Chapter 2 Part I

The More Chemistry You

Know, The Further You Can Go in Medicine
 Atoms and Elements
1. Our universe is
composed of stuff
that you can touch
and feel. We call this
stuff matter.

Image credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA, F. Pacaud, D. Coe

 Atoms and Elements
2. All matter is made of unimaginably tiny units called atoms.

HTTPS://WWW.SEEKPNG.COM/IPNG/U2Q8T4W7A9Y3T4U2_GOLD-ATOMS/
 Atoms and Elements
3. There are 94 different types of atoms on planet Earth, and they’re called elements.

Theodore Gray’s Periodic Table of Elements

 Atoms and Elements
a. Memorize the
names/symbols of these
elements (be able to go
either way on exam):
i. Hydrogen = ______
ii. Carbon = ______
iii. Nitrogen = ______
iv. Oxygen = ______
v. Sodium = ______
vi. Sulfur = ______
vii. Calcium = ______
viii. Phosphorous = ______
ix. Iron = ______
x. Chlorine = _____

Our Periodic Table of Elements: https://fiitjeechemistry.weebly.com/periodic-table.html

 Atoms and Elements
a. Memorize the
names/symbols of these
elements (be able to go
either way on exam):
i. H = ______
ii. C = ______
iii. N = ______
iv. O = ______
v. Na = ______
vi. S = ______
vii. Ca = ______
viii. P = ______
ix. Fe = ______
x. Cl = ______

Our Periodic Table of Elements: https://fiitjeechemistry.weebly.com/periodic-table.html

 Atoms and Elements
4. Four elements make up 99% of
all living material (CHON). Life
also has a bit of Ca, P, S, and
Fe.

Our Periodic Table of Elements: https://fiitjeechemistry.weebly.com/periodic-table.html

 Molecules and Ionic Compounds

5. Atoms can occur by themselves, but

they are usually bonded with other
atoms:
a. Two or more atoms covalently
bonded together are called
molecules.

Our Periodic Table of Elements: https://fiitjeechemistry.weebly.com/periodic-table.html

 Molecules and Ionic Compounds
i. Memorize the chemical
formulas and names of
these molecules:
1. O2 = __________________________
2. CO2 =
__________________________
3. H2O =
__________________________
4. C6H12O6 =
__________________________
5. CH4 =
__________________________
6. CO32-- =
_____________________________
7. NO3-- = Shown here are four representations chemists use for
_____________________________ molecular oxygen. In colored molecular models, oxygen is
traditionally shown in red.
Windows to the Universe original artwork by Randy Russell.
 Molecules and Ionic Compounds
i. Memorize the chemical
formulas and names of
these molecules:
1. O2 = __________________________
2. CO2 =
__________________________
3. H2O =
__________________________
4. C6H12O6 =
__________________________
5. CH4 =
__________________________
6. CO32-- =
_____________________________
Four representations chemists use for carbon dioxide. In the colored models, carbon
7. NO3-- = is light gray and oxygen is red.
_____________________________ Credit: Randy Russell (©2006 NESTA)
 Molecules and Ionic Compounds
i. Memorize the chemical
formulas and names of
these molecules:
1. O2 = __________________________
2. CO2 =
__________________________
3. H2O =
__________________________
4. C6H12O6 =
__________________________
5. CH4 =
__________________________
6. CO32-- =
_____________________________
7. NO3-- =
_____________________________ Water / H2O. https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/air-quality/whats-in-the-air
 Molecules and Ionic Compounds
i. Memorize the chemical
formulas and names of
these molecules:
1. O2 = __________________________
2. CO2 =
__________________________
3. H2O =
__________________________
4. C6H12O6 =
__________________________
5. CH4 =
__________________________
6. CO32-- =
_____________________________
7. NO3-- =
_____________________________
Glucose / C6H12O6 https://www.dreamstime.com/glucose-dextrose-d-
glucose-molecule-linear-form-sheet-paper-cage-structural-chemical-formula-
molecule-model-glucose-image136148490
 Molecules and Ionic Compounds
i. Memorize the chemical
formulas and names of
these molecules:
1. O2 = __________________________
2. CO2 =
__________________________
3. H2O =
__________________________
4. C6H12O6 =
__________________________
5. CH4 =
__________________________
6. CO32-- =
_____________________________
Shown here are four representations chemists use for methane. In the colored
7. NO3-- = models, carbon is light gray, and hydrogen is white.
_____________________________ UCAR
 Molecules and Ionic Compounds
b. Two or more atoms ionically bonded
together are called ionic compounds.
i. Memorize the chemical formula
and common name of this ionic
compound:
1. NaCl = __________________________

https://examples.yourdictionary.com/main-differences-between-ionic-and-
covalent-bonds.html
 Subatomic Particles
6. Atoms are not actually the smallest unit of
matter; they are composed of three
subatomic particles.

a. proton: has a (+) charge

b. neutron: has a neutral charge

c. electron: has a (–) charge

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/
Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/
Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Atomic_Theory/
The_Atom/Sub-Atomic_Particles
 Subatomic Particles
6. Atoms are not Electron shells
actually the
smallest unit of
matter; they are
composed of three
subatomic
particles.
Proton (p+)
a. proton: has a Nucleus
Neutron (n0)
(+) charge

b. neutron: has a
neutral
charge

c. electron: has
a (–) charge Electron (e−)
 Subatomic Particles

6. Atoms are not actually the smallest unit of matter;

they are composed of three subatomic particles.
a. proton: has a (+) charge
b. neutron: has a neutral charge
c. electron: has a (–) charge

7. The core of an atom is called the nucleus, and it

contains protons and neutrons.

