Instru Mod3

Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
College of Engineering
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.3:EE 15-1S-2021-2022
College: Engineering
Campus: Bambang
DEGREE Bachelor of Science in COURSE NO. EE 15

PROGRAM Electrical Engineering
SPECIALIZATION Power System COURSE TITLE Instrumentation and Control
YEAR LEVEL 4 TIME FRAME 15Hrs WK NO. 6-8 IM NO. 03
I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE
1. Mechanical and Electrical Pressure Elements

2. Compressor System
3. Hydraulics
II. LESSON TITLE
1. Mechanical and Electrical Pressure Elements

2. Compressor System
3. Hydraulics
III. LESSON OVERVIEW
This chapter discusses about the different mechanical and electrical pressure elements, principle
of compressor system and its types and uses and the basic principle of hydraulics and its
components.
IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify different mechanical and electrical pressure elements.

2. Understand the principle of compressor system and its types and uses.
3. Understand the basic principle of hydraulics and its components.
V. LESSON CONTENT
MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL PRESSURE ELEMENTS
Mechanical Pressure Elements

Mechanical pressure-sensing elements include the bellows, the diaphragm, and the bourdon
tube. Each of these devices converts a fluid pressure into a force. If unrestrained, the natural elastic
properties of the element will produce a motion proportional to the applied pressure.
NNVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 In Accordance with Section 185, Fair Use of a Copyrighted Work of Republic Act 8293, Page 1 of 13
the copy righted works included in this material may be reproduced
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IM No.3:EE 15-1S-2021-2022
Bellows resemble an accordion constructed from metal

instead of fabric. Increasing pressure inside a bellows unit
causes it to elongate. A photograph of a bellows is shown here:
A diaphragm is nothing more than a thin disk of material which bows outward under the influence of a
fluid pressure. Many diaphragms are constructed from metal, which gives them spring-like qualities. Some
diaphragms are intentionally
constructed out of materials with little
strength, such that there is negligible
spring effect. These are called slack
diaphragms, and they are used in
conjunction with external
mechanisms (e.g. springs)
producing the necessary restraining
force to prevent damage from
applied pressure.
The following photograph shows
the mechanism of a small pressure
gauge using a brass diaphragm as
the sensing element:
As pressure is applied to the

rear of the diaphragm, it distends
upward (away from the table on which it rests as shown in the photograph), causing a small shaft to twist in
response. This twisting motion is transferred to a lever which pulls on a tiny link chain wrapped around the
pointer shaft, causing it to rotate and move the pointer needle around the gauge scale. Both the needle and
scale on this gauge mechanism have been removed for easier viewing of diaphragm and mechanism.
Bourdon tubes are made of spring-like metal alloys bent into a circular shape. Under the influence of
internal pressure, a bourdon tube “tries” to straighten out into its original shape before being bent at the time
of manufacture.
Most pressure gauges use a bourdon tube as their pressure-sensing element. Most pressure
transmitters use a diaphragm as their pressure-sensing element. Bourdon tubes may be made in spiral or
helical forms for greater motion (and therefore greater gauge resolution).
The Bourdon tube pressure element is a very robust and time-tested design. An illustration taken from
page 471 of volume 1 of Cassier’s Magazine published in the year 1891 shows a typical C-shaped bourdon
tube pressure gauge mechanism complete with gears and pointing needle:
IM No.3:EE 15-1S-2021-2022
Looking closely at the labeled components of this mechanism, we see a circular “pinion” touching a
curved “sector”. Both of these are gears meshing with one
another, but as is typical with mechanical drawings the
individual teeth of the meshing gears are not shown.
It is a useful mental exercise to imagine the components of

