UNDERSTANDING
dislike at another person’s
THE SELF REVIEWER
MODULE 5: THE
MATERIAL AND
ECONOMICAL SELF,
SPIRITUAL SELF, THE
POLITICAL SELF AND
BEING A FILIPINO
Lesson 1. The Material and
Economical Self
1. The role of Material Objects in
Self-description and self-
perception
• Self- description- It is the way in
which you describe or talk about
yourself to the world. When you
describe yourself to others as fun
and creative, this is an example of
your self- description
• Self- Perception- An awareness
of the characteristics that constitute
one’s self; selfknowledge.
• Materialism and personality
“Materