Before starting this chapter, you should already be able to complete the following:

Solve the equation x x , giving your answer in its simplest form.

Express in the form 5 , where .
State the value of:

.
Express:
in the form , stating the value of

in the form , stating the value of .

Express 4 x in the form e , stating the value of the constant k.

Given that 3 and 5 are zeroes of the quadratic polynomial x , write x in factorized
form.
Find an expression for the infinite sum x x

Can you have half of a drop of water? Can you show someone minus two pens? Can you
imagine a shape which has a finite area but infinite perimeter? Can you draw a line with
an irrational length? Do you know a number which squares to give minus one?
All of these are problems which at some time in history were considered impossible,
but their study has opened up new areas of mathematics with sometimes surprising
applications.
 x

Simplify the following:

i3
i4.

Consider 3 as 2 + 1, then use a a

rule of exponents to isolate i2
i
Consider 4 as 2 × 2, then use a b
rule of exponents to isolate i2
Again 1

Find .
Hence, solve the equation x x .

Split the square root as a

usual using

Use the quadratic formula b x

from part a
Cancel a factor of 2 as usual

The solutions in Worked Example 4.2, and , are examples of

written in .
The variable z (rather than x) is often used for complex numbers and the set of all
complex numbers is given the symbol .
A complex number z can be written in Cartesian form as
i
where .

i x
z y z
z 3 2i z 3 z 2

If i , then its complex conjugate, z*, is

z and w
Find
.

Group real and a

imaginary parts
Group real and b
imaginary parts

Expand the brackets as usual c

Group real and

imaginary parts

If i , then
 x
y
This is referred to as the or an .

z
Represent on the complex plane:
z –z z*

z has coordinates
z
So this has coordinates

z
So this has coordinates

The complex numbers z and w are shown on the Argand diagram below.

Mark on the complex number .

 The point representing
can be found by
creating a parallelogram
with the relevant
points as vertices

The complex numbers z and w are shown on the Argand diagram below.

Mark on the complex number .

The point representing

can be found as for
addition by thinking of
the process as

The complex number

– w is w rotated by
around the origin
For questions 1 to 4, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 4.1 to simplify the expression.
n for n, a positive integer
n for n, a positive integer
For questions 5 to 8, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 4.2 to solve the equation.
x x x x x x
x x x x x x
For questions 9 to 12, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 4.3 to simplify the expression.

For questions 13 to 15, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 4.4 to write each expression in the form x + iy.

For questions 16 to 19, use the method of equating real and imaginary parts demonstrated in Worked Example 4.5 to
find the solutions.

z z z z z z
z z z z z z
For questions 20 to 23, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 4.6 to represent each complex number on an
Argand diagram.
z z z* z w
z z z* z w
z 2z iz z w
z 2z iz z w
For questions 24 and 25, use the methods demonstrated in Worked Examples 4.7 and 4.8 to add the points corresponding
to the stated complex numbers to a copy of each complex plane.
z* w
z* w

Solve the equation x x .

Given that z z

Find the complex number z z z .

Find the complex number z z z .
Let .
Find the values of a for which z is purely imaginary.
Prove that z z .
Solve the simultaneous equations Solve the simultaneous equations

where . where .
Find the possible values of .
Let .
By letting .
By letting .
Solve z z .

When a complex number, z, is represented on an Argand diagram, its distance from the
origin is called the , denoted by z or r.
The angle made with the positive x-axis (measured anticlockwise and in radians) is
called the , denoted by z or .

If i , then the modulus, r, and argument, , are given by

2 2
 0 2

Always draw the

complex number in an
Argand diagram before
finding the argument.
It is important to know
which angle you need
to find.
This form is so common that a shorthand is often used: .

A complex number z can be written in as

Write in modulus–argument form, with the argument between 0 and

Use 2 2 r

To find the argument, draw

a diagram to see where the
complex number actually is

From the diagram,

2
Modulus–argument form So,
is
z

A complex number z has modulus 4 and argument

Write the number in Cartesian form.

