VCO Fundamentals

John McNeill
Worcester Polytechnic Institute
mcneill@ece.wpi.edu
 Overview
• Functional Block Concept
• Oscillator Review
• Basic Performance Metrics
• Methods of Tuning
• Advanced Performance Metrics
• Conclusion

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 Overview
• Functional Block Concept
– Applications
– Specifications
• Oscillator Review
• Basic Performance Metrics
• Methods of Tuning
• Advanced Performance Metrics
• Conclusion

10
 Functional Block Concept
• Input control voltage VTUNE
determines frequency of output waveform

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 Applications: RF System

• Downconvert band of interest to IF

• VCO: Electrically tunable selection

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 Applications: Digital System

÷N

• Clock synthesis (frequency multiplication)

J. A. McNeill and D. R. Ricketts, “The Designer’s Guide to Jitter in Ring Oscillators.” Springer, 2009

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 Specifications

• from data sheet showing specs

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 Overview
• Functional Block Concept
• Oscillator Review
– Frequency Control
– Amplitude Control
– Types of Oscillators
• Basic Performance Metrics
• Methods of Tuning
• Advanced Performance Metrics
• Conclusion

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 Oscillator Review
• Types of Oscillators
– Multivibrator
– Ring
– Resonant
– Feedback
• Basic Factors in Oscillator Design
– Frequency
– Amplitude / Output Power
– Startup

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 Multivibrator

• Conceptual multivibrator oscillator

– Also called astable or relaxation oscillator
• One energy storage element

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 Example: Multivibrator

• Frequency: Controlled by charging current IREF ,

C, VREF thresholds
• Amplitude: Controlled by thresholds, logic swing
• Startup: Guaranteed; no stable state
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 Ring Oscillator

• Frequency: Controlled by gate delay

• Amplitude: Controlled by logic swing
• Startup: Guaranteed; no stable state
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 Resonant Oscillator
• Concept: Natural oscillation frequency
of resonance
• Energy flows back and forth between
two storage modes

1
fOSC =
2π LC

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 Resonant Oscillator (Ideal)

• Example: swing (ideal)

• Energy storage modes: potential, kinetic
• Frequency: Controlled by length of pendulum
• Amplitude: Controlled by initial position
• Startup: Needs initial condition energy input
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 Resonant Oscillator (Real)

• Problem: Loss of energy due to friction

• Turns “organized” energy (potential, kinetic) into
“disorganized” thermal energy (frictional heating)
• Amplitude decays toward zero
• Requires energy input to maintain amplitude
• Amplitude controlled by “supervision”
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 LC Resonant Oscillator (Ideal)

• Energy storage modes:

Magnetic field (L current), Electric field (C voltage)
• Frequency: Controlled by LC
• Amplitude: Controlled by initial condition
• Startup: Needs initial energy input (initial condition)
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 LC Resonant Oscillator (Real)

• Problem: Loss of energy due to nonideal L, C

– Model as resistor RLOSS; Q of resonator
• E, M field energy lost to resistor heating
• Amplitude decays toward zero

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 LC Resonant Oscillator (Real)

• Problem: Loss of energy due to nonideal L, C

• Requires energy input to maintain amplitude
• Synthesize “negative resistance”
• Cancel RLOSS with -RNEG

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 Negative Resistance

• Use active device to synthesize V-I characteristic that

“looks like” –RNEG
• Example: amplifier with positive feedback
• Feeds energy into resonator to counteract losses in RLOSS

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 Feedback Oscillator: Wien Bridge

• Forward gain A=3

• Feedback network with transfer
function β (f)
• At fOSC, |β
β |=1/3 and ∠ β =0
• Thought experiment:
break loop, inject sine wave, look at
signal returned around feedback loop

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 Aβ
β=1

• “Just right”
waveform is
self sustaining
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 Aβ
β=0.99

• “Not enough”
waveform
decays to zero

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 Aβ
β=1.01

• “Too much”
waveform grows
exponentially
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 Feedback oscillator

• Stable amplitude condition: Aβ

β =1 EXACTLY
• Frequency determined by feedback network Aβ β =1 condition
• Need supervisory circuit to monitor amplitude
• Startup: random noise; supervisory circuit begins with Aββ >1

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 Resonant Oscillator (Real)

|RNEG| < RLOSS |RNEG| = RLOSS |RNEG| > RLOSS

• Stable amplitude condition: |RNEG| = RLOSS EXACTLY

• Frequency determined by LC network
• Startup: random noise; begin with |RNEG| > RLOSS
• Amplitude grows; soft clip gives average |RNEG| = RLOSS

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 Clapp oscillator
1
f OSC =
2π LCeq
1
Ceq =
1 1 1
 + + 
 1
C C 2 C3 

• L, C1-C2-C3 set oscillation frequency fOSC

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 Clapp oscillator

• Circuit configuration • Equivalent circuit

MiniCircuits AN95-007, “Understanding Oscillator Concepts”
 Clapp oscillator
1 1 gm
Z eq = + − 2
jωC1 jωC2 ω C1C2

• Frequency: Determined by L, C1, C2, C3

• Amplitude: Grows until limited by gm soft clipping
• Startup: Choose C1, C2 feedback for | RNEG | > RLOSS
 Oscillator Summary
• Typical performance of oscillator architectures:

BETTER
RESONANT
PHASE
NOISE

FEEDBACK

RING

MULTIVIBRATOR

kHz MHz GHz

FREQUENCY fOSC

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 Overview
• Functional Block Concept
• Oscillator Review
• Basic Performance Metrics
– Frequency Range
– Tuning Range
• Methods of Tuning
• Advanced Performance Metrics
• Conclusion

