AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

TECHNIQUES

COMPLEX NUMBERS

18/04/2020 1
 The Origins of Imaginary and Complex Numbers

Consider the algebraic equation

z2  4  0
We can rewrite the above equation as

z 2  4
The above equation has solutions

z    4   4   1  2  1

The solutions cannot be simplified any further and for the moment
they do not lend themselves to any physical interpretation because of
the presence of the unfamiliar term  1 .
18/04/2020 2
 What the solutions do reveal is the existence of a more general
number system beyond the real number system that we are familiar
with. We will discuss more about this matter shortly.

For convenience, we can write the solutions as

z   j2
where we have introduced the letter j to represent the term 1 ; that is
we have defined

j  1
For historical reasons, numbers such as j2 and –j2 are called
imaginary numbers

18/04/2020 3
 Definition
An imaginary numbers is defined as the product of the
imaginary unit j with a real number.

Note
The real number is always written after the letter j. Thus, we write an
imaginary number as “j2” and not “2j”.

Consider next the solutions to the equation

z 2  2z  2  0
The solutions of the above equation are

 b  b 2  4ac  2   4
z 
2a 2
18/04/2020 4
 Using the definition j   1 , we can write the solutions as
z  1  j
Notes
1. The solution z has a real part and an imaginary part.

2. A number which comprises of a real part and an imaginary part is

called a complex number.

3. To differentiate a complex number from a real number, we put a

bar over it. Thus, by our notation, the solution to the above
equation would be written as
z  1  j
4. In the printed literature, a complex number or a complex variable z,
for example, is printed in bold rather than with an overbar; for
example, as . z
18/04/2020 5
 Forms of Complex Numbers
Complex numbers can be represented in three different forms. The
one that has been introduced earlier here is called the rectangular
form. The two other forms are called the exponential and the polar
forms. We will discuss the rectangular form first.

(i) Rectangular Form

The rectangular form of a complex number Z is written as the sum of
a real number and an imaginary number; that is,

z  x  jy
where x and y are real numbers.

18/04/2020 6
 Real and Imaginary Parts of a Complex Number

To find the real and imaginary parts of the complex number

use the notations
z we


Re z


and
Im z
where

Re z is read “the real part of the complex number z ”

Imz 
and
is read “the imaginary part of the complex number z ”.

18/04/2020 7
 Thus, given a complex number z  2  j3 (say), then


Re z  2
and


Im z  3

Note:

1. To find the imaginary part of a complex number we just simply

extract the numerical value associated with the imaginary part and
not the j term as well.

18/04/2020 8
 Graphical Representation of a Complex Number

In the rectangular form, a complex number can be represented

as a point on a two-dimensional plane called the Argand
Diagram as shown below. So for example, Z = 6 + j4 represents
a single point whose coordinates represent 6 on the horizontal
real axis and 4 on the vertical imaginary axis as shown.

18/04/2020 9
 Notes:

1. On the Argand diagram, the horizontal axis represents all

positive real numbers to the right of the vertical imaginary axis
and all negative real numbers to the left of the vertical imaginary
axis.
2. All positive imaginary numbers are represented above the
horizontal axis while all the negative imaginary numbers are
below the horizontal real axis. This then produces a two
dimensional complex plane with four distinct quadrants labelled,
QI, QII, QIII, and QIV.
3. Complex Numbers can also have "zero" real or imaginary
parts such as: Z = 6 + j0 or Z = 0 + j4. In this case the points
are plotted directly onto the real or imaginary axis.

18/04/2020 10
 Notes (contd.)

4. Also, the angle of a complex number can be calculated using

simple trigonometry to calculate the angles of right-angled triangles,
or measured anti-clockwise around the Argand diagram starting
from the positive real axis so angles between 0 and 90o will be in
the first quadrant (I), angles (θ) between 90 and 180o in the
second quadrant (II).
5. The third quadrant (III) includes angles between 180 and 270o
while the fourth and final quadrant (IV) which completes the full
circle includes the angles between 270 and 360o and so on.

18/04/2020
 Check your understanding

Exercise
Plot the following complex numbers on the complex plane.
(i) A  5  j5 (iv) D  5  j 4
(ii)
B  4  j3
(iii) C  2  j 3

18/04/2020 12
 (ii) Exponential Form

A complex number z may be expressed in exponential form as

z  ze j
where
z = modulus or magnitude of z,

θ = argument (or angle) of z.

and
e j  cos  j sin  (Euler’s identity)

When plotted on the Argand diagram, z forms a line of radius z

extending from the origin and making a positive angle θ in the
anticlockwise direction measured from the real axis, as shown in the
following figure.

18/04/2020 13
 Positive imaginary axis
Im

jy z
z Positive real
Negative real
 axis
axis
0 Re
x

Negative imaginary axis

Figure x. Graphical relationship between the rectangular

coordinates of a complex number z and its polar representation.

18/04/2020 14
 (ii) Polar Form

In the literature the symbols  is frequently used in place of the

term ejθ ; that is, the complex number z  ze j is written as

z  z
This is called the polar form.

Check your understanding

Exercises .

Plot the following complex numbers on the Argand diagram.

i. A = 230
ii. B = 5+220
iii. C = 4-320
iv. D = 2580

18/04/2020 15
 Mathematical Relationship Between the Rectangular Form
and the Polar Form
Consider the complex number z = x + jy and its graphical plot shown
z
in the figure below.
Positive
imaginary axis
Im

jy
Negativ z Positive
e real  real
axis axis
0 x Re

Negative
imaginary axis

Figure x. Graphical relationship between the rectangular

representation and the polar representation.

18/04/2020 16
 z  z  x2  y2

where
y
x y tan  
cos  sin   x
z z and
 y
, x  z cos y  z sin    tan 1  
x
Hence we can write,

z  ze j  x  jy  z cos  jz sin   zcos  j sin  

where we have used the identity

e j  cos  j sin 

18/04/2020 17
18/04/2020 18
18/04/2020 19
18/04/2020 20
18/04/2020 21
 This example shows that the effect of multiplying a number (real or
complex) by j is equivalent to rotating it 90 counter clockwise in the
complex plane.

18/04/2020 22
18/04/2020 23
18/04/2020 24
18/04/2020 25
18/04/2020 26
18/04/2020 27
18/04/2020 28
18/04/2020 29
 Summary of Complex Numbers

1. Complex Numbers consist of two distinct numbers, a real number

plus an imaginary number.

2. Imaginary numbers are distinguish from a real number by the use

of the j-operator.

3. A number with the letter "j" in front of it identifies it as an imaginary

number in the complex plane.

4. By definition, the j-operator j ≡ √-1

5. Imaginary numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied and

divided the same as real numbers.

6. The multiplication of "j" by "j" gives j2 = -1

7. In Rectangular Form a complex number is represented by a point

in space on the complex plane.
18/04/2020 30
 8. In Polar Form a complex number is represented by a line whose
length is the amplitude and by the phase angle.

9. In Exponential Form a complex number is represented by a line

and corresponding angle that uses the base of the natural
logarithm.

10. A complex number can be represented in one of three ways:

(i) Z = x + jy » Rectangular Form
(ii) Z = A ∠Φ » Polar Form
(iii) Z = A ejΦ » Exponential Form

11. Euler's identity can be used to convert Complex Numbers from

exponential form into rectangular form.

18/04/2020 31