Use and x

Cartesian form is i So,

z
Find the argument of z , where z
Which is the correct solution? Identify the errors in the incorrect solutions.

z
So, z

x
–

If , then

Write z in the form with the argument between and .

Use
to remove the negative z
sign in between terms

Use so
that the arguments of sin
and cos are the same
z and w

Write in the form r

Multiply the moduli and

add the arguments
z 2 and z

So,
w 5 and w

z and w

Write in Cartesian form.

Divide the moduli, and

subtract the arguments

z 8 and z

w 4 and w
So,
Then convert to
Cartesian form

A complex number z can be written in as

where r is the modulus of z and is the argument of z, so that

 eix x x

z and w
Find, in Euler form,
.

Follow the rules of exponents

by adding the powers a

Follow the rules of

exponents by subtracting b
the powers

z
Find z3 in Cartesian form.

Follow the laws of exponents

by applying the power 3 to z
both terms of the product…

…and then multiplying

by 3

Convert to Cartesian
form by first changing to
modulus–argument form
using
and then evaluating
 Express 2i in Cartesian form correct to three significant figures.

We need to change the

base from 2 to e, so
express 2 as eln 2
Then proceed as before,
simplifying the indices and
using

(1)
e i

For questions 1 to 4, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 4.9 to write the following in the form r
where
4 3i
5
For questions 5 to 7, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 4.9 to write the following in the form r
where
5i 2 2i
7i 4 4i
For questions 8 to 11, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 4.10 to write z in Cartesian form in the
following cases.
z z z z z z z z

z z z z z z z z

For questions 12 to 14, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 4.11 to write the following in the form r ,
where
For questions 15 and 16, use the methods demonstrated in Worked Examples 4.12 and 4.13 to write the following in the
form r , where

For questions 17 and 18, use the methods demonstrated in Worked Examples 4.12 and 4.13 to write the following in
Cartesian form.

For questions 19 and 21, use Key Point 4.9 to write the following numbers in Euler form.
3 i 1+i
2
For questions 22 and 23, use Key Point 4.9 to write the following numbers in Euler form.

For questions 24 and 25, use Key Point 4.9 to write the following numbers in Cartesian form.

For questions 26 and 27, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 4.14 to evaluate in Euler form.

For questions 28 and 29, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 4.15 to evaluate in Cartesian form.
Check your answers using your calculator.

The complex number z is plotted on the Argand diagram.

The modulus of z is 2.
On a copy of this diagram sketch and label
z2
iz .
You are given z .
Find z .
Find z.
Hence write down the modulus and argument of z2.
Hence write z2 in Cartesian form.
Simplify .
In this question, z and w .
Find w. Find .
Write in Cartesian form
.

Simplify .

Simplify .

If z is a non-real complex number and arguments are defined to take values , evaluate with justification
z z
Find an expression in terms of trigonometric functions for if a 0 and b 0. You may assume that
.
Write in modulus–argument form.
Write in modulus–argument form.
Use a counterexample to prove that it is not always the case that z z z z .
The complex numbers z and w have arguments between 0 and .
Given that and , find the modulus and argument of z and the modulus and argument
of w.
If z and w 5, find w if .

Prove that x x.
x x

If z simplify z 1.
z
Sketch the curves in the Argand diagram described by
z 2 z z z.

If z , find the smallest possible value of z .

x
Prove that x
x

The complex numbers z and w are defined by z and w

Find
z z w w.
Find in modulus–argument form.
Find in Cartesian form.
Hence find an exact surd expression for

Find z z z .
Given that z z z .
Sketch all the points with z z 1 on an Argand diagram.
An equilateral triangle is drawn on an Argand diagram with the centre at the origin. One vertex is at the complex
number w.
Find the complex numbers where the other two vertices are located.
Find an expression for the length of the side of the equilateral triangle.
Find an exact expression for 3i in the form r
Show that ii is a real number.
Use the approximation to estimate the value of ii to one decimal place.
Write 2 in Euler form.
Hence suggest a value for
Write i in Euler form.
Hence suggest a value for ln(i).
Explain why there is more than one plausible value for ln(i).
Find x .
Find the integral x x x.
If

and

show that C + iS forms a geometric series and state the common ratio.

