Mathematics

Complex Numbers

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Table of Content

1. Introduction.
2. Real & Imaginary parts of a complex number.
3. Algebraic operation with complex numbers.
4. Equality of two complex number.
5. Conjugate of a complex number.
6. Modulus of complex number.
7. Argument of a complex number.
8. Square root of a complex number.
9. Representation of complex number.
10. Logarithm of a complex number.
11. Geometry of a complex number.
12. Use of complex numbers in co-ordinate geometry.
13. Rotation theorem.
14. Triangle inequalities.
15. Standard loci in the argand plane.
16. De’ moivre's theorem.
17. Roots of complex number.
18. Shifting the origin in case of complex numbers.
19. Inverse points.

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20. Dot and cross product.

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1. Introduction.

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Number system consists of real numbers (5, 7, , 3 .......... ....etc.) and imaginary numbers (  5 ,  9
3
....etc.) If we combine these two numbers by some mathematical operations, the resulting number is known
as Complex Number i.e., “Complex Number is the combination of real and imaginary numbers”.

(1) Basic concepts of complex number

(i) General definition: A number of the form x  iy, where x , y  R and i   1 is called a complex
number so the quantity  1 is denoted by 'i' called iota thus i   1 .

A complex number is usually denoted by z and the set of complex number is denoted by c

i.e., c  {x  i y : x  R, y  R, i   1}

For example, 5  3i,  1  i, 0  4 i, 4  0i etc. are complex numbers.

Note: Euler was the first mathematician to introduce the symbol i (iota) for the square root of – 1 with property
i 2  1. He also called this symbol as the imaginary unit.

 Iota (i) is neither 0, nor greater than 0, nor less than 0.

 The square root of a negative real number is called an imaginary unit.
 For any positive real number a, we have  a  1a  1 a  i a
 i  a   a.
 The property a b  ab is valid only if at least one of a and b is non-negative. If a and b are both
negative then a b   ab .
 If a  0 then a  | a| i .

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(2) Integral powers of iota (i): Since i   1 hence we have i2  1 , i3  i and i 4  1 . To find the
value of i n (n  4 ), first divide n by 4. Let q be the quotient and r be the remainder.

i.e., n  4 q  r where 0  r  3

i n  i 4 q r  (i 4 )q . (i)r  (1)q . (i)r  i r

In general we have the following results i 4 n  1, i 4 n 1  i, i 4 n  2  1, i 4 n 3  i , where n is any integer.

In other words, i n  (1)n / 2 if n is even integer and i n  (1)n 1 / 2 i if n is odd integer.

The value of the negative integral powers of i are found as given below:

1 i3 1 1 1 i i 1 1
i 1   4  i 3  i, i  2  2   1, i 3  3  4   i, i 4  4   1
i i i 1 i i 1 i 1

Important Tips
The sum of four consecutive powers of i is always zero i.e., in  in1  in 2  in3  0, n  I.

 in  1, i,  1,  i, where n is any integer.

 (1  i) 2  2i, (1  i)2  2i

1i 1i 2i
  i,  i, 1i
1i 1i i 1

2. Real and Imaginary Parts of a Complex Number.

If x and y are two real numbers, then a number of the form z  x  iy is called a complex number. Here
‘x’ is called the real part of z and ‘y’ is known as the imaginary part of z. The real part of z is denoted by
Re(z) and the imaginary part by Im(z).
If z = 3 – 4i, then Re(z) = 3 and Im(z) = – 4.

Note: A complex number z is purely real if its imaginary part is zero i.e., Im(z) = 0 and purely imaginary if its real
part is zero i.e., Re(z) = 0.
i can be denoted by the ordered pair (0,1).
The complex number (a, b) can also be split as (a, 0) + (0, 1) (b, 0).

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Important Tips
A complex number is an imaginary number if and only if its imaginary part is non-zero. Here real
part may or may not be zero.
All purely imaginary numbers except zero are imaginary numbers but an imaginary number may
or not be purely imaginary.
A real number can be written as a + i.0, therefore every real number can be considered as a
complex number whose imaginary part is zero. Thus the set of real number (R) is a proper subset of
the complex number (C) i.e., R  C.
Complex number as an ordered pair : A complex number may also be defined as an ordered pair
of real numbers and may be denoted by the symbol (a,b). For a complex number to be uniquely
specified, we need two real numbers in particular order.

3. Algebraic Operations with Complex Numbers.

Let two complex numbers z 1  a  ib and z 2  c  id

Addition : (a  ib)  (c  id)  (a  c)  i(b  d )
Subtraction : (a  ib)  (c  id)  (a  c)  i(b  d )
Multiplication : (a  ib)(c  id)  (ac  bd )  i(ad  bc)
a  ib
Division : (when at least one of c and d is non-zero)
c  id

a  ib (a  ib) (c  id)
 . (Rationalization)
c  id (c  id) (c  id)
a  ib (ac  bd ) i(bc  ad)
 2  2 .
c  id c d2 c d2

Properties of algebraic operations with complex numbers: Let z 1 , z 2 and z 3 are any complex
numbers then their algebraic operation satisfy following operations:
(i) Addition of complex numbers satisfies the commutative and associative properties
i.e., z 1  z 2  z 2  z 1 and (z 1  z 2 )  z 3  z 1  (z 2  z 3 ).
(ii) Multiplication of complex number satisfies the commutative and associative properties.
i.e., z 1 z 2  z 2 z 1 and (z 1 z 2 )z 3  z 1 (z 2 z 3 ).
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(iii) Multiplication of complex numbers is distributive over addition
i.e., z 1 (z 2  z 3 )  z 1 z 2  z 1 z 3 and (z 2  z 3 )z 1  z 2 z 1  z 3 z 1 .

Note: 0  0  0i is the identity element for addition.

 1  1  0 i is the identity element for multiplication.

The additive inverse of a complex number z  a  ib is  z (i.e. – a – ib).

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For every non-zero complex number z, the multiplicative inverse of z is .
z

4. Equality of Two Complex Numbers.

Two complex numbers z1  x 1  iy1 and z 2  x 2  iy2 are said to be equal if and only if their real parts
and imaginary parts are separately equal.
i.e., z1  z 2  x 1  iy1  x 2  iy2  x 1  x 2 and y1  y 2 .
Thus, one complex equation is equivalent to two real equations.

Note: A complex number z  x  iy  0 iff x  0, y  0.

 The complex number do not possess the property of order i.e., (a  ib)  (or)  (c  id) is not defined. For
example, the statement 9  6i  3  2i makes no sense.

