply
cases, the be given definite dates are those
mixed up and replaced with no ap- found in the palace of King Herod,
parent order. who ruled Palestine in the years just
One particular church in Palestine before the birth of Christ. These
had been decorated with mosaics mosaics are done in the Greek style
depicting various kinds of beasts and that was popular in the ancient world
birds, like so many other churches at that time, but they are neverthe-
of its kind. But in this case the mo- less distinct from Greek mosaics. For
saic artist who removed the original one thing, they contain no repre-
figures did not destroy the pictures sentations of people or animals. The
entirely. Instead, he did his best to Jewish authorities of that time
leave as much of the original mosaic like the followers of Islam who came
intact and to transform the various afterward — did not allow pictures
animals into plants, which were not of living beings to be made.
considered living beings under Islam- By the third century, however, the
ic law and which would therefore prohibition against depicting living
be permitted to remain. In the mo- beings had apparently been relaxed.
saics there is a picture of a lion A mosaic containing a picture of
whose body and general outline are four dolphins has been found in the
still clearly recognizable but who no remains of an important cemetery
longer resembles any lion that you dating from that time.
are likely to find in the wild. For Under Byzantine rule, the Jews
one thing, there is a flower growing were forbidden to decorate the out-
out of the end of his tail. The lion's side of their synagogues, but they
head and mane have been shaped could decorate the interior however
into an even larger flower, and his they wished. They took advantage of
legs form a strange kind of stem. this rule by decorating the interiors
You will never find this plant in any of the synagogues as richly as pos-
botanical handbook sible. It is therefore not surprising to
The lion that was transformed into a plant

discover that many fine synagogue was discovered in the remains of a

pavements have survived from this synagogue on the eastern shores of the
period of Byzantine rule which began Mediterranean Sea, near the ancient
in the fourth century and continued city of Gaza. In this pavement, King
until the seventh century. David — who united the ancient
The oldest of these mosaics comes Hebrews in about 1000 B.C. is
from a synagogue near the ancient seated, playing a lyre (an ancient
Jewish city of Tiberias, on the Sea harp). Various animals have gathered
of Galilee. This particular pavement around him, mostly wild ones, and
shows the 12 signs of the zodiac they have become tame listening to
arranged around an image of the the sweet music that he is playing.
sun. The sun is shown not as a Because the artists of those times
ball of fire but instead as the Greek had no knowledge of how the ancient
god Apollo, who is shown driving kings of Israel had dressed, they used
a chariot pulled by four horses. In the only example of royal costume
the mythology of the ancient Greeks, that they knew, namely that of the
the sun moved across the sky because Byzantine Emperors. Thus David is
Apollo, who represented the sun, dressed in the royal garments of the
drove across the heavens each day Byzantine Emperors, who ruled ,500 1
in his flaming chariot. years after King David died! To

In another synagogue built in what dress the king in such a costume
is now the northern part of the na- would be like making a picture today
tion of Jordan, there is a mosaic pave- in which one of the ancient Byzan-
ment containing various scenes from tine Emperors appears dressed in a

the Bible. The most interesting of modern business suit.
these scenes shows the animals of Another synagogue, built at about

the earth entering Noah's Ark at the the same time in history, contains
time of the flood. Other biblical a pavement that would be more
stories that were used as the sub- typical of a church than of a syn-
jects for mosaics during this period agogue. At one end of the mosaic
are the story of Daniel in the Lion's is a large pottery vessel used in an-
Den and the story of Abraham offer- cient times for storing and trans-
ing to sacrifice his son when God porting wine. A vine trellis coming
commanded him to do so. out of the vessel forms pairs of cir-
In 1965, an interesting pavement cular spaces, one space on either

the city of
A representation of the season of autumn, from the zodiac pavement in a synagogue near
Tiberias
King David is shown playing a lyre in this By/antine mosaic from Palestine.
The vine-trellis mosaic
side of a central stem. Within the While this mosaic is interesting

spaces, pairs of animals have been and impressive, it contains few pic-
depicted facing each other across the tures of religious subjects. For this
stem. On stem itself, various
the reason, the patrons and worshipers
offerings are shown, such as a hen of this synagogue probably demanded
laying an egg, a bird in a cage, something more appropriate for a
silver vases filled with fruit,and so Jewish house of worship. Thus, in the
on. Finally, a peacock stands on part of the pavement that faces