Hence show that .

Let .
Express .
If .

Sketch z z z

x x x 2 x 4 x x
 Solve the equation x x .
Hence, factorize x x .

a x

Solve using the quadratic formula

Relate the roots to the factors b x x x x

x x

Let x x x x .
Given that x 3 is a root of x , express x as the product of a linear and a quadratic
factor.

Since x 3 is a root, you know

that x is a factor The
remaining quadratic factor will
be of the form 2

Expand and tidy up coefficients

Now compare coefficients to Comparing coefficients:

find the values of a, b and c

You could consider

the coefficients of x
but the constant term gives
With a bit of practice the value of c straight away
you can find the So,
quadratic factor by x x x x x x
inspection without
having to go through
the formal process of
equating coefficients.
It was already clear in
this case that a 1 and
c 5 just by looking
at the coefficient of x3 x x
and the constant term
x x
in x .
This result is not true The roots of any polynomial with real coefficients are either real or occur in complex
if the polynomial conjugate pairs.
has complex
coefficients. For
example, the equation
z z has
solutions i and 2i.

Prove that, for any polynomial, p, with real coefficients, if p(z) 0, then p(z* ) 0.

Let
Then,
Use

The coefficients are real

so

Use
z

Given that one of the roots of the polynomial x x x x is , find all the roots.

Complex roots come

in conjugate pairs 3 2i is a root so 3 + 2i is also a root.
Create the corresponding
factors So (x (3 2i)) and (x (3 + 2i)) are factors of p(x).
 Multiply out the brackets using Therefore,
Key Point 4.11 If z 3 + 2i,
then: Re(z) 3 and x x x x
|z|2 32 + 22 13 x x
is a factor
Compare coefficients to find
the remaining linear factor.
You can find the required
values using just the cubic and
constant terms. It is then a good By inspection:
idea to check them by looking
at the quadratic and liner terms

x x x
Having factorized,
solve the equation x x x
x

Find a cubic polynomial with real coefficients, given that two of its roots are 2 and i 3.
Which is the correct solution? Identify the errors in the incorrect solutions.

The other complex root is i + 3, so the The other complex root is i 3, The other complex root is 3 i,
polynomial is so the polynomial is so the polynomial is
x x x x x x
x x x
x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x

For questions 1 to 5, use the technique demonstrated in Worked Example 4.17 to factorize the quadratic.
x2 + 4 x2 + 12 4x2 + 49
x2 + 25 x2 + 18 9x2 + 64
x2 2x + 2 2x2 6x + 7
x2 + 6x + 25 3x2 2x + 1
For questions 6 to 8, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 4.18 to express the cubic as a product of a linear
and a quadratic factor, given one real root.
x3 2x2 x 14, root x 2 2x3 5x 6, root x 2
x3 3x2 7x 5, root x 1 3x3 x2 2, root x 1
4x3 8x2 11x 4, root x