5. Conjugate of a Complex Number.

(1) Conjugate complex number: If there exists a complex number z = a  i b, (a , b)  R, then its
conjugate is defined as z  a  i b .
Y
zz zz
Imaginary axis

Hence, we have Re( z )  and Im (z )  . Geometrically, the conjugate of z P(z)

2 2i

is the reflection or point image of z in the real axis. O –
X

(2) Properties of conjugate: If z, z1 and z 2 are existing complex numbers, then we

have the following results:
(i) (z )  z

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(ii) z1  z 2  z1  z 2

(iii) z1  z 2  z1  z 2

(iv) z1 z 2  z1 z 2 , In general z1 .z 2 .z 3 ..... z n  z1 .z 2 .z 3 ..... z n

z  z1
(v)  1   , z 2  0
 z2  z2

(vi) (z )n  (z n )

(vii) z  z  2 Re(z)  2 Re(z )  purely real

(viii) z  z  2i Im(z)  purely imaginary

(ix) z z  purely real

(x) z1 z 2  z1 z 2  2 Re(z1 z 2 )  2 Re(z1 z 2 )

(xi) z  z  0 i.e., z  z  z is purely real i.e., Im(z )  0

(xii) z  z  0 i.e., z  z  either z  0 or z is purely imaginary i.e., Re( z)  0

(xiii) z 1  z 2  z 1  z 2

(xiv) z  0  z  0

(xv) zz  0  z  0

(xvi) If w  f (z ) then w  f (z )

(xvii) re i  re i

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Important Tips
Complex conjugate is obtained by just changing the sign of i.
Conjugate of i  i
Conjugate of iz  iz
 (z 1  z 2 ) and (z 1 . z 2 ) real  z 1  z 2 or z 2  z 1
 z1 z 2  z1 z 2

(3) Reciprocal of a complex number : For an existing non-zero complex number z  a  ib , the
1 z 1 a  ib Re( z ) i[ Im(z )] z
reciprocal is given by z 1   i.e., z 1   2   = .
z | z| 2
a  ib a b 2
| z| 2
| z| 2
| z|2

6. Modulus of a Complex Number.

Modulus of a complex number z  a  ib is defined by a positive real number given by | z |  a 2  b 2 ,

where a, b real numbers. Geometrically |z| represents the distance of point P (represented by z) from the
origin,
i.e. |z| = OP. Y
If |z| = 0, then z is known as zero modular complex number and is used to P(z)

represent the origin of reference plane.

If |z| = 1 the corresponding complex number is known as unimodular M

complex number. Clearly z lies on a circle of unit radius having centre (0, O X

0).

Note: In the set C of all complex numbers, the order relation is not defined. As such z 1  z 2  or z 1  z 2 has no
meaning. But | z 1 | | z 2 | or | z1 | | z 2 | has got its meaning since | z1 | and | z 2 | are real numbers.

Properties of modulus
(i) z  0  z  0 iff z  0 and |z| 0 iff z  0 .
(ii)  z  Re (z )  z and  z  Im (z)  z
(iii) z  z   z   z | zi |

(iv) z z  z
2
| z | 2

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(v) z 1 z 2  z 1 z 2 . In general z 1 z 2 z 3 ...... z n  z 1 z2 z 3 .... z n

z1 z1
(vi)  , (z 2  0)
z2 z2

(vii) | z n | | z | n , n  N
2
(viii) z 1  z 2  (z 1 z 2  z 1 z 2 ) or | z1 | 2  | z 2 | 2  2 Re(z1z 2 )
2
2
 (z 1  z 2 )(z 1  z 2 )  z 1  z2

z1 z 
(ix) z 1  z 2 is purely imaginary or Re  1   0
2 2 2
 z1  z2 
z2  z2 

(x) z 1  z 2
2
 z1  z 2
2

 2 z1
2
 z2
2
 (Law of parallelogram)
(xi) az1  bz 2
2
 bz 1  az 2
2
 (a2  b 2 ) z 1
2
 z2
2
, where a, b  R.
Important Tips
Modulus of every complex number is a non-negative real number.  | z |  0 iff z  0 i.e.,
Re(z)  Im( z)  0

| z | | Re(z)|  Re(z) and | z | | Im( z)|  Im( z)  | z|  1z  1

z

is always a unimodular complex

z z
 1 
z | z|

number if z  0
is always a unimodular complex number if z  0
z
  | Re(z)|  | Im( z)|  2 | z |
z
|| z 1 |  | z 2 || | z 1  z 2 | | z 1 |  | z 2 |

Thus | z 1 |  | z 2 | is the greatest possible value of | z 1  z 2 | and || z 1 |  | z 2 || is the least possible value
of | z 1  z 2 |
a  a2  4  a  a2  4
If z   a, the greatest and least values of | z | are respectively and
1
z 2 2

| z 1  z 12  z 22 |  | z 1  z 12  z 22 | | z 1  z 2 |  | z 1  z 2 |

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7. Argument of a Complex Number.

Let z  a  ib be any complex number. If this complex number is represented geometrically by a point P,
then the angle made by the line OP with real axis is known as argument or (+,+)
–
amplitude of z and is expressed as (–,+)
P(z)
-
1  b
  
arg (z )    tan  ,   POM . Also, argument of a complex number is X' 
a
– X
(–, –) O (+,–)
not unique, since if  be a value of the argument, so also is 2n   , where n I – + –
Y'
.
(1) Principal value of arg (z): The value  of the argument, which satisfies the inequality       is
called the principal value of argument. Principal values of argument z will be  ,   ,     and  
according as the point z lies in the 1st , 2nd , 3rd and 4th quadrants Y
b
respectively, where   tan 1   (acute angle). Principal value of – 
a (–,+) (+,+)
X' X
argument of any complex number lies between       . (–,–) O (+,–)
– (  – ) –
b
(i) a, b  First quadrant a  0, b  0 . arg (z )    tan 1   . It is an Y'
a
acute angle and positive. Y
(a, b)


b
X' X
O a

Y'

 b 
(ii) (a, b) Second quadrant, a  0, b  0, arg (z )      tan 1   . It is an obtuse angle and positive.
| a | 
(a, b) y

b 
x' x
a O

y'

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 b
(iii) (a, b)  Third quadrant a  0, b  0, arg (z )      tan 1   . It is an obtuse angle and negative.
a
y

a O
x' x
b 

(a, b)
y'

| b | 
(iv) (a, b) Fourth quadrant a  0, b  0, arg (z )     tan 1   . It is an acute angle and negative.
 a 

a
x' O 
x
b

y' (a, b)

Quadrant x y arg(z) Interval of 

I + +  0    / 2
II – +    / 2  
III – – (   )       / 2
IV + –   / 2   0

Note: Argument of the complex number 0 is not defined.

Principal value of argument of a purely real number is 0 if the real number is positive and is  if the real number is
negative.

Principal value of argument of a purely imaginary number is  / 2 if the imaginary part is positive and is   / 2 if
the imaginary part is negative.