either side of this design. Jerusalem, a section was added with
!
objects that were considered partic- Abraham's offering o\' his son Isaac
ularly Jewish. There is a menorah (a as a sacrifice to God.
seven-branched candlestick) with lions On the right side of this picture,
on either side oftwo palm trees,
it, Abraham is shown dressed in a long
a ram's horn (which is blown like robe, holding the knife with which
a trumpet on special occasions), and he is about to kill Isaac. Isaac him-
other objects used in Jewish religious self appears to the right of Abraham
ceremonies. with his hands tied behind his back.
This particular mosaic was nearly The altar upon which the sacrifice
destroyed as soon as it was found. will be offered is near Isaac, and
It was discovered by accident when the fire upon which dead body Isaac's
some Israeli workers stumbled across is to be placed is burning brightly.
the ruins of an ancient synagogue On the left side, two of Abraham's

during the construction of a road. servants are shown with a donkey,
The workers began to argue about waiting for the terrible deed to be
whether they should stop construc- done. Above Abraham, a hand ap-
tion until archaeologists had a chance pears in a cloud with the rays of the
to excavate the ruin and save what- sun shining behind it. This hand is
ever of value they could find. This the symbol of divine power in the
might have meant a delay of many religious art of the Jews and early
days or weeks, and some workers Christians. Of course, according to
wanted to continue work, even if the Bible story, God never intended
the old pavement was destroyed in that Abraham sacrifice his own son.
the process. But in the end they took Rather, God was testing Abraham
a vote, and the pavement was saved to see if he would obey a divine com-
by a vote of three to two mand, even if it was something as
Probably the most famous of all terrible as this. At the last moment,
the synagogue pavements of Pales- God ordered Abraham to spare
tine comes from a synagogue in a Isaac's life and to substitute a ram
small village called Beth Alpha. One (a male sheep) for the sacrifice. This
section of the pavement contains a ram also appears in the mosaic, in
picture of the Ark of the Law, an- the center of the picture.
other section contains a representa- The mosaic artists who made pave-
tion of the zodiac, and a third con- ments such as this were not inter-
tains a biblical scene — in this case, ested in creating great works of art
A synagogue pavement showing the 12 signs of the zodiac. Representations of each of the four seasons
appear in the corners, and the sun-god Apollo adorns the central circle.
The sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham
but rather in telling a story as vividly stories of the Bible. Ancient villagers
and clearly as possible. In those did not have the pictures of tele-
times, most people could not read vision, movies, books, magazines, or
or write, and pictures such as this newspapers. Therefore, they must
were one of the few ways in which have been thrilled by the sight
the ordinary villager could have some of these mosaics in the churches and
personal contact with the important synagogues where they worshiped.
VI BYZANTINE WALL MOSAICS
Some of the most outstanding mo- of one Italian church built in the
saics of the Byzantine world were fourth century, there are mosaics
not pavements but wall mosaics. As depicting the vine trellis and "the
we mentioned earlier, not many an- unswept house" that had been so
cient wall mosaicshave survived the popular in the Greek and Roman
passage of time. Except for some pavements. Another mosaic from the
mosaics at Pompeii (the Roman city ceiling of this church contains pic-
that was buried by volcanic ash in tures of cupids and dancers, some
A.D. 79) the oldest wall mosaic still of them half-naked, done in a curi-
in existence comes from the ancient ously pre-Christian style.
Roman port of Ostia. This mosaic,

which dates from the third century
A.D., is a representation of Sylvanus,
the god of the forest. An-
Italian
other wall mosaic from that period
in history has been found in a crypt
underneath St. Peter's Cathedral in