6x3 5x2 10x 3, root x

For questions 9 to 12, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 4.19 to find all the roots of the polynomial given
one complex root.
x3 11x2 + 43x 65, root x 3 + 2i x3 3x2 + 7x 5, root x 1 2i
x3 x2 7x + 15, root x 2+i x3 2x2 14x 40, root x 3 i
x4 + 3x3 2x2 6x 8, root x 1 i x4 2x3 14x2 8x 40, root x 1 3i
x4 9x3 23x2 x 34, root x 4 i x4 6x3 11x2 6x 10, root x 3 i
Let p(x) x3 8x2 22x 20.
Given that x 2 is a root of p(x) 0, express p(x) as the product of a linear and a quadratic factor.
Hence solve the equation p(x) 0.
Let p(x) x3 8x2 9x 58.
Given that x 2 is a root of p(x) 0, find the other two roots.
Hence express p(x) as the product of three linear factors.
Let p(x) 2x3 7x2 8x 6.
Given that (2x 1) is a factor of p(x), write p(x) as the product of a linear and a quadratic factor.
Hence solve the equation p(x) 0.
One root of the equation x3 x2 11x 51 0 is 1 4i.
Write down another complex root.
Find the third root.
Let p(x) x3 4x2 9x 36.
Show that p(3i) 0.
Hence solve the equations p(x) 0.
Let p(x) x4 3x3 x2 13x 10.
Given that (x 1) and (x 2) are factors of p(x), express p(x) as a product of two linear factors and
a quadratic factor.
Hence find all solutions of the equation f(x) 0.
Let p(x) x4 3x3 8x 24.
Given that x 2 and x 3 are roots of p(x) 0, find the other two roots.
Hence express p(x) as the product of four linear factors.
One root of the equation x4 4x3 30x2 4x 29 0 is 2 5i.
Write down another complex root.
Find the remaining two roots.
Two roots of the equation x x x x are 2i and 4 i.
Write down the other two roots.
Hence express x x x x as a product of two quadratic factors.
Find a cubic polynomial with roots 3 and 4 i.
The polynomial has roots 1 and 3 3i.
Find the values of the real numbers b, c and d.
Find a quartic polynomial with real coefficients and zeros 4i and 2 3i.
The polynomial has roots 3i and 2 i.
Find the values of the real numbers b, c, d and e.
Solve the equation x x .
Use a counterexample to prove that if an equation has complex conjugate roots it does not necessarily have
real coefficients.
 | zw | | z || w | arg(zw) arg z arg w
|z| r z z× z z2
r2 2
| zn | rn arg(zn) n

De Moivre’s theorem:
for n

You might think that we can use the Euler form to prove De Moivre’s theorem easily.
In Euler form, it just says

which follows from the laws of exponents. The problem is that we have defined cis
to be ei from the analogy of how the cis form was behaving under multiplication.
If we then used this analogy to prove how cis behaves, we would be guilty of
circular reasoning. This is one of the most subtle issues that can sometimes arise
in mathematical proofs, and one you should watch out for!

Given z , find z 4, giving your answer in Cartesian form

Apply De Moivre’s theorem z

Simplify and express

in Cartesian form
Find in Cartesian form.

Convert to modulus–
argument form

Apply De Moivre’s theorem

Simplify and express

in Cartesian form

n
1 n

Solve the equation z , giving your answers in modulus–argument form.

Show the solutions to part on an Argand diagram.

Write z in modulus– a Let

argument form
Then,
r
Apply De Moivre’s theorem r
Write 1 in modulus–
r
argument form as well
Equate moduli So,
r
r
, so And

Since cos and sin have a

period of 2 , so does cis

This gives five solutions

z
 The five roots form a b
regular pentagon on
the Argand diagram

The nth roots of unity are

n
n n n
They form a regular n-gon on the Argand diagram.

2
n
k k
n
n
n
n
n

n
n n n

n
Prove that .
n n n
Express the nth roots of
Let
unity as powers of n
n Then,
n n
n n n
This is a geometric series n
and since 1 you 1
1
can use
1
is an nth
root of unity, n
0 (since
which means that n 1
 Solve the equation z .
Show the solutions to part a on an Argand diagram.
Write z in modulus–
a Let
argument form
Then,
Apply De Moivre’s theorem r
r

Write in modulus–
argument form as well

Equate moduli So,

r
r

, so And

Again, since cis is 2

periodic the solutions
occur at intervals of 2
This gives three solutions

z
 The roots form an b
equilateral triangle
whose vertices lie on
a circle of radius 2

The solutions of form a regular n-gon with vertices on a circle of radius z centred at
the origin.

The diagram shows a regular hexagon

inscribed in a circle of radius of 3.
The vertices correspond to solutions
of the equation .
Find the value of n and the number w.
 The polygon has 6
There are six solutions so n 6
vertices so n 6
You can see that one of
the solutions is z so z is a solution.
substitute this into 6 So,
w

x
For questions 1 to 4, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 4.20 to express each complex number
in Cartesian form.