this gauge moving under the influence of a rising fluid
pressure. The bourdon tube will straighten, resulting in its tip
extending outward from center (up and right) as its socket
remains stationary (anchored to the gauge body). This pulls
on the link, which in turn causes the sector gear to rotate
counter-clockwise on its bearing axis (that axis anchored on
the backing plate of the gauge). This causes the pinion gear
to rotate clockwise, driving the needle (the “indexing hand”)
clockwise as well, so that the needle’s tip rises up the
numerical scale printed on the gauge face.
It should be noted that bellows, diaphragms, and bourdon tubes alike may all be used to measure
differential and/or absolute pressure in addition to gauge pressure. All that is needed for these other
functionalities is to subject the other side of each pressure-sensing element to either another applied
pressure (in the case of differential measurement) or to a vacuum chamber (in the case of absolute
pressure measurement).
This next set of illustrations shows how bellows, diaphragms, and bourdon tubes may be used as
differential pressure-sensing elements:
Electrical Pressure Elements
Several different technologies exist for the conversion of fluid pressure into an electrical signal
response. These technologies form the basis of electronic pressure transmitters: devices designed to
measure fluid pressure and transmit that information via electrical signals such as the 4-20 mA analog
standard, or in digital form such as HART or FOUNDATION Fieldbus.
IM No.3:EE 15-1S-2021-2022
Piezoresistive (strain gauge) sensors
Piezoresistive means “pressure-sensitive resistance,” or a resistance that changes value with

applied pressure. The strain gauge is a classic example of a piezoresistive element, a typical strain
gauge element shown here:
In order to be practical, a strain gauge must be glued (bonded) on to a larger specimen capable
of withstanding an applied force (stress):
As the test specimen is stretched or compressed by the

application of force, the conductors of the strain gauge
are similarly deformed. Electrical resistance of any
conductor is proportional to the ratio of length over
cross-sectional area (R∝ ), which means that tensile
deformation (stretching) will increase electrical
resistance by simultaneously increasing length and
decreasing cross-sectional area while compressive
deformation (squishing) will decrease electrical
resistance by simultaneously decreasing length and
increasing cross-sectional area.
Attaching a strain gauge to a diaphragm result in a device that changes resistance with applied
pressure. Pressure forces the diaphragm to deform, which in turn causes the strain gauge to change
resistance. By measuring this change in resistance, we can infer the amount of pressure applied to
the diaphragm.
The classic strain gauge system represented in the previous illustration is made of metal (both
the test specimen and the strain gauge itself). Within its elastic limits, many metals exhibit good
spring characteristics. Metals, however, are subject to fatigue over repeated cycles of strain (tension
and compression), and they will begin to “flow” if strained beyond their elastic limit. This is a common
source of error in metallic piezoresistive pressure instruments: if over pressured, they tend to lose
accuracy due to damage of the spring and strain gauge elements.
Differential capacitance sensors
Another common electrical pressure sensor design works on the principle of differential
capacitance. In this design, the sensing element is a taut metal diaphragm located equidistant
between two stationary metal surfaces, comprising three plates for a complementary pair of
capacitors. An electrically insulating fill fluid (usually a liquid silicone compound) transfers motion
from the isolating diaphragms to the sensing diaphragm, and also doubles as an effective dielectric
for the two capacitors:
IM No.3:EE 15-1S-2021-2022
Any difference of pressure across the cell causes the diaphragm to flex in
the direction of least pressure. The sensing diaphragm is a precision-manufactured spring element,
meaning that its displacement is a predictable function of applied force. The applied force in this case
can only be a function of differential pressure acting against the surface area of the diaphragm in
accordance with the standard force-pressure-area equation F=PA. In this case, we have two forces
caused by two fluid pressures working against each other, so our force-pressure-area equation may be
re-written to describe resultant force as a function of differential pressure (P1-P2) and diaphragm area:
(F=(P1-P2)A. Since diaphragm area is constant, and force is predictably related to diaphragm
displacement, all we need now in order to infer differential pressure is to accurately measure
displacement of the diaphragm.
The diaphragm’s secondary function as one plate of two capacitors provides

a convenient method for measuring displacement. Since capacitance between conductors is inversely
proportional to the distance separating them, capacitance on the low-pressure side will increase while
capacitance on the high-pressure side will decrease:
IM No.3:EE 15-1S-2021-2022
Resonant element sensors
As any guitarist, violinist, or other stringed-instrument musician can tell you,

the natural frequency of a tensed string increases with tension. This, in fact, is how stringed instruments
are tuned: the tension on each string is precisely adjusted to achieve the desired resonant frequency.
Mathematically, the resonant frequency of a string may be described by the following formula:
It stands to reason, then, that a string may serve as a force sensor. All that
is needed to complete the sensor is an oscillator circuit to keep the string vibrating at its resonant
frequency, and that frequency becomes an indication of tension (force). If the force originates from
pressure applied to some sensing element such as a bellows or diaphragm, the string’s resonant
frequency will indicate fluid pressure. A proof-of-concept device based on this principle might look like
this:
It should be noted that this principle of force measurement is nonlinear, as