Rome, the largest and most impor- Right: This mosaic of a duck is a sample of
tant Christian church in the world. the simple, unsophisticated pavements with
The mosaic from St. Peter's is an which the village churches and synagogues
of Byzantine times were decorated. (See p. 54
image of Christ, who is represented
for a discussion of such pavements.)
as a sun god in a chariot, with rays
of sunshine shining around his head. Overleaf left and right: Two mosaic pavements
from the Great Palace of the Byzantine emperors
Some of these early wall mosaics
in Constantinople. Both pavements display the
seem to imitate the mosaic pave-
strong, clear lines and the rich colors that have
ments of pre-Christian times. For earned the Byzantines their well-deserved re-
example, on the domes and ceilings putation as masters of the mosaic art.
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73 byzantinl wall mosaics
Left:A pavement from an ancient Christian Above: This mosaic covers part of the vaulted
church by the shores of the Sea of Galilee. ceiling in the church of St. Constance in Rome.
(See p. 57.)
BYZANTINE WALL MOSAICS 74
Another section of ceiling from the church of St. Constance
The oldest of the more typical are done in a realistic They

style.
Christian wall mosaics come from two show the fortified city and
walls
important Roman churches built many of the important churches and
during the Byzantine period. In one buildings in the cities themselves.
of these churches, there are pictures In the other of these Roman
of Jerusalem (the capital of the an- churches, two holy cities of
the
cient Hebrews) and Bethlehem (the Jerusalem and Bethlehem are pre-
birthplace of Jesus). These pictures sented in a very idealistic manner.
75 BYZANTINE WALL MOSAIC S
The artist did not show them as they reason, the influence of the Byzan-
really are but rather as he imagined tines and the Eastern Empire was
they would look as heavenly cities, important in Ravenna throughout its
with golden walls richly encrusted history.

with jewels. The walls of this church In the sixth century, Italy was con-
also contain scenes from the Old quered by the Byzantines and be-
Testament done in the style of the came part of the Byzantine Empire.
ancient Greeks, with rich colors and For more than 50 years thereafter, the
1
deep shadows. (In a later age, a Byzantine governors of Italy made

group of scenes like this was called their homes in Ravenna. Thus, Ra-
a "bible of the poor," because it venna was a most important city
illustrated scenes of biblical stories during the centuries of Roman and
to people who were poor and un- Byzantine rule, and many important
educated and who could not read.) buildings were constructed and dec-
In both Roman churches, the arch orated with mosaics at this time.
over the altar and part of the eastern After the Middle Ages, however, Ra-
wall next to it contain pictures of venna declined in importance, and
Christ in his glory, surrounded by people of wealth and power no longer
the Apostles — the followers whom made their homes there. This was
Christ appointed to spread his unfortunate for the citizens of Ra-
teachings throughout the ancient venna but fortunate indeed for us.
world. During the Renaissance -- a period
of great cultural and artistic activity
The Mosaics of Ravenna in Europe - - the inhabitants of Ra-
In the year A.D. 402, when the venna were too poor to tear down
city of Rome was no longer safe the old Roman and Byzantine
from invaders, the capital of the churches and build new ones in the
Western Roman Empire was moved new Renaissance styles. Thus the old
Ravenna. Ra-
to the Italian city of wall mosaics were preserved for
venna was located on the eastern posterity.
side of the Italian Peninsula, facing In fact, it was not until the 19th
the Adriatic Boats from Ra-
Sea. century that the true value of the
venna could travel directly to Greece Ravenna mosaics was recognized. At