For questions 5 to 8, use the method demonstrated in Worked Examples 4.22 and 4.23 to solve the equation.
Give your answers in the form , where
z z z z
z z z z
Express z in polar form.
Hence find, in Cartesian form, z5 .
Express z in polar form.
Hence find, in Cartesian form, z 3.
Express w in modulus–argument form.
Given that z , find, in Cartesian form, .
Solve the equation z .
Give your answers in the form i , where .
Show these solutions on an Argand diagram.
Solve the equation z .
Give your answers in Cartesian form.
Show these solutions on an Argand diagram.
Solve the equation z .
Give your answers in the form , where
Show these solutions on an Argand diagram.
The five vertices of the pentagon shown correspond to the
solution of an equation of the form , where w is a
complex number.

Find the values of n and w.

Find, in Cartesian form,

Give that w and z , find, in Cartesian form, .

Let z .
Find the smallest positive integer value of n for which .
Let z .
Find the smallest positive integer value of n for which i.

Let .
Express the seventh roots of unity in terms of .
Find an integer k such that k or explain why such an integer doesn’t exist.
Write down the smallest positive integer p such that p.

m
Write down an integer m such that
Let and 4 be the roots of the equation z
By expanding , show that .
Hence find the value of .

Find, in Cartesian form, all the complex solutions of the equation z .

Hence find the exact solutions of the equation z z .
Solve the equation z .
Give your answers in Euler form, where
Solve the equation z .
Give your answers in the form , where
Solve the equation z .
Give your answers in the form , where
A square has vertices at (3, 3), ( 3, 3), ( 3, 3) and (3, 3).
The complex numbers corresponding to the vertices of the square are solutions of an equation of the form ,
where n and w .
Find the values of n and w.
Let .
Show that .
Show that .

Hence find the exact value of .

Find, in polar form, the three solutions of the equation z .
Expand x .
Hence or otherwise solve the equation z z z , giving any complex solution in Cartesian form.
Find all the solutions of the equation z 4 4.
Hence solve the equation z z . Give your answers in Cartesian form.
Solve the equation z .
Give your answers in the form , where
Represent these solutions as points on the complex plane, labelling them A, B and C in increasing size of
argument.
The midpoint of A and B represents the complex number w.
Find, in Cartesian form, w3.
Show that .

Let z
Then z
Applying De Moivre’s Using De Moivre’s theorem:
theorem results in z
being the real part
Applying the binomial Using the binomial theorem:
theorem to expand the
bracket gives another z
expression for the real part

Equating real parts:

The two expressions for z4
must have equal real parts
You want the answer in
terms of only, so
use

If z , then

cos2 sin 2 cos2

 Show that .

Let z .
Using the binomial theorem:
z z z z z
z z z z z
z z
z z
Group the terms to
get expressions of z z
1 z z
the form
So,
Trigonometric Use z
z
on the
identities such as these
LHS and z
are very useful when z
integrating powers and z
of trigonometric z
on the RHS
functions.

How might you plot a graph of e z against z ? Can you try to visualize what it looks
like? What does this representation tell you about complex exponentials?
 Find the real part of
Hence express in terms of powers of .
Find the imaginary part of .
Hence show that
Given that , show that
.

Express in terms of powers of .

Given that , find the possible values of .
Given that z , show that
Show that .

Hence evaluate .

Show that Use De Moivre’s theorem to show that

Show that
where A, B and C are integers to be found.

Hence show that . Hence show that .

Show that . Expand z z and z z .

Hence solve x x x . Hence show that .
Use the binomial expansion to write x in Cartesian form.
Hence show that x x x x x x.