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(2) Properties of arguments

(i) arg (z1 z 2 )  arg(z1 )  arg(z 2 )  2k , (k  0 or 1 or – 1)

In general arg (z 1 z 2 z 3 ......... z n )  arg(z 1 )  arg(z 2 )  arg(z 3 )  ..........  arg(z n )  2k , (k  0 or 1 or  1)

(ii) arg (z 1 z 2 )  arg(z 1 )  arg(z 2 )

z 
(iii) arg 1   arg z 1  arg z 2  2k  , (k  0 or 1 or – 1)
 z2 

z
(iv) arg   2arg z  2k  , (k  0 or 1 or – 1)
z

(v) arg(z n )  n arg z  2k  , (k  0 or 1 or – 1)

z  z 
(vi) If arg  2    , then arg  1   2k    , where k  I
 z1   z2 

1
(vii) arg z  arg z  arg
z

(viii) arg (z  z )   / 2

(ix) arg (z)  arg (z)  

(x) arg (z)  arg(z )  0 or arg(z)  arg(z )

(xi) arg(z)  arg(z )  

(xii) z 1 z 2  z 1 z 2  2 | z 1 | | z 2 | cos ( 1   2 ), where  1  arg(z 1 ) and  2  arg(z 2 )

Note: Proper value of k must be chosen so that R.H.S. of (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) lies in ( ,  )
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The property of argument is same as the property of logarithm.

If arg (z) lies between   and  ( inclusive), then this value itself is the principal value of arg (z). If not, see
whether arg (z)   or    . If arg(z )   , go on subtracting 2 until it lies between   and  ( inclusive).
The value thus obtained will be the principal value of arg (z).

The general value of a rg (z ) is 2n  arg (z ) .

Important Tips
 If z1  z 2  z1  z 2 and arg z 1 = arg z2.
 z1  z 2  z1 |  | z 2  arg (z1 )  arg (z 2 ) i.e., z1 and z2 are parallel.
 z1  z 2  z1 |  | z 2  arg (z1 )  arg (z 2 )  2n , where n is some integer.
 | z1  z 2 |  | | z1 |  | z 2 ||  arg(z1 )  arg(z 2 )  2n , where n is some integer.

 z1  z 2  z1  z 2  arg (z 1 ) – arg (z 2 )   / 2 .
 If | z1 | 1,| z 2 | 1 then (i) z1  z 2 2   z1  z 2 2  (arg (z1 )  arg (z 2 ))2 (ii) z1  z 2 2   z1  z 2 2 
arg (z1 )  arg (z 2 )2
 z1  z 2
2
 z1  z 2  2| z1 | | z 2 | cos(1   2 ).
2 2

 z1  z 2
2
 z1  z 2  2| z1 | | z 2 | cos(1   2 ).
2 2

 If | z 1 | | z 2 | and amp (z 1 )  amp (z 2 )  0, then z 1  z 2 are conjugate complex numbers of each other.
 z  0, amp (z  z )  0 or  ; amp(zz )  0; amp (z  z )   / 2.

 arg (1)  0, arg (1)   ; arg (i)   / 2, arg (i)   / 2.


 arg (z)   Re (z )  Im( z ).
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 Amplitude of complex number in I and II quadrant is always positive and in IIIrd and IVth quadrant is
always negative.
 If a complex number multiplied by i (Iota) its amplitude will be increased by  / 2 and will be
 
decreased by  / 2 , if multiplied by –i, i.e. arg(iz)   arg(z ) and arg(iz)  arg(z )  .
2 2

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 Complex number Value of argument
+ve Re (z) 0
–ve Re (z) 
+ve Im (z)  /2
–ve Im (z) 3 / 2 or   / 2
– (z) |    |, if  is  ve and  ve respectively
(iz)  
  arg(z )
2 

–(iz)  
arg(z )  
 2

(z n ) n. arg (z)
(z 1 .z 2 ) arg (z1) + arg (z2)
 z1  arg (z1) – arg (z2)
 
 z2 

8. Square Root of a Complex Number.

Let a  ib be a complex number such that a  ib  x  iy, where x and y are real numbers. Then

a  ib  x  iy  a  ib  (x  iy)2  a  ib  (x 2  y 2 )  2ixy

 x2  y2  a .....(i)
and 2 xy  b .....(ii) [On equating real and imaginary parts]

 a2  b 2  a   a2  b 2  a 
Solving, x     and y    
 2   2 
   

  a2  b 2  a   a2  b 2  a 
 a  ib      i  
  2   2 
     

 | z | a | z | a   | z | a | z | a 
Therefore a  ib    i  for b>0    i  for b<0.
 2 2   2 2 

14
Note: To find the square root of a  ib, replace i by – i in the above results.

1  i
The square root of i is    , [Here b = 1]
 2 
1  i
The square root of – i is    , [Here b = –1]
 2 

Alternative method for finding the square root

(i) If the imaginary part is not even then multiply and divide the given complex number by 2. e.g. z = 8 –
1
15i here imaginary part is not even so write z = (16 – 30i) and let a  i b = 16 – 30 i .
2

(ii) Now divide the numerical value of imaginary part of a  i b by 2 and let quotient be P and find all
possible two factors of the number P thus obtained and take that pair in which difference of squares of
the numbers is equal to the real part of a  i b e.g., here numerical value of Im(16 – 30i) is 30. Now 30 =
2  15 . All possible way to express 15 as a product of two are 1 15 , 3  5 etc. here 5 2  3 2 = 16 = Re
(16– 30i) so we will take 5, 3.
(iii) Take i with the smaller or the greater factor according as the real part of a + ib is positive or negative
and if real part is zero then take equal factors of P and associate i with any one of them e.g., Re(16 – 30i)
 0, we will take i with 3. Now complete the square and write down the square root of z.

e.g., z 
1
2 2
 
 16  30i   1 5 2  3i2  2  5  3i  1  5  3i  2  z   1 (5  3i)
2 2

15
9. Representation of Complex Number.

A complex number can be represented in the following from:

(1) Geometrical representation (Cartesian representation): The complex Imaginary axis

P(a, b)
number z  a  ib  (a, b) is represented by a point P whose coordinates are
referred to rectangular axes XOX  and YO Y  which are called real and 
b
Real
imaginary axis respectively. Thus a complex number z is represented by a
O a M
axis
point in a plane, and corresponding to every point in this plane there exists a
complex number such a plane is called argand plane or argand diagram or
complex plane or gaussian plane.

Note: Distance of any complex number from the origin is called the modules of complex number and is denoted

by |z|, i.e., | z |  a  b
2 2

Angle of any complex number with positive direction of x– axis is called amplitude or argument of z. i.e.,
b 
amp (z)  arg (z)  tan 1  
a

(2) Trigonometrical (Polar) representation: In  OPM, let OP  r , then a  r cos  and b  r sin  .
Hence z can be expressed as z  r(cos   i sin  )
Where r = |z| and  = principal value of argument of z.
For general values of the argument z  rcos(2n   )  i sin(2n   )

Note: Sometimes cos   i sin   is written in short as cis .

(3) Vector representation: If P is the point (a, b) on the argand plane corresponding to the complex
number z  a  ib .
b
Then OP  aˆi  bˆj ,  | OP |  a 2  b 2 | z | and arg z = direction of the vector OP  tan 1  
a
Therefore, complex number z can also be represented by OP .

16
(4) Eulerian representation (Exponential form): Since we have e i = cos   i sin  and thus z can be
expressed as z  re i , where | z |  r and   arg (z)

Note: e i  (cos   i sin  )

e i  e i  2 cos  , e i  e i  2i sin 

10. Logarithm of a Complex Number.

Let z  x  iy and
log e (x  iy)  a  ib .....(i)
x  iy  r(cos  i sin  )  re i .....(ii)
y
then x  r cos  , y  r sin  , clearly r  x 2  y 2 and   tan 1  
x
y
From equation (ii), log(x  iy)  log e (re i )  log r  log e e i  log e r  i  log e (x 2  y 2 )  i tan 1  
x
log e (z)  log e | z |  i amp z
Obviously, the general value is Log (z)  log e (z)  2ni (  amp(z)   )

11. Geometry of Complex Numbers.

(1) Geometrical representation of algebraic operations on complex numbers

(i) Sum: Let the complex numbers z1  x 1  iy1  (x 1 , y1 ) and z 2  x 2  iy 2  (x 2 , y 2 ) be represented by

the points P and Q on the argand plane. Q(x2,y2)
R(x1+x2, y2+y2)

Then sum of z 1 and z 2 i.e., z 1  z 2 is represented by the point R. Complex Y

y2
number z can be represented by OR .
P(x1,y1)
 (x 1  x 2 )  i(y1  y 2 )  (x 1  iy1 )  (x 2  iy 2 )  (z1  z 2 )  (x 1 , y1 )  (x 2 , y 2 ) M
y1
X
O x2 N
In vector notation, we have z1  z 2  OP  OQ  OP  PR  OR L K

17
(ii) Difference: We first represent  z 2 by Q', so that QQ' is bisected at O.
The point R represents the difference z 1  z 2 .

In parallelogram ORPQ, OR  QP Q(x2,y2)

We have in vectorial notation z1  z 2  OP  OQ  OP  QO Y P(x1,y1)

 OP  PR  OR  QP . O
X

R(x1–x2, y1–y2)
i1 Q'(–x2,–y2)
(iii) Product: Let z 1  r1 (cos 1  i sin  1 )  r1 e
 | z1 |  r1 and arg (z 1 )   1 and z 2  r2 (cos 2  i sin  2 )  r2 e i 2
 | z 2 |  r2 and arg (z 2 )   2 Y
R(z1,z2)
Then, z 1 z 2  r1 r2 (cos 1  i sin  1 )(cos 2  i sin  2 )
r1r2
= r1 r2 {cos( 1   2 )  i sin( 1   2 )} r2 Q(z2)
1 r
P(z1)
2 1
 | z1 z 2 |  r1r2 and arg (z 1 z 2 )   1   2
1
O X
R is the point representing product of complex numbers z 1 and z 2 . A

Important Tips
   
Multiplication of i : Since z  r (cos  i sin ) and i   cos   i sin   then iz  cos     i sin   
 2 2  2  2 

Hence, multiplication of z with i then vector for z rotates a right angle in the positive sense.
i.e., To multiply a vector by –1 is to turn it through two right angles.
i.e., To multiply a vector by (cos   i sin ) is to turn it through the angle  in the positive sense.

(iv) Division: Let z1  r1 (cos1  i sin 1 )  r1e i1

Y
 | z1 |  r1 and arg (z1 )  1 Q(z2)

and z 2  r2 (cos  2  i sin  2 )  r2e i 2

r2
 2 r1 P(z1)
1
 | z 2 |  r2 and arg (z 2 )   2 O 2 – 1 2 X

z1 r1 (cos1  i sin 1 ) R
Then  (z 2  0, r2  0)
z 2 r2 (cos 2  i sin  2 )

 cos(1   2 )  i sin(1   2 )
z1 r1

z 2 r2
z1 r1 z 
  , arg 1   1   2
z 2 r2  z2 
18
Note: The vertical angle R is  ( 2  1 ) i.e.,  1   2 .

If  1 and  2 are the principal values of z 1 and z 2 then  1   2 and  1   2 are not necessarily the principal value
of arg (z 1 z 2 ) and arg (z 1 / z 2 ) .

12. Use of Complex Numbers in Co-ordinate Geometry.

(1) Distance formula: The distance between two points P(z 1 ) and Q(z 2 ) is given by
PQ | z 2  z1 | = |affix of Q – affix of P|
Q(z2)

P(z1)

Note: The distance of point z from origin | z  0 | | z | | z  (0  i 0)| . Thus, modulus of a complex number z
represented by a point in the argand plane is its distance from the origin.
Three points A(z 1 ), B(z 2 ) and C(z 3 ) are collinear then AB  BC  AC

i.e., | z 1  z 2 |  | z 2  z 3 | | z 1  z 3 | .

(2) Section formula: If R(z) divides the joining of P(z1 ) and Q(z 2 ) in the ratio m 1 : m 2 (m 1 , m 2  0)
m1 z 2  m 2 z1
(i) If R(z) divides the segment PQ internally in the ratio of m1 : m 2 then z 
m1  m 2
(ii) If R(z) divides the segment PQ externally in the ratio of m1 : m 2 Q(z2)
m2
m1 z 2  m 2 z1
then z  m1
m1  m 2 R(z)
m1
m2
R(z)
P(z1)
Q(z2)

P(z1)

19
 z1  z 2
Note: If R(z) is the midpoint of PQ then affix of R is
2
z1  z 2  z 3
If z 1 , z 2 , z 3 are affixes of the vertices of a triangle, then affix of its centroid is .
3

(3) Equation of the perpendicular bisector: If P(z 1 ) and Q(z 2 ) are two fixed points and R(z ) is moving
point such that it is always at equal distance from P(z 1 ) and Q(z 2 ) P(z1)

i.e., PR = or | z  z1 | | z  z 2 |
R(z)
 | z  z1 | 2 | z  z 2 | 2
 (z  z1 )(z  z1 )  (z  z 2 ) (z  z 2 ) Q(z2)

 (z  z1 ) (z  z1 )  (z  z 2 ) (z  z 2 )
 z z(z 1  z 2 )  z (z 1  z 2 )  z 1 z 1  z 2 z 2  z(z 1  z 2 )  z (z 1  z 2 ) | z 1 | 2  | z 2 | 2
Hence, z lies on the perpendicular bisector of z 1 and z 2 .

(4) Equation of a straight line

(i) Parametric form: Equation of a straight line joining the point having affixes z1 and z 2 is
z  t z1  (1  t)z 2 , when t  R

(ii) Non parametric form: Equation of a straight line joining the points having affixes z1 and z 2 is
z z 1
z1 z1 1  0  z(z1  z 2 )  z (z1  z 2 )  z1 z 2  z 2 z1  0 .
z2 z2 1

z1 z1 1
Note: Three points z1 , z 2 and z 3 are collinear z 2 z2 1  0
z3 z3 1

(iii) General equation of a straight line: The general equation of a straight line is of the form
a z  az  b  0 , where a is complex number and b is real number.

20
 a coeff.of z
(iv) Slope of a line: The complex slope of the line a z  az  b  0 is   and real slope of
a coeff. of z
Re(a) (a  a )
the line a z  az  b  0 is   i .
Im(a) (a  a )

Note: If  1 and  2 are the are the complex slopes of two lines on the argand plane, then

(i) If lines are perpendicular then  1   2  0 (ii) If lines are parallel then  1   2

  a    a1 
If lines az  a z  b  0 and a1 z  a1 z  b1  0 are the perpendicular or parallel, then       0
 a   a1 
 a  a1
or   aa1  a1 a  0 or aa1  a a1  0, where a, a1 are the complex numbers and b, b1  R.
a a1

(v) Slope of the line segment joining two points: If A(z 1 ) and B(z 2 ) represent two points in the
z1  z 2
argand plane then the complex slope of AB is defined by . B(z2)
z1  z 2

Note: If three points A(z 1 ), B(z 2 ), C(z 3 ) are collinear then slope of AB = slope of
A(z1)
BC = slope of AC
z1  z 2 z 2  z 3 z1  z 3
 
z1  z 2 z 2  z 3 z1  z 3

(vi) Length of perpendicular: The length of perpendicular from a point z1 to the line a z  az  b  0 is
| a z1  az1  b | | a z1  az1  b |
given by or
| a| | a | 2| a|

(5) Equation of a circle: The equation of a circle whose centre is at point having affix z o and radius r is
| z  zo |  r

21
Note: If the centre of the circle is at origin and radius r, then its equation is | z |  r .
P(z)
| z  z 0 |  r represents interior of a circle | z  z 0 |  r and | z  z 0 |  r represent
r
exterior of the circle | z  z o |  r . Similarly, | z  z 0 |  r is the set of all points lying
outside the circle and | z  z 0 |  r is the set of all points lying outside and on the circle C(z0)

| z  z 0 |  r.

(i) General equation of a circle: The general equation of the circle is zz  az  a z  b  0 where a is
complex number and b  R .
 Centre and radius are – a and | a | 2 b respectively.

Note: Rule to find the center and radius of a circle whose equation is given:

 Make the coefficient of zz equal to 1 and right hand side equal to zero.
 The center of circle will be = – a  coefficent of z

 Radius  | a | 2  constant term

(ii) Equation of circle through three non-collinear points: Let A(z 1 ), B(z 2 ), C(z 3 ) are three points on
the circle and P(z ) be any point on the circle, then ACB  APB
P(z)
Using coni method
C(z3)
z 2  z 3 BC i 
In ACB,  e .....(i) 
z1  z 3 CA
z 2  z BP i A(z1) B(z2)
In  APB,  e .....(ii)
z 1  z AP
From (i) and (ii) we get
(z  z 1 )(z 2  z 3 )
= Real .....(iii)
(z  z 2 )(z 1  z 3 )

(iii) Equation of circle in diametric form: If end points of diameter represented by A(z 1 ) and B(z 2 ) and
P(z ) be any point on circle then, (z  z 1 )(z  z 2 )  (z  z 2 )(z  z 1 )  0
Which is required equation of circle in diametric form.

22
(iv) Other forms of circle: (a) Equation of all circle which are orthogonal to | z  z1 |  r1 and | z  z 2 |  r2 .
Let the circle be | z   | = r cut given circles orthogonally
 r 2  r12 |   z1 | 2 …...(i)
and r 2  r22 |   z 2 | 2 …..(ii)

on solving r22  r12  (z1  z 2 )   (z1  z 2 ) | z 2 | 2  | z1 | 2 and let   a  ib

P(z)

B(z2)

Diameter
A(z1)

z  z1
(b) = k is a circle if k  1 and a line if k = 1.
z  z2
1
(c) The equation | z  z1 | 2  | z  z 2 | 2  k , will represent a circle if k  | z1  z 2 | 2
2

(6) Equation of parabola: Now for parabola SP  PM

| z  z  2a | M
P(z)
| z  a|
2
N A S(a+i.0)
1 2
z+z+2a=0

or zz  4 a(z  z )  {z  (z )2 }
2
Where a  R (focus)
Directrix is z  z  2a  0
P(z)

(7) Equation of ellipse: For ellipse SP  S ' P  2a

S'(z2) S(z1)
 | z  z1 |  | z  z 2 |  2a
Where 2a | z1  z 2 | (since eccentricity <1)
Then point z describes an ellipse having foci at z1 and z 2 and a  R  .

(8) Equation of hyperbola: For hyperbola SP  S ' P  2a

P(z)
23

S(z1) O S'(z2)
 | z  z1 |  | z  z 2 |  2 a
Where 2a | z1  z 2 | (since eccentricity >1)
Then point z describes a hyperbola having foci at z1 and z 2 and a  R 

13. Rotation Theorem.

Rotational theorem i.e., angle between two intersecting lines. This is also known as coni method.
Let z 1 , z 2 and z 3 be the affixes of three points A, B and C respectively taken on argand plane.

Then we have AC  z 3  z1 and AB = z 2  z1 Y

C(z3)
and let arg AC  arg (z 3  z 1 )   and AB  arg (z 2  z 1 )   
B(z2)

Let CAB   ,  CAB       A(z1)

 z  z1   
= arg AC  arg AB = arg (z 3  z 1 )  arg (z 2  z 1 ) = arg  3  X
 z 2  z1 
O

 affix of C  affix of A 
or angle between AC and AB = arg  
 affix of B  affix of A 
For any complex number z we have z | z | e i(argz)
 z 3  z1 
 z  z1   z 3  z1  i  a rg z 2  z1  z  z1 | z 3  z 1 | i(CAB ) AC i
Similarly,  3     e or 3  e  e
 z 2  z1   z 2  z1  z 2  z1 | z 2  z1 | AB

Note: Here only principal values of the arguments are considered.

 z1  z 2   z1  z 2  z  z2
arg     , if AB coincides with CD, then arg    0 or   , so that 1 is real. It follows that
 z3  z4   z3  z4  z3  z4
z1  z 2
if is real, then the points A, B, C, D are collinear. D
z3  z4 P(z1)
S(z4) 
 z  z2  z  z2 A B
If AB is perpendicular to CD, then arg  1    / 2 , so 1 is R(z3)
 z3  z4  z3  z4
Q(z2)
purely imaginary. It follows that if z1  z 2 =  k z 3  z 4  , where k purely imaginary
C

number, then AB and CD are perpendicular to each other.