and beyond, into the heart of the that time, the mosaics were repaired
Byzantine Empire. Partly for this and restored, and they are now a
source of pleasure and inspiration palm trees set in among the figures.
to the millions of people who have The flowers and the trees are sym-
visited Ravenna or have seen pictures bols of paradise that are meant to
of its mosaics in magazines and remind the viewer of the Holy Land.
books. On one side of the church, a series
The oldest mosaics at Ravenna of mosaic panels tells about the mir-
were made during the fifth century acles of Christ, while on the other
A.D. In a tomb from this time, side another series depicts the suf-
there is a mosaic with realistic images ferings of Christ from the Last
of the saints Peter, Paul, and Law- Supper to the crucifixion in Jeru-
rence, and a representation of Christ salem.
as the Good Shepherd. These figures Probably the most beautiful and
are set against a beautiful blue back- famous of the Ravenna mosaics are
ground. On
the ceiling of this tomb, those from the church of St.
there a mosaic
is representation of Vitalis, built a few years after the
the sky, composed of a background church of St. Apollinarius. The mo-
of blue cubes studded with stars. saics of St. Vitalis contain a number
Less than 100 years later, the peo- of biblical scenes, including Abra-
ple of Ravenna built a church for ham's offer to sacrifice Isaac, Abra-
St. Apollinarius — the patron saint ham and the three angels, Moses
of the city. On
one wall of this church receiving the tablets of the Law from
there are mosaic pictures of saints, God, and the prophets Isaiah and
who are shown on either side of Jeremiah. Above the altar of the
Christ and the Virgin Mary. The church is a representation of Christ
male saints are all on one side, and as theLord of the Universe. He is
the female saints are on the other. shown seated on a blue globe (which
All the saints are shown holding the represents Heaven), with an angel on
symbols of their holiness. The male either side of him. St. Vitalis him-
saints are moving toward the figure self stands on one side of Christ,
of Christ, who is seated on a throne, while the archbishop is shown on
and the female saints are moving the other side, offering a representa-
toward the Virgin, who is also tion of the church itself to Christ.
seated on a throne, holding the Christ On both sides of the wall to the
child. Both processions of saints are leftand right of the altar there are
moving through fields of lilies, with two famous wall mosaics. On one
Above: The star-studded mosaic ceiling of a Byzantine tomb at Ravenna. Overleaf: During the sixth
century, the people of Ravenna built a second church dedicated to their patron, St. Apollinarius.
This mosaic of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV and members of his court appears on the
walls of the church.
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BYZANTINl! WALL MOSAICS
side, there is a picture of the Byzan- Justinian made her Empress of a

tine Emperor Justinian with the great empire, and she justified his
members ot his royal court. On the faith in her abilities by proving her
other side, his wife, the Empress self an able and valuable ruler. Five
Theodora, is shown with her ladies years after Justinian succeeded to
in These figures are set
waiting. the throne, a riot broke out that
against the gold background that was might have cost him the throne, had
soon to become typical of Byzantine itnot been for Theodora's firmness.
mosaics. All the figures are facing As it was, Justinian and Theodora
outward toward the viewer. stood fast in the crisis, the riot was
The figures themselves seem to be put down, and the Emperor Justin-
weightless, as if they are floating. ian ruled for more than 30 years
Their feet are crossed, their bodies longer, until his death at the ripe
are elongated, and their faces are old age of 82.
unnaturally large, with enormous
dark eyes — an example of the The Great Mosaics
"spiritual look" of oriental art. Like of Constantinople
the saints themselves, Justinian and In Constantinople, the capital of
Theodora are shown with halos a- the Byzantine Empire, no wall mo-
round their heads, for they too were saic has survived from before the
considered sacred. The Empress is ninth century. This sad fact is the
on her way 10 church, and the whole outcome of the activities of a reli-
effect gives her a very saintly appear- gious movement known as "icono-
ance. In real life, however, Theodora clasm" — a term that means "the
was considerably more down-to- destruction of images." Iconoclasm
earth. According to one account, she had appeared repeatedly throughout
was the daughter of an animal the history of the ancient world, but
trainer in the circus, and she was during the eighth century it was an
said to have been an actress and a especially strong and well-organized
prostitute before she married Jus- movement in Constantinople. While
tinian. iconoclasm flourished, the mosaics
Nevertheless, Theodora was an in- containing images of important dei-
telligent and strong-willed woman, ties and people were destroyed. In
and she made her mark in history time, this movement died out. and
in a time when few women did. the great Byzantine churches of Con-
Left: The Emperor Justinian, from the church Overleaf: The Empress Theodora and her
of St. Vitalis at Ravenna court, from the church of St. Vitalis