Find x.
x x
Show that .
Hence use the substitution x to solve x x . Give your answers in the form ,
where k is a rational number.
Find the real and imaginary parts of .
Hence show that

Using the result in part b, solve the equation

x x x x
giving your answers in the form k where k .
You should be able to work with the imaginary number i

You should be able to find sums, products and quotients of complex numbers in Cartesian form:
A complex number z can be written in Cartesian form as
i
where
Its complex conjugate, z*, is

The product of a complex number with its conjugate is real

You should be able to represent complex numbers geometrically on the complex plane (Argand diagram)
You should be able to find the modulus, r, and argument, , of a complex number
If i , then
2 2

You should be able to write complex numbers in modulus–argument (polar) form

You should be able to find sums, products and quotients of complex numbers in modulus–argument form:

You should be able to write complex numbers in Euler form

where
You should be able to find sums, products and quotients of complex numbers in Euler form using the usual rules of
algebra and exponents.
You should be able to use the fact that roots of any polynomial with real coefficients are either real or occur in
complex conjugate pairs.
A useful short-cut when working with complex conjugate roots is

You should be able to use De Moivre’s theorem to find powers of complex numbers
for n
You should be able to use De Moivre’s theorem to find roots of complex numbers
The nth roots of unity are:
n
—
n n n
They form a regular n-gon on the Argand diagram.
They sum to zero:
n
—
n n n
The solutions of form a regular n-gon with vertices on a circle of radius z centred at the origin.
You should be able to use De Moivre’s theorem to find trigonometric identities
If z , then
—

—
Plot and label the following points on a single Argand diagram.
z z z z
Solve x x .
Solve x x .
If .

One root of the equation , given that they are real.

Solve z .
z
Solve z z.
Solve z z.
If z z.
If .
If z z .
If if they are
real conjugate complex numbers.
Find the three cube roots of .
Write down, in the form z .
Represent the solutions on an Argand diagram.
Write in Cartesian form

Write in Cartesian form, where a .

a
Solve .
z z
Solve the simultaneous equations
z z
z z
One root of x x x is an integer. Find all three roots, including complex roots.
One root of x x x is an integer. Find all three roots, including complex roots.
The complex numbers z and w both have arguments between 0 and . Given that
, find the modulus and argument of z.

If both b and are real numbers, find the possible values of b.

b
Find the possible values of z z z .
Solve z z .
If z z z.
Sketch the solutions to the equation in part on an Argand diagram.
Given that one root of the equation z z z , find the other two roots.
Use a counterexample to prove that it is not always true that z z .
If z z z .
Find the three distinct roots of the equation z , giving your answers in
modulus–argument form Cartesian form.
The roots are represented by the vertices of a triangle in an Argand diagram. Find the area of the
triangle.
If
In this question changes.
Sketch on an Argand diagram all the points which satisfy z z .
Use De Moivre’s theorem to show that .
Hence solve the equation .
Let z .
Write zw in Cartesian form.
Write z and w in modulus– argument form. Hence find the modulus and argument of zw.
Use your answers from parts a and b to find the exact value of .
Find the modulus and argument of .
Simplify .
Find all complex roots of the equation z
Hence solve the equation z z , giving your answers in Cartesian form.
Show that .

Expand x .
x
Hence show that are constants to be determined.

Evaluate x x.

The complex numbers z z are represented by the points A and B respectively

on an Argand diagram. Given that O is the origin,
find
calculate .

If evaluate
.
Prove that z z z . Simplify .
Hence prove that * * is real.
Show that if x x is real.
Find all complex numbers z z z . Give your answers in Cartesian form.
 2 2 2 2
Prove that zz z . Prove that 2 2 .
If z z z z.
z
If z
show that z . show that z
Show that .
Let

Show that .
Hence deduce the value of .

Show that t t t .
Express each of the complex numbers z z z in modulus–
argument form.
Hence show that the points in the complex plane representing z z z form the vertices
of an equilateral triangle.
Show that .
State the solutions of the equation z z , giving them in modulus–argument form.
If z is the solution to z7 1 with least positive argument, determine the argument of 1+ w.
Express your answer in terms of
Show that z z z . State the two other

quadratic factors with real coefficients.

Use the binomial theorem to expand .

Hence use De Moivre’s theorem to prove
State a similar expression for
Let which has the
smallest positive argument.
Find the value of r .
Using and your answer from show that
Hence express .

Write down the expansion of in the form a + ib, where a and b are in terms of
sin and cos .
Hence show that .
Similarly show that .
Hence solve the equation .

By considering the solutions of the equation

.