24
(1) Complex number as a rotating arrow in the argand plane: Let z  rcos  i sin    re i ..…(i)
r. e i be a complex number representing a point P in the argand plane.
Y Q(zei)

 P(z)
Then OP | z |  r and POX   X'

X
O
Now consider complex number z1  ze i
or z1  re i .e i  re i   {from (i)} Y'

Clearly the complex number z1 represents a point Q in the argand plane, when OQ  r and
QOX     .

Clearly multiplication of z with e i rotates the vector OP through angle  in anticlockwise sense.

Similarly multiplication of z with e i will rotate the vector OP in clockwise sense.

Note: If z1 , z 2 and z 3 are the affixes of the points A,B and C such that AC  AB and CAB   . Therefore,

AB  z 2  z1 , AC  z 3  z1 .
C(z3)

Then AC will be obtained by rotating AB through an angle  in anticlockwise

B(z2)
sense, and therefore, 

z 3  z1 A(z1)
AC  AB e i or (z 3  z1 )  (z 2  z1 )e i or  e i
z 2  z1
If A, B and C are three points in argand plane such that AC  AB and CAB   then use the rotation
about A to find e i , but if AC  AB use coni method.

Let z 1 and z 2 be two complex numbers represented by point P and Q in the argand plane such that
z1e i
 POQ   . Then, z1e i is a vector of magnitude | z 1 |  OP along OQ and is a unit vector along
| z1 |
z1e i
OQ . Consequently, | z 2 | . is a vector of magnitude | z 2 |  OQ along OQ i.e.,
| z1 |
| z2 | z
z2  .z1e i  z 2  2 .
| z1 | z1

25
(2) Condition for four points to be noncyclic: If points A, B, C and D are concyclic  ABD   ACD
Using rotation theorem
A(z1) D(z4)
(z  z 2 ) z 4  z 2 i
In  ABD 1  e .....(i)
z1  z 2 z4  z2
 
(z  z 3 ) z 4  z 3 i
In  ACD 1  e .....(ii)
z1  z 3 z4  z3 B(z2) C(z3)

From (i) and (ii)

(z 1  z 2 ) (z 4  z 3 ) (z 1  z 2 ) (z 4  z 3 )
 =Real
z1  z 3 z 4  z 2 (z 1  z 3 ) (z 4  z 2 )

(z 1  z 2 ) (z 4  z 3 )
So if z1 , z 2 , z 3 and z 4 are such that is real, then these four points are concyclic.
(z 1  z 3 ) (z 4  z 2 )

14. Triangle Inequalities.

In any triangle, sum of any two sides is greater than the third side and difference of any two side is less
than the third side. By applying this basic concept to the set of complex numbers we are having the
following results.
(1) | z1  z 2 | | z1 |  | z 2 |

(2) | z1  z 2 | | z1 |  | z 2 |

(3) | z1  z 2 | | | z1 |  | z 2 ||

(4) | z1  z 2 | || z1 |  | z 2 ||

Note: In a complex plane | z1  z 2 | is the distance between the points z 1 and z 2 .

The equality | z1  z 2 | | z1 |  | z 2 | holds only when arg (z 1 ) = arg (z 2 ) i.e., z 1 and z 2 are parallel.

The equality | z1  z 2 | || z1 |  | z 2 || holds only when arg (z 1 ) – arg (z 2 ) =  i.e., z 1 and z 2 are antiparallel.

In any parallelogram sum of the squares of its sides is equal to the sum of the squares of its diagonals i.e.
| z1  z 2 | 2  | z1  z 2 | 2  2 (| z1 | 2  | z 2 | 2 )

Law of polygon i.e., | z1  z 2  ....  z n | | z1 |  | z 2 | .... | z n |

26
Important Tips
 The area of the triangle whose vertices are z, iz and z + iz is 1 | z | 2 .
2

 If z 1 , z 2 , z 3 be the vertices of a triangle then the area of the triangle is  (z 2  z 3 )| z1 | 2

.
4 iz1

Area of the triangle with vertices z, wz and z  wz is .

3
 | z2 |
4

 If z 1 , z 2 , z 3 be the vertices of an equilateral triangle and z o be the circumcentre, then

z 12  z 22  z 32   3z 02 .

 If z 1 , z 2 , z 3 ..... z n be the vertices of a regular polygon of n sides and z 0 be its centroid, then
z 12  z 22  .....  z n2  nz 02 .

 If z 1 , z 2 , z 3 be the vertices of a triangle, then the triangle is equilateral iff

(z 1  z 2 )2  (z 2  z 3 )2  (z 3  z 1 )2  0 or z 12  z 22  z 32  z 1 z 2  z 2 z 3  z 3 z 1 or 0.
1 1 1
 
z1  z 2 z 2  z 3 z 3  z1

 If z 1 , z 2 z 3 are the vertices of an isosceles triangle, right angled at z 2 then z 12  z 22  z 32  2 z 2 (z 1  z 3 ) .

 If z 1 , z 2 , z 3 are the vertices of right-angled isosceles triangle, then (z 1  z 2 )2  2z 1  z 3 (z 3  z 2 ) .

 If one of the vertices of the triangle is at the origin i.e., z 3  0, then the triangle is equilateral iff
z 12  z 22  z 1 z 2  0 .

z1 z 1 1
 If z 1 , z 2 , z 3 and z 1 , z 2 , z 3 are the vertices of a similar triangle, then z 2 z 2 1  0 .
z3 z 3 1

 If z 1 , z 2 , z 3 be the affixes of the vertices A, B, C respectively of a triangle ABC, then its orthocentre is
a(sec A)z 1  b(sec B)z 2  (c sec C)z 3
.
a sec A  b sec B  c sec C

27
15. Standard Loci in the Argand Plane.

(1) If z is a variable point in the argand plane such that arg (z )   , then locus of z is a straight line
(excluding origin) through the origin inclined at an angle  with x–axis.

(2) If z is a variable point and z 1 is a fixed point in the argand plane such that arg (z  z 1 )   , then locus
of z is a straight line passing through the point representing z 1 and inclined at an angle  with x-axis.
Note that the point z 1 is excluded from the locus.