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stantinople were once again adorned mous church was completed in the
with mosaics on their walls and year 537 by the Emperor Justinian,
ceilings. and it is considered by architects and
During the ninth century, a de- historians to be the crowning a-
finite plan for decorating the interi- chievement of Byzantine art and
ors of churches was developed in architecture. For nearly a thousand
Constantinople. The dome of each years, it was one of the principal
church is devoted to an impressive churches of the Christian faith. Final-
picture of Christ as the Ruler of the ly, in the middle of the 15th century,
World. In his role as a judge of the the Byzantine Empire was conquered
living and the dead, he looks down by the Turks (who were followers
sternly on the multitudes assembled of Islam), and Hagia Sophia was
beneath him. In the half-dome be- converted into a mosque (a Moslem
hind the altar there is a picture of the house of worship). Since the Moslem
Virgin Mary as the Mother of God. religion strictly forbids pictures of
She shown holding the Christ child
is living beings, the Turks plastered
in her arms, and she represents the over the magnificent wall mosa-
hope of salvation. Four triangular ics, which remained hidden from
spaces descending from the dome were view for many centuries. In recent
filled with four scenes from the life of history, however, the modern nation
Christ: the birth of Jesus in Beth- of Turkey and pre-
has restored
lehem, his baptism in the waters of served the mosaics of Hagia Sophia
the Jordan River, his crucifixion, and for all to see. The great church is
his visit to limbo. Finally, the walls no longer used as a mosque like ;
on the sides of the church were dec- a museum, it is now open to the
orated with pictures of the saints public.
or other scenes from the New Testa- At the entrance to Hagia Sophia,
ment. With certain variations, these the Byzantine Emperor Leo is shown
same scenes are depicted in one By- bowing down before Christ on his
zantine church after another. throne. Over the entrance gate, there
One of the greatest and most beau- is a picture of the Virgin Mary. On
tiful churches in the world is Hagia one side of her, the Emperor Con-
Sophia, the principal church of stantine is depicted offering her the
Constantinople and the greatest of all city of Constantinople. On the other
the Byzantine churches. This enor- side, the church of Hagia Sophia it-
• f * *<•
much of lighting iconoclasm. Th.s mosaic is from

The Byzantine Empress Irene, who spent her life
Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.

BYZANTINR WALL MOSAICS 86
self is being offered by the Emperor Byzantine rule, until the Empire it-
Justinian. In the gallery, various royal self was destroyed. With the demise
figures appear with Christ, Mary, and of the Byzantine Empire, however,
the saints. the art of mosaics began a sharp
Many other famous Byzantine mo- decline. The magnificent creations of
saics have survived in the scattered the old mosaic artists gave way to
lands of the old Byzantine Empire increasingly crude works, most of
— in Greece, Italy, and Sicily, as which were simply imitations of the
Turkey it-
well as in other parts of newer and more popular technique
self. These mosaics were made of painting with brushes upon a
throughout the many centuries of smooth surface.
87 m / \\i i\i w \i 1 \ios\u s
the interior of a high dome in a medieval Greek dun

Christ as Ruler of the World. This mosaic fills
The Virgin Mary and the Christ Child, surrounded by saints. A mosaic from a medieval church in
Italy.
89 BYZANTINI \\ \l I MOSAK S
The
v
birth of Christ. This
:
mosaic was installed in the nave of a medieval Greek church.
90
BYZANTINE WALL MOSAICS
HHHigSrc*^***** âe**-
V4
a fine example of the skill and sensitivity of the

This 12th-century mosaic of St. John the Baptist is
Byzantine mosaic artists of the Middle Ages.

VII MOSAICS TODAY
The art of mosaics enjoyed a long has hardened, the paper is moistened,
and interesting history in many lands melting the glue and allowing the
of Europe and Asia, but few mo- artist to wash off the paper. The
saics are made today. Although some front surfaces of the mosaic cubes
modern artists have tried to revive are then exposed, set in cement in
this ancient art, their efforts have so their proper positions. Even with
far met with only limited success. Of this new technique, however, a wall
all the artistic media, mosaics is one mosaic or a pavement requires great
of the slowest and most painstaking. skill, patience, and time.
The finer the artist wishes his mo- Perhaps in some future age, art-
saic to be, the smaller the cubes he ists will once more devote months
must and the smaller the cubes,
use, or years to the slow, agonizing task
the longer it takes to insert them into of creating a mosaic of great
fine
the pavement or wall he is working size and complexity, and the art of
upon. mosaics will flourish once again. In
One modern method is to glue the our fast-moving and impatient
cubes onto large sheets of paper however, mosaics seem likely with
with their back surface facing out- a few exceptions to remain a
ward. The sheets of paper are then curiosity of the past, giving us use-
pressed into the damp cement, allow- ful information about life in ancient
ing the artist to apply many mosaic times and providing us with a lasting
cubes at one time. When the cement source of artistic pleasure.
GLOSSARY
altar A table or platform upon which religious ceremonies
are performed.
chariot A horse-drawn wagon with two wheels, used in
ancient warfare.
crypt An underground chamber, used for burying the
dead.
cubes In mosaics, the small colored pieces used in con-
structing the mosaic work.
foundation In mosaics, a layer of rough cement upon which the