8. Somewhere “orbiting” the nucleus are the

electrons. They can come and go somewhat
easily.

https://www.universetoday.com/78114/subatomic-particles/
 Subatomic Particles

8. Somewhere “orbiting” the nucleus are the electrons. They can come and go somewhat easily.
 Subatomic Particles
9. What makes the 94 elements different from
each other? The number of protons
defines the type of element.
a. How many protons do the following
elements have?
i. Hydrogen = ________
ii. Fe = ________
iii. O = ________
iv. Carbon = ________

b. What elements have the following

number of protons?

i. 1 = _____________________
ii. 16 = _____________________
iii. 6 = _____________________
iv. 7= _____________________
Our Periodic Table of Elements: https://fiitjeechemistry.weebly.com/periodic-table.html
 Electrons
10. An atom has the same number of protons and electrons and thus have a neutral charge.

https://goprep.co/why-is-an-atom-neutral-in-spite-of-the-presence-of-charged-i-1nkuj7
 Electrons
10. An atom has the same number of
protons and electrons and thus have a
neutral charge.
a. How many total electrons does each of
the following atoms have?

i. Cl = ________
ii. Carbon = ________
iii. Oxygen = ________
iv. Iron = ________

b. An atom has 15 electrons. What

element is it? ________________

Question: What is the overall charge of

each of the atoms above?

Our Periodic Table of Elements: https://fiitjeechemistry.weebly.com/periodic-table.html

 Electrons

11.Electrons are layered in ‘shells’. Electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons.

12.Valence electrons (in the outermost shell) determine the chemical reactivity of an element.

a. While the type of element is defined by the number of protons, the chemical reactivity of an
element is determined by the number of valence electrons.
 Electrons

11.Electrons are layered in ‘shells’. Electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons.

12.Valence electrons (in the outermost shell) determine the chemical reactivity of an element.

a. While the type of element is defined by the number of protons, the chemical reactivity of an
element is determined by the number of valence electrons.
 Electrons
https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5dee9a316632cd001b611dde/valence-electrons-electron-shells-practice-2019-2020

11.Electrons are layered in ‘shells’. Electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons.

12.Valence electrons (in the outermost shell) determine the chemical reactivity of an element.

a. While the type of element is defined by the number of protons, the chemical reactivity of an
element is determined by the number of valence electrons.
 Electrons

11.Electrons are layered in ‘shells’.

Electrons in the outermost shell are
called valence electrons.

12.Valence electrons (in the outermost

shell) determine the chemical reactivity
of an element.

a. While the type of element is

defined by the number of protons,
the chemical reactivity of an
element is determined by the
number of valence electrons.

https://www.scienceabc.com/pure-sciences/how-to-find-the-number-of-valence-
electrons-in-an-element.html
 Electrons
13. The periodic table is organized based on
this fact. Groups 1 through 8 (skipping the
middle), tell you the number of valence
electrons atoms of an element has.

a. How many valence electrons does each

of the following elements have?

i. Hydrogen = ________
ii. Calcium = ________
iii. Cl = ________
iv. N = ________
v. Sodium = ________
vi. S = ________

Our Periodic Table of Elements: https://fiitjeechemistry.weebly.com/periodic-table.html

 Electrons

14. Since valence electrons determine chemical

reactivity, elements in the same group
behave similarly.

a. Which of the following pairs are more

chemically similar?

i. Na and S or S and O?
ii. N and P or N and O?

Our Periodic Table of Elements: https://fiitjeechemistry.weebly.com/periodic-table.html

 Electrons

15. The first electron shell can hold a maximum

of 2 electrons.

16. The second electron shell can hold a

maximum of 8 electrons.

17. What do atoms ‘want’ the most? A full

valence electron shell.

https://www.sciencecoverage.com/2021/01/chlorine-valence-electrons.html
Electrons

https://www.sciencecoverage.com/2021/01/
chlorine-valence-electrons.html

https://socratic.org/questions/542d4db1581e2a5087fd20c4
17. What do atoms ‘want’ the most? A full valence electron shell.
Electrons

https://www.sciencecoverage.com/2021/01/
chlorine-valence-electrons.html

https://socratic.org/questions/542d4db1581e2a5087fd20c4
17. What do atoms ‘want’ the most? A full valence electron shell.

18. To get a full valence shell, atoms can gain or lose electrons, or they can share them with other atoms.
Ions and Ionic Bonds

Na Cl
Sodium atom Chlorine atom

19. To get a full valence shell, atoms can either donate their valence electrons or accept new electrons.
a. Recall that Cl is in group ________, and thus has ________ valence electrons.
b. Recall that Na is in group ________, and thus has ________ valence electron.
c. The Cl atom _____________ __________ electron to get a full valence shell.
d. The Na atom ____________ __________ electron to get a full valence shell.
Ions and Ionic Bonds
+ –

Na Cl Na+ Cl–
Sodium atom Chlorine atom Sodium ion Chloride ion
(a cation) (an anion)
Sodium chloride (NaCl)

20. What were Cl and Na atoms have now become something new: ions. When an atom gains or loses electrons, it
ceases to be an atom and becomes an ion.
a. If an atom gains electrons, is has a negative charge and is called an anion.
b. If an atom loses electrons, is has a positive charge and is called a cation.
21. Cations and anions are attracted to each other, forming a bond called an ionic bond.
Ions and Ionic Bonds

Na+
Cl–

21. Cations and anions are attracted to each other, forming a bond called an ionic bond.
Ions and Ionic Bonds

21. Cations and anions are attracted to each other, forming a bond called an ionic bond.
Covalent Bonds

Hydrogen atoms (2 H)

22. To get a full valence shell, atoms can share their valence electrons with other atoms. This results in a strong bond
between the two atoms. When atoms share electrons, the form a covalent bond.
Covalent Bonds Hydrogen atoms (2 H)

22. To get a full valence shell, atoms

can share their valence electrons
with other atoms. This results in a
strong bond between the two
atoms. When atoms share
electrons, the form a very covalent
bond.
Covalent Bonds Hydrogen atoms (2 H)

22. To get a full valence shell, atoms

can share their valence electrons
with other atoms. This results in a
strong bond between the two
atoms. When atoms share
electrons, the form a very covalent
bond.
23. Two or more atoms covalently
bonded are called molecules.

Hydrogen molecule (H2)

Covalent Bonds

24. Covalent bonds are often represented by a line drawn between the 2 atoms that are sharing electrons.
Electronegativity and Polar Covalent Bonds

25. Atoms of some elements pull electrons more tightly toward their nucleus than atoms of other elements. Elements
with a stronger pull are said to be more electronegative than those with a weaker pull.
Electronegativity and Polar Covalent Bonds

26. Electronegativity increases as you

move up and to the right on the
periodic table.

a. Which of the following pairs of

elements is more electronegative?

i. O or C?
ii. O or Sulfur?
iii. Hydrogen or C?
iv. Sodium or Carbon?
Electronegativity and Polar Covalent Bonds

27. In H2O, the O is more electronegative than H, so the O pulls shared electrons to itself and away from H.

28. The pull is not strong enough to cause a transfer of electrons, as occurs in an ionic bond, but the pull is strong
enough to give the O a partial (–) charge.

29. Since the electrons are pulled away from H and towards O, the two H atoms have a partial (+) charge.

30. Since the O has a partial _______ charge and H has a partial _______ charge, the covalent bond gets a special
name: polar covalent bond.
Electronegativity and Polar Covalent Bonds
–
Na

 



 
O Na 

 
H H Cl Cl
+ + 
 
H2O 




31. Since water has polar covalent bonds, it is a polar
molecule.

32. The partial charges on polar molecules attract other

polar atoms.
Hydrogen Bonds
33. Since water is a polar molecule, 2 or more water molecules
will be attracted to each other [(+) and (–) attract], forming a
weak but biologically important hydrogen bond. 
34. Draw and label 3 water molecules hydrogen bonded together Hydrogen
+ bond
as shown in lecture:

Polar covalent
bonds

+
 +

+
Acids and Bases

35. Acids, when dissolved in water, split apart, releasing H+. H+ = hydrogen ion = proton.
a. This increases the [H+] in the water.
b. We call something with a high [H+] acidic.
c. Acids taste sour and have a low pH.
Acids and Bases

36. Bases, when dissolved in water, split apart, releasing OH--. OH-- = hydroxide ion.
a. This increases the [OH--] in the water.
b. We call something with a high [OH--] basic.
c. Bases taste bitter and have a high pH .
 Acids and Bases

37. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14

a. 0 – 7 = acidic
b. 7 = neutral
c. 7 – 14 = basic
38. The pH of blood is _________ and the pH of stomach acid is ________.
Acids and Bases

39. Living organisms are very sensitive to changes in pH. Buffers are chemicals that
resist changes is pH upon the addition of a small amount of acid or base.
Water is the Universal Solvent

40. Water is a solvent that dissolves solutes.

41. Species that dissolve in water are polar and hydrophilic.
42. E.g., water dissolves acids, bases, ions (H+, Ca2+, Cl--) and polar molecules.
43. Water dissolves so many kinds of solutes, we call it the universal solvent.
Water is the Universal Solvent

40. Water is a solvent that dissolves solutes.

41. Species that dissolve in water are polar and hydrophilic.
42. E.g., water dissolves acids, bases, ions (H+, Ca2+, Cl--) and polar molecules.
43. Water dissolves so many kinds of solutes, we call it the universal solvent.
Water is the Universal Solvent

Hexane

40. Species that do NOT dissolve in water are nonpolar

and hydrophobic.
41. E.g., oils and fats do not dissolve in water