(3) If z is a variable point and z 1 , z 2 are two fixed points in the argand plane, then

(i) | z  z 1 | | z  z 2 |  Locus of z is the perpendicular bisector of the line

segment joining z1 and z 2

(ii) | z  z 1 |  | z  z 2 | = constant | z 1  z 2 |   Locus of z is an ellipse

(iii) | z  z 1 |  | z  z 2 | | z 1  z 2 |  Locus of z is the line segment joining z 1 and

z2

(iv) | z  z 1 |  | z  z 2 | | z 1  z 2 |  Locus of z is a straight line joining z 1 and z 2 but z

does not lie between z 1 and z 2 .

(v) | z  z1 | | z  z 2 |  constant | z1  z | 

2  Locus of z is a hyperbola.

(vi) | z  z 1 | 2  | z  z 2 | 2 | z 1  z 2 |  Locus of z is a circle with z 1 and z 2 as the

extremities of diameter.
28
(vii) | z  z 1 |  k | z  z 2 | k  1  Locus of z is a circle.

 z  z1 
(viii) arg     (fixed)  Locus of z is a segment of circle.
 z  z2 

 z  z1 
(ix) arg   =   / 2  Locus of z is a circle with z 1 and z 2 as the vertices
 z  z2 
of
diameter.

 z  z1 
(x) arg   = 0 or 
  Locus z is a straight line passing through z 1 and z 2 .
 z  z2 

z  z1 z  z1
(xi) The equation of the line joining complex numbers z 1 and z 2 is given by  or
z 2  z1 z 2  z 1
z z 1
z1 z1 1  0
z2 z2 1

16. De' Moivre's Theorem.

(1) If n is any rational number, then (cos   i sin  )n  cos n  i sin n .

(2) If z  (cos 1  i sin  1 )(cos 2  i sin  2 )(cos 3  i sin  3 ).....(cos n  i sin  n )

then z  cos( 1   2   3  .....   n )  i sin( 1   2   3  .....   n ) , where 1 ,  2,  3 .....n  R .

  2k      2k    
(3) If z  r(cos  i sin  ) and n is a positive integer, then z 1 / n  r1 / n cos   i sin   ,
  n   n 
where k  0, 1, 2, 3,.....(n  1) .

29
  2k   p    2k   p  
(4) If p, q  z and q  0, then (cos  i sin  ) p / q  cos   i sin   ,
 q   q 
where k  0, 1, 2, 3.....(q  1) .

Deductions: If n  Q, then

(i) (cos  i sin  )n  cos n  i sin n

(ii) (cos  i sin  )n  cos n  i sin n

(iii) (cos  i sin  )n  cos n  i sin n

   
(iv) (sin   i cos  )n  cos n      i sin n   
2  2 

Applications
(i) In finding the expansions of trigonometric functions i.e. cos n  cos n   n C 2 cos n 2  sin 2 
 n C4 cosn  4  sin 4  – ......

sin n  nC1 cosn 1  sin  n C3 cosn  3  sin 3   n C 5 cos n 5  sin 5   .......

(ii) In finding the roots of complex numbers.
(iii) In finding the complex solution of algebraic equations.

Note: This theorem is not valid when n is not a rational number or the complex number is not in the form of
cos   i sin  .

Powers of complex numbers: Let z  x  iy  r(cos  i sin  )

 z n  r n (cos  i sin  )n  r n (cos n  i sin n )

30
 Number x + iy form Standard complex form General
1 1+i0 cos 0  i sin 0 cos 2n  i sin 2n

–1 – 1+i0 cos   i sin cos(2n  1)  i sin(2n  1)

i 0 +i(1)    
cos  i sin cos( 4 n  1)  i sin(4 n  1)
2 2 2 2
–i 0 +i(–1) cos

 i sin

cos( 4 n  1)

 i sin(4 n  1)

2 2 2 2

17. Roots of a Complex Number.

(1) nth roots of complex number (z1/n) : Let z  r(cos i sin  ) be a complex number. To find the roots of
a complex number, first we express it in polar form with the general value of its amplitude and use the
De' Moivre’s theorem. By using De'moivre's theorem nth roots having n distinct values of such a complex
number are given by
 2m    2m    
z 1 / n  r 1 / n cos  i sin , where m  0, 1, 2,....., (n  1).
 n n 

Properties of the roots of z1/n:

(i) All roots of z1/n are in geometrical progression with common ratio e 2 i / n .
(ii) Sum of all roots of z1/n is always equal to zero.
(iii) Product of all roots of z 1 / n  (1)n1 z.
(iv) Modulus of all roots of z1/n are equal and each equal to r 1 / n or | z | 1 / n .
2
(v) Amplitude of all the roots of z1/n are in A.P. with common difference .
n
(vi) All roots of z1/n lies on the circumference of a circle whose center is origin and radius equal to | z | 1 / n .
Also these roots divides the circle into n equal parts and forms a polygon of n sides.

(2) The nth roots of unity: The nth roots of unity are given by the solution set of the equation
x n  1  cos 0  i sin 0  cos 2k   i sin 2k 
x  [cos 2k   i sin 2k  ]1 / n
31
 2k  2k 
x  cos  i sin , where k  0, 1, 2, ....., (n  1) .
n n

Properties of nth roots of unity

2 2
(i) Let   cos  i sin  e i(2 / n) , the nth roots of unity can be expressed in the form of a series i.e.,
n n
1,  ,  2 ,..... n1 . Clearly the series is G.P. with common difference  i.e., e i(2 / n) .
(ii) The sum of all n roots of unity is zero i.e., 1     2  .....   n1  0.
(iii) Product of all n roots of unity is (1)n1 .
(iv) Sum of pth power of n roots of unity

0, when p is not multiple of n

1   p   2 p  .....   (n 1) p  
n, when p is a multiple of n
(v) The n, nth roots of unity if represented on a complex plane locate their positions at the vertices of a
regular plane polygon of n sides inscribed in a unit circle having centre at origin, one vertex on positive
real axis.

n 1
Note: x  1  (x  1)(x
n
 x n2  .....  x  1)
(sin   i cos  )  i2 sin   i cos   i(cos  i sin  )

(3) Cube roots of unity: Cube roots of unity are the solution set of the equation x 3  1  0  x  (1)1 / 3
2k   2k  
 x  (cos 0  i sin 0)1 / 3  x  cos  i sin   , where k  0,1,2
3  3 
2 2 4 4
Therefore roots are 1, cos  i sin , cos  i sin or 1, e 2 i / 3 , e 4  i / 3 .
3 3 3 3
Alternative: x  (1)1 / 3  x 3  1  0  (x  1)(x 2  x  1)  0
1  i 3 1  i 3
x  1, ,
2 2
If one of the complex roots is  , then other root will be  2 or vice-versa.