indicated by the equation for resonant frequency (tension force F lies inside the radicand). This means
the pressure transmitter must be designed with an electronic characterizing function to “linearize” the
frequency measurement into a pressure measurement.
IM No.3:EE 15-1S-2021-2022
COMPRESSOR SYSTEM
Air Compressor: Types, Working, Applications, And More
An air compressor, as the name indicates, is a machine to compresses the air and raises its pressure.
The air compressor absorbs air from the atmosphere and compresses it. Then it sends to a storage
vessel under high pressure.
From the storage vessel, it can be carried by pipeline to a location where a supply of compressed air is
needed. Since air compression needs some work to be done on it, hence a compressor should be driven
by some prime mover.
Compressed air is applied for various purposes such as pneumatic drills, riveters, road drills, paint
spraying, starting plants, jet engines and air motors, and more.
It is also used in the operation of lifts, rams, pumps, and much other equipment. In industry, compressed
air is used for producing blasts of air in blast furnaces and Bessemer converters.
Types of Air Compressors
 Reciprocating Air Compressor

A reciprocating air compressor is a type of positive displacement
compressor that uses a piston. The piston is driven by the crankshaft to transfer the high-pressure gases
into the cylinder.
In these types of air compressors, initially,

the gas enters from the suction manifold. This
gas is flowing through a compression cylinder
where it gets compressed by an attached
piston. It is driven in a reciprocating motion
by the application of a crankshaft, and it is
released.
A typical reciprocating compressor is

commonly used in automotive industries to
generate 5 to 30 horsepower. A large type of
reciprocating compressor creates up to 1000
horsepower that equals 750 KW, and it is
used in the large petroleum industry.
A reciprocating compressor is used in gas

pipelines, chemical plants, air conditioning,
and refrigeration plants.
 Rotary Air Compressor
A rotary air compressor, which is the simplest compressor, consists of two

rotors with lobes rotating in an air-tight casing that has an inlet and outlet ports. Its action resembles
that of a gear pump.
IM No.3:EE 15-1S-2021-2022
There are many designs of a wheel, but

they generally have two or three lobes. The
lobes are made that they provide an air-tight
joint at their point of contact.
Mechanical energy is provided from one

external source to one of the rotors, while the
second gear is driven in advance. As the rotors
rotate, the air at atmospheric pressure is
trapped in the pockets formed between the
lobes and casing.
The rotary motion of the lobes delivers the

entered air into the receiver. Thus, greater flow
of air in the receiver increases its pressure. Finally, the air is delivered from the receiver at high pressure.
 Centrifugal Air Compressor
A centrifugal blower compressor is a common type, has a rotor (or impeller),

in which several types of curved vanes are arranged symmetrically. The rotor revolves in an air-tight
casing with inlet and outlet points.
In these types of air compressors, the casing for the

compressor is so designed that the kinetic energy of the air is
converted into pressure energy before it leaves the casing as
shown in the figure. Mechanical energy is given to the rotor from
an external source.
As the rotor rotates, it absorbs air through its eye, increases

its pressure due to centrifugal force, and pushes air to flow across
the diffuser. The air pressure increases further during its flow on
the diffuser.
Finally, the air at high pressure is delivered to the receiver.

It would remain interesting to know that air enters the impeller
radially and discharge the vane axially.
 Axial Air Compressor
An axial-flow
compressor, in its simplest form, has a
number of rotating blades attached to a
revolving drum. The drum rotates inside an
air-tight casing to which are fixed stator blade
rows as shown in the figure.
The blades are

produced of an aero foil section to lower the
loss created by turbulence and boundary
separation. Mechanical energy is given to
the rotating shaft, which turns the drum.
IM No.3:EE 15-1S-2021-2022
The air comes from the left side of the compressor. As the drum begins to
rotate, air flows through the arranged stator and rotor. As the air flows from one set of stators and rotors
to another, it gets compressed.
Thus, successive compression of the air, in all the sets of stator and rotor,
the air is delivered at high pressure at the outlet point.
Difference Between Reciprocating and Rotary Air Compressor
Difference Between Centrifugal and Axial Air Compressors
IM No.3:EE 15-1S-2021-2022
Applications of Air Compressor
o Air compressors used in industries such as petroleum refineries, natural gas processing plants,
petrochemical, and chemical plants, and similar large industrial plants where it requires quick
compressing.
o It is also used in refrigeration and air conditioners to move heat in refrigerant cycles. Gas turbine
systems also employ air compressors to compress the intake air in combustion.
HYDRAULICS
What is a Hydraulic system basically?
The basic principle of a hydraulic system is derived from Pascal’s law,

basically stating in a closed vessel that there are several holes in the same end so it will be emitted in all
directions with the same pressure and flow amount. Where the pressure in a static fluid must have the
following properties:
– The pressure works perpendicular to the surface of the plane.
– The pressure at each point is the same for all directions.
– The pressure given to some fluid in a closed place propagates.
The figure shows two cylinders

containing the liquid that are connected
and have different diameters. If the load
F is the small cylinder, the resulting P
pressure will be passed on a large
cylinder (P = F / A, load divided by the
cylindrical cylinder) according to this
law, the pressure increases with the
area of the small cylinder and large
cylinders ratio, or F = P.A
The picture above in accordance with the pascal law, can be obtained the following equation:
IM No.3:EE 15-1S-2021-2022
The above equation can be seen that the magnitude of F2 is affected by the size of the cross-sectional
area of the A2 and A1 pistons.
In a hydraulic system, this is used to change the fluid compression

force produced by the hydraulic pump to shift the working cylinder forward and backwards and up / down
according to the location of the cylinder. The power produced by the hydraulic cylinder is greater than
the power released by the pump. The size of the power produced by the hydraulic cylinder is influenced
by the size of the cross-sectional area of the hydraulic working cylinder.
Components of the Hydraulic System:
 Motor
The motor functions as a modifier of electric power into mechanical power.
In the hydraulic system the motor functions as the main driver of all hydraulic components in this circuit.
The work of the motor by rotating the pump shaft which is connected to the motor input shaft. The motor
used is a single-phase AC motor ¼ PK.
 Clutch (Coupling)
The main function of the clutch is as a round connector produced by the
drive motor to be forwarded to the pump. As a result of this rotation, the pump works (rotates).
 Hydraulic Pump
This hydraulic pump is driven mechanically by an electric motor. The
beginning of the control and regulation of the hydraulic system always consists of an element of pressure
generator, so the function of the element is met by a hydraulic pump. The hydraulic pump serves to
convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by pressing the hydraulic fluid into the system. In a
hydraulic system, the pump is a device for generating or generating fluid flow (to move a number of fluid
volumes) and for providing power as needed.
 Valve
In the hydraulic system, the valve functions as a pressure regulator and fluid
flow that reaches the working brightness. According to usage, hydraulic valves are divided into three
types, including:
1. Relief Valve
2. Direction Control Valve
3. Flow Control Valve
 Hydraulic Work Cylinders

Hydraulic work cylinders are the main component that serves to change and
forward power from fluid pressure, where the fluid will push the piston which is the only component that
moves to perform translational motion which is then passed to the engine through the piston rod.
According to construction, hydraulic working cylinders are divided into two types in hydraulic systems:
Single Acting cylinder:
This type of working cylinder only has one working fluid chamber in it,
namely the cylinder chamber above or below the piston. This condition causes the working
cylinder to only be able to do one movement, namely the press movement. Whereas to return
to its original position, the piston rod tip is pushed by gravity or external force.
IM No.3:EE 15-1S-2021-2022
Double Acting working cylinder
This working cylinder is a working cylinder that has two fluid chambers in
the cylinder, namely the cylinder chamber above the piston and below the piston, only the
space above this piston is smaller than the one below the piston because part of the space
is taken up by the piston rod. With this construction the working cylinder allows it to be able
to perform alternating or backward movements.
 Oil Filter
The filter functions to filter impurities from hydraulic oil and is classified into
channel filters used by pressurized channels. The filter is placed in the tank at the inlet that will go to
the pump. With the filter, it is expected that the efficiency of hydraulic equipment can be raised and the
service life is longer.
 Hydraulic Fluid
Hydraulic fluid is one of the important elements in hydraulic equipment.
Hydraulic fluid is a material that delivers energy in hydraulic equipment and lubricates each equipment
as well as heat-relieving media arising from increased pressure and dampening vibration and sound.
Hydraulic fluid must have the following properties:
 Having enough temperature viscosity that does not change with temperature changes.
 Maintain fluid at low temperatures and not change badly easily if used under temperature.
 Have good oxidation stability.
 Has anti-rust ability
 Does not damage (due to chemical reactions) rust and paint.
 Not compressible
 Have a good anti-foaming tendency.
 Having viscosity against fire
VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Identify and explain the different types of mechanical and electrical pressure
elements.
2. Discuss the types of compressors.
3. Explain the principle of hydraulics.
VII. EVALUATION (Note: Not to be included in the student’s copy of the IM)
IM No.3:EE 15-1S-2021-2022
VIII. ASSIGNMENT
1. Give other examples of mechanical and electrical pressure elements.
2. Differentiate the Types of compressors.
3. Discuss the components of hydraulic system.
INSTRUCTIONAL MODALITY
*** Classroom Assessment ***Google Classroom *** On-line Assessment
IX. REFERENCES
Moe Toghraei, 2009, ‘Piping and Instrumentation Diagram Development’, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., III
River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
William C. Dunn, 2006, ‘Introduction to Instrumentation, Sensors, and Process Control’, Artech House,
Ic., 685 Canton Street Norwood, MA 02062
Saif M., 2021, ‘Air Compressor: Types, Working, Application, and more’, theengineerspost.com
Sivaranjith, 2018 ‘Hydraulic System Basics’, AutomotionFurom.Co

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Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

DEGREE Bachelor of Science in COURSE NO. EE 15

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

1. Mechanical and Electrical Pressure Elements

II. LESSON TITLE

1. Mechanical and Electrical Pressure Elements

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Identify different mechanical and electrical pressure elements.

MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL PRESSURE ELEMENTS

Mechanical Pressure Elements

Bellows resemble an accordion constructed from metal

As pressure is applied to the

It is a useful mental exercise to imagine the components of

Electrical Pressure Elements

Piezoresistive means “pressure-sensitive resistance,” or a resistance that changes value with

As the test specimen is stretched or compressed by the

Differential capacitance sensors

The diaphragm’s secondary function as one plate of two capacitors provides

Resonant element sensors

As any guitarist, violinist, or other stringed-instrument musician can tell you,

It should be noted that this principle of force measurement is nonlinear, as

Air Compressor: Types, Working, Applications, And More

Types of Air Compressors

 Reciprocating Air Compressor

In these types of air compressors, initially,

A typical reciprocating compressor is

A reciprocating compressor is used in gas

 Rotary Air Compressor

A rotary air compressor, which is the simplest compressor, consists of two

There are many designs of a wheel, but

Mechanical energy is provided from one

The rotary motion of the lobes delivers the

 Centrifugal Air Compressor

A centrifugal blower compressor is a common type, has a rotor (or impeller),

In these types of air compressors, the casing for the

As the rotor rotates, it absorbs air through its eye, increases

Finally, the air at high pressure is delivered to the receiver.

 Axial Air Compressor

The blades are

Difference Between Reciprocating and Rotary Air Compressor

Difference Between Centrifugal and Axial Air Compressors

What is a Hydraulic system basically?

The basic principle of a hydraulic system is derived from Pascal’s law,

– The pressure works perpendicular to the surface of the plane.

– The pressure at each point is the same for all directions.

– The pressure given to some fluid in a closed place propagates.

The figure shows two cylinders

In a hydraulic system, this is used to change the fluid compression

Components of the Hydraulic System:

2. Direction Control Valve

3. Flow Control Valve

 Hydraulic Work Cylinders

Single Acting cylinder:

Hydraulic fluid must have the following properties:

 Have good oxidation stability.

 Has anti-rust ability

 Does not damage (due to chemical reactions) rust and paint.

 Have a good anti-foaming tendency.

 Having viscosity against fire

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

* Classroom Assessment *Google Classroom *** On-line Assessment