mosaic itself will be constructed.
goblet A drinking bowl of ancient times.
gold foil A paper-thin sheet of gold.
Holy Land The region just east of the Mediterranean Sea, where
most of the events mentioned in the Bible took
place.
limbo In early Christian teaching, a region inhabited by

the souls of good people who died before the time
of Christ.
medallions Oval or circular designs used as borders and or-
namentation.
pergola An open passageway, covered by a trellis bearing
vines.
pitch A black tar, used in ancient times for cementing and

waterproofing.
plaques Flat slabs of some hard material, usually carved or

ornamented and used as wall or floor decorations
tiara A tall headpiece, worn as a crown by popes and
kings.
trellis An open framework of wood, used to support vine-

like plants.
villa A mansion in the countryside, often surrounded by

a large estate.
INDEX
Pages listed in italic contain illustrations onlv
Alexander the Great, 19, 22, 39, gold foil, 13

40-41, 42-43 Gordion, 18
Alexandria, 28, 29 Greek mosaics, 22; early, 18-19:
in Egypt, 28-29. 30; at Pella,
Beth Alpha, mosaics in syna- 19, 21-22, 23, 24; at Pompeii,
gogue at, 65, 66, 67 29, 31, 32, 37, 38, 39
Byzantine Empire, 53-54, 75, 86
Byzantine mosaics, 53; at Con- Hadrian (Roman emperor), 25
stantinople, 68, 70, 71, 81, 84 Hagia Sophia, mosaics in, 84,
85, 86, 90; in the Holy Land, 85, 86, 90
32, 33, 34, 35, 53-54, 55, 56, Holy Land, mosaics in, 12, 32,
57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 33, 34, 35, 53-54. 55. 56, 57.
65, 66, 67, 69; at Ravenna, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64. 65.
75-76, 77, 78-79, 80, 81, 82-83; 66, 67, 69, 72
in Roman churches, 72, 73,
74; techniques used in, 10, 12, iconoclasm, 81
13 Islam, 57-58
Byzantium, 53 "ivory house" of King Ahab, 18
Christian churches in Holy Jerusalem as subject of mosaics,

Land, mosaics in, 53, 54, 55, 57, 74-75
56, 57, 58, 59, 60 Justinian (Byzantine emperor),

Constantine, 52-53, 84 80, 81, 84 ."86
Constantinople, 53; mosaics at,

Libya, mosaics in, 45. 4t>
70, 71, 81, 84, 85, 86, 90
Macedonia, 19
Darius (king of Persia), 39,
Madaba, mosaic map at. 57, 58
40-41, 42-43
Maximinus, Herculius (Roman
foundations of mosaics, 10 emperor), 49, 50
frescos, 15 Mesopotamia, 18
mosaic, definition of, 7
gladiators, mosaics of, 45
glass, used in mosaics, 12-13 Nile Valley, mosaic of, 28-29, 30
95
Olympia, mosaics at, 19 Africa. 44,46; at Ostia, 4547,

Olynthus. mosaics at. 19. 20 48\ in Sicily, 49-51
oriental style in mosaics. 32 Rome, mosaics in churches of,
Ostia. mosaics at. 45-47. 48. 68 73, 74-75
pavements, mosaic. 7, 10. 12. 15; St. Appolinari us (Ravenna), mo-

Byzantine. 54-71: Greek. 18- saics in churches oi. 76, 78-79
24. 28-31. 37-44: Roman. St. Peter's Cathedral, mosaics

45-51 in. 68
Pella. mosaics at. 19. 21-22. 23, St. Vitalis (Ravenna), mosaics
24 in church of, 76, SO, 32-83
Pergamon. 25 Sicily, mosaics in. 19. 4 L )-51
pergola. 44 stones, used in mosaics. 10
pitch. 18 synagogues of Hoi) Land, mo-

"
Pliny. 25 saicsin,JZ 13, 14, 59, 61, 62,

03. 64-65. 66, 67
Pompeii, mosaics at. 6. 14, 17,
27, 29. 31. 32, 37. 38, 39.

40-41. 42-44 Theodora (Byzantine empress),
81
Ravenna, mosaics at. 12. 75-76. tiles, mosaic.
77, 78-79, 80, 81. 82-83
Roman Empire, 45. 47. 48-49, Vitruvius, 1"
52-53
Roman mosaics. 8, 9, //. 45: at
wall mosaics. 12-13, 15; Byzan-
Antioch, 47-48: in North tine, 68,

%.
MICHAEL AVI-YONAH, who died in April 1974, was a professor of clas-

sical archaeology and history of art at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem.
Born in Eastern Europe, Dr. Avi-Yonah came to the Holy Land in 1921.
After receiving his Ph.D from University College in London, he began a
career of research and writing in the field of archaeology. Dr. Avi-Yonah
headed major archaeological excavations in Israel at sites such as Massada,
Caesarea, and Jerusalem. He wrote books on a variety of subjects, ranging
from mosaic pavements in Palestine to the history of the Holy Land. The
Art of Mosaics was Dr. Avi-Yonah's last book.
RICHARD L. CURRIER received his A.B. and Ph.D. degrees in anthro-

pology from the University of California at Berkey. He has done field work
in Mexico and in Greece and has taught anthropology both at Berkeley
and at the University of Minnesota. Dr. Currier now devotes full time to
writing and research.
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S2SP»s;

-*" '• * .*. '«

'''' •'•• ••"

retold for young readers by Richard L. Currier

Lerner Publications Company Minneapolis

13; S2; 83; SS; K9 I ratelh Almari. I ircn/e. p. 8; 9. II Kunsthisionsches

Designed by Ofra Kamar

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING IN PUBLICATION DATA

(Digging up the Past: The Lerner Archaeology Series)

1. Mosaics — Juvenile literature. |1. Mosaics] I. Avi-Yonah,

NA3750.C87 1974 729'.7'093 72-10793

First published in the United States of America 1975

Copyright © 1974 by G. A. The Jerusalem Publishing House.

International Standard Book Number: 0-8225-0828-1

Manufactured in the United States of America

PART I. WHAT ARE MOSAICS? 7

PART IT. THE BEGINNINGS OF MOSAIC ART 18

1. The First Mosaics 18

PART III. THE FLOWERING OF MOSAIC ART 25

1. "The Unswept House" 25

PART IV. PAVEMENTS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 45

PART V. PAVEMENTS OF THE BYZANTINE WORLD 52

1. Early Christian Churches in the Holy Land 53

PART VI. BYZANTINE WALL MOSAICS 68

1. The Mosaics of Ravenna 75

PART VII. MOSAICS TODAY 91

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Mosaics are pictures made with these characteristics in common : they

Left: Two thousand years ago, the ancient

'Sjte^safo;' ii www* w+'-gw&^&a*^

which the mosaic cubes themselves where it was to remain.

WHAT ARE MOSAICS? 12

began to work. He would slowly and Wall Mosaics

artist a great range of colors, since off the surfacewould be scattered in

Left: This mosaic of fighting cocks was found in

. i' "" "

The First Mosaics mosaic was found in the famous

of famous and beautiful vase

The famous lion-hunt mosaic from Pella

from them made around

only of pebbles cemented onto a flat in cement — remained unchanged.

"The Unswept House" head on the water. Other doves are

stalking them from below.

One of the first of these mosaics represented by a number of dragons

strange and fascinating Nile Valley Scenes of the Theater

synagogue in the Holy Land.

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^V^ii*'Vi^C+-¥^-Cf~fe^MC£-> v^\ r^TTi

An actor's mask, from Pompeii

Darius and Alexander empires. In the west was the Greek

Overleaf: A mosaic from Pompeii showing

thrown himself in front of Darius mosaic exactly as the ancient kings

of Persia are described in the liter- to be thrusting forward with a deter-

During the two centuries after

A mosaic from Libya showing the execution of prisoners by wild animals

Since many of the mosaics of Empire; it contains scenes in which

A mythological sea creature in a mosaic from the public baths of Ostia

longed for a sense of security and crushing financial demands of the

The hunt ends in a picnic under a fit of madness. Curiously, however,

children driving deer, geese, flamin- shows a group of female acrobats

51 PAVEMENTS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

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These last mosaics seem curiously in their origins and as having

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