Properties of cube roots of unity

(i) 1     2  0
(ii)  3  1
0, if r not a multiple of 3
(iii) 1   r   2 r  
3, if r is a multiple of 3
32
(iv)    2 and ( )2   and  .   3 .
(v) Cube roots of unity from a G.P.
(vi) Imaginary cube roots of unity are square of each other i.e., ( )2   2 and ( 2 )2   3 .    .
1 1
(vii) Imaginary cube roots of unity are reciprocal to each other i.e.,   2 and .
 2
(viii) The cube roots of unity by, when represented on complex plane, lie on vertices of an equilateral
triangle inscribed in a unit circle having centre at origin, one vertex being on positive real axis.
(ix) A complex number a  ib, for which | a : b |  1 : 3 or 3 : 1, can always be expressed in terms of i, ,  2 .

1  i 3 1  i 3
Note: If    e 2 i / 3 , then  2   e 4  i / 3  e  2 i / 3 or vice-versa  .    3 .
2 2
a  b  c 2  0  a  b  c, if a, b, c are real.
Cube root of – 1 are  1,, .
2

Important Tips
 x 2  x  1  (x   ) (x   2 )
 
x 2  xy  y 2  x  y   x  y  2
 x 2  y 2  (x  iy)(x  iy)
 x 2  x  1  x   x   2 
  x 2  xy  y 2  x  y x  y 2 
 x 3  y 3  (x  y ) (x  y  ) (x  y  2 )

 x 3  y 3  (x  y ) (x  y  ) (x  y  2 ) 
x 2  y 2  z 2  xy  yz  zx  (x  y  z 2 )(x  y 2  z)
 x 3  y 3  z 3  3 xyz  (x  y  z)(x   y   2 z)(x   2 y   z)

Fourth roots of unity: The four, fourth roots of unity are given by the solution set of the equation
x 4  1  0.  (x 2  1)(x 2  1)  0  x   1,  i

Note: Sum of roots = 0 and product of roots =–1.

Fourth roots of unity are vertices of a square which lies on coordinate axes.

Continued product of the roots

If z  r(cos  i sin  ) i.e., | z |  r and amp (z )   then continued product of roots of z 1 / n is
n 1
2m   
 r(cos  i sin  ) , where   
m 0 n
 (n  1)   .

33
 z, if n is odd
Thus continued product of roots of z 1 / n  r[cos{(n  1)   }  i sin{(n  1)   }]  
 z, if n is even
z m , if n is odd
Similarly, the continued product of values of z m / n is   m
(-z) , if n is even

Important Tips
If x  or x  then x  cos   i sin ,
1 1 1 1 1
  2 cos   2i sin  cos   i sin , x n  n  2 cos n , x n  n  2i sin n .
x x x x x
n
1 n
 If n be a positive integer then , (1  i)n  (1  i)n  2 2 cos .
4
 If z is a complex number, then e z is periodic.
 nth root of –1 are the solution of the equation zn 1  0
z n  1  (z  1)(z   )(z   2 ).....( z   n 1 ), where   n th root of unity
(n  2) / 2
2r
z n  1  (z  1)(z  1)  r 1
(z 2  2 z cos
n
 1), if n is even.

 (n  2) / 2   (2r  1)  
 
 r 0 

 z  2 z cos
2

 n
  1, if n is even.
 
z 1  
n
(n - 3)/2
  2  (2r  1)  
(z  1)


 r 0 
 z  2 z cos
 n
  1, if n is odd.
 

 If x  cos   i sin, y  cos   i sin  , z  cos   i sin and given, x  y  z  0, then

1 1 1
(i)   0 (ii) yz  zx  xy  0 (iii) x 2  y 2  z 2  0 (iv) x 3  y 3  z 3  3 xyz
x y z

then, putting, values if x , y, z in these results

cos(   )  cos(   )  cos(   )  0
x yz 0  cos   cos   cos   0  sin  sin   sin  yz  zx  xy  0  
sin(   )  sin(   )  sin(   )  0

x2  y2  z2  0  

 cos 2  0 the summation consists 3 terms
 sin 2  0,

x 3  y 3  z 3  3 xyz , gives similarly

 cos 3  3 cos(     )   sin3  3 sin(     )

If the condition given be x  y  z  xyz , then  cos   cos(     ) etc.

34
18. Shifting the Origin in Case of Complex Numbers.

Let O be the origin and P be a point with affix z 0 . Let a point Q has affix z with Y Y
respect to the co-ordinate system passing through O. Q

When origin is shifted to the point P(z 0 ) then the new affix Z of the point Q X
P (z0)
with respect to new origin P is given by Z  z  z 0 i.e., to shift the origin at z 0 X
O M
we should replace z by Z  z 0 .

19. Inverse Points.

(1) Inverse points with respect to a line: Two points P and Q are said to be the inverse points with
respect to the line RS. If Q is the image of P in RS, i.e., if the line RS is the right bisector of PQ.
P

R S

(2) Inverse points with respect to a circle : If C is the center of the circle and P,Q are the inverse
points with respect to the circle then three points C,P,Q are collinear, and also CP . CQ  r 2 , where r is
the radius of the circle.

C P
Q 35
20. Dot and Cross Product.

Let z 1  a1  ib1  (a1 , b1 ) and z 2  a 2  ib2  (a 2 , b 2 ) be two complex numbers.

z 2  0 | z 2 | i Z2(a2, b2)
If  POQ   then from coni method  e
z1  0 | z1 |
z 2 z 1 | z 2 | i z z | z |
  e  2 12  2 e i  z 2 z1 | z1 || z 2 | e i 
Z1(a1, b1)
z1 z1 | z1 | | z1 | | z1 |
O
 z 2 z1 | z1 || z 2 | (cos  i sin  )
 Re(z 2 z1 ) | z1 || z 2 | cos  .....(i) and Im(z 2 z1 ) | z1 || z 2 | sin  .....(ii)
The dot product z 1 and z 2 is defined by z 1 o z 2 | z 1 | | z 2 | cos   Re(z 1 z 2 )  a1 a 2  b1 b 2 (From(i))
Cross product of z 1 and z 2 is defined by z 1  z 2 | z 1 | | z 2 | sin   Im(z 1 z 2 )  a1 b 2  a 2 b1 (From(ii))
Hence, z 1 oz 2  a1 a 2  b1 b 2  Re(z 1 z 2 ) and z1  z 2  a1b 2  a2 b1  Im(z1 z 2 )

Important Tips
 If z 1 and z 2 are perpendicular then z 1 o z 2  0  If z 1 and z 2 are parallel then
z1  z 2  0

 Projection of z 1 on z 2  (z 1 o z 2 ) / | z 2 |  Projection of z 2 on
z 1  (z 1 o z 2 ) / | z 1 |

Area of triangle if two sides represented by z 1 and z 2 is | z 1  z 2 |  Area of a parallelogram

1

2
having sides z 1 and z 2 is | z 1  z 2 |

Area of parallelogram if diagonals represents by z 1 and z 2 is | z 1  z 2 |

1

2

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