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 Basic Performance Metrics

• from data sheet showing specs

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 Basic Performance Metrics

• from data sheet showing specs

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 Basic Performance Metrics

• Supply: DC operating power

• Output
– Sine: output power dBm into 50Ω
– Square: compatible logic
• Frequency Range
• Tuning Voltage Range

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 Frequency Range

• Output frequency over tuning voltage range

• Caution: Temperature sensitivity

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 Overview
• Functional Block Concept
• Oscillator Review
• Basic Performance Metrics
• Methods of Tuning
• Advanced Performance Metrics
• Conclusion

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 VCOs / Methods of Tuning
• Require electrical control of some parameter
determining frequency:

• Multivibrator
– Charge / discharge
current

• Ring Oscillator
– Gate delay

• Resonant
– Voltage control of
capacitance in LC
(varactor)

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 Example: Tuning Multivibrator

Frequency: Controlled by IREF

• fOSC =
IREF , C, VREF thresholds 4CVREF

• Use linear transconductance IREF = GM VTUNE

GM to develop IREF from VTUNE
 GM 
fOSC = VTUNE
+ Very linear VTUNE – fOSC characteristic  4CVREF 

- But: poor phase noise; fOSC limited to MHz range

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 Tuning LC Resonator: Varactor

dQ
Cj = C j0
dVR
Cj =
 VR m
1+ 
 Vbi 

• Q-V characteristic of pn junction

• Use reverse bias diode for C in resonator
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 Example: Clapp oscillator

1 CTUNE CTUNE
fOSC = 1+ +
2π LCTUNE C1 C2

• Tuning range fMIN, fMAX set by CTUNE maximum, minimum

• Want C1, C2 > CTUNE for wider tuning range

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 Overview
• Functional Block Concept
• Oscillator Review
• Basic Performance Metrics
• Methods of Tuning
• Advanced Performance Metrics
– Tuning Sensitivity
– Phase Noise
– Supply Pushing
– Load Pulling
• Conclusion
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 Advanced Performance Metrics

• Tuning Sensitivity (V-f linearity)

• Phase Noise
• Supply/Load Sensitivity

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 Tuning Sensitivity

• from data sheet showing specs

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 Frequency Range

• Change in slope [MHz/V] over tuning voltage range

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 Tuning Sensitivity
K d K Oτ Z
ωL ≈
1+ sτ Z KO τI
K d (θ i − θ o )
sτ I s

• Why do you care?

– PLL: Tuning sensitivity KO affects control parameters
– Loop bandwidth ωL (may not be critical)
– Stability (critical!)
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 Varactor Tuning
C j0
Cj =
 V m
1+ TUNE 
 Vbi 

1
fOSC =
2π LC

1 V m 2
fOSC ≈ 
TUNE
 m =1 2
2π LC j 0  Vbi 

• Disadvantages of abrupt junction C-V characteristic (m=1/2)

– Smaller tuning range
– Inherently nonlinear VTUNE – fOSC characteristic
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 Hyperabrupt Junction Varactor
C j0
Cj =
 V m
1+ TUNE 
 Vbi 

1
fOSC =
2π LC

1 V m 2
fOSC ≈ 
TUNE
 m =1 2 m →2
2π LC j 0  Vbi 

• Hyperabrupt junction C-V characteristic (m ≈ 2)

+ Larger tuning range; more linear VTUNE – fOSC
- Disadvantage: Lower Q in resonator

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 Phase Noise

• from data sheet showing specs

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 Phase Noise

• Power spectrum “close in” to carrier

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 Phase Noise: RF System

• Mixers convolve LO spectrum with RF

• Phase noise “blurs” IF spectrum

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 Phase Noise: Digital System

÷N

• Time domain jitter on synthesized output clock

• Decreases timing margin for system using clock

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Shape of Phase Noise Spectrum

• LC filters noise into narrow band near fundamental

• High Q resonator preferred to minimize noise

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 Phase Noise: Intuitive view

• Sine wave + white noise; Filter;

limit; Result:
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 Phase Noise: Intuitive view

• Sine wave + white noise;

Filter; limit; Result:

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 Phase Noise Description

• Symmetric; look at single sided representation

• Normalized to carrier: dBc
• At different offset frequencies from carrier
• White frequency noise: phase noise with -20dB/decade slope
• Other noise processes change slope; 1/f noise gives
-30dB/decade

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Phase Noise Specification
• Symmetric; look at single sided
• Normalized to carrier: dBc
• At different offset frequencies from carrier

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 Sources of Phase Noise
White noise in
VTUNE signal path

Noise of
active
devices

Thermal noise: Losses in resonator, series R of varactor

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 Supply / Load Sensitivity

• Ideally tuning voltage is the only way to change output

frequency
– In reality other factors involved
– Mechanism depends on specifics of circuit
• Power supply dependence: Supply Pushing
• Impedance mismatch at output: Load Pulling

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 Supply Pushing

• Change in fOSC due to change in supply voltage

• Clapp oscillator: supply affects transistor bias condition,
internal signal amplitudes

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 Load Pulling

• Change in fOSC due to impedance mismatch at output

• Clapp oscillator; reflection couples through transistor
parasitic to LC resonator

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 Overview
• Functional Block Concept
• Oscillator Review
• Basic Performance Metrics
• Methods of Tuning
• Advanced Performance Metrics
• Conclusion

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 Summary: VCO Fundamentals
• First order behavior
– Tuning voltage VTUNE controls output frequency
– Specify by min/max range of fOSC, VTUNE

• Performance limitations
– Linearity of tuning characteristic
– Spectral purity: phase noise, harmonics
– Supply, load dependence

• Different VCO architectures trade frequency range,

tuning linearity, phase noise performance

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 Questions?

Thank you to our presenter John McNeill and our

sponsor Mini-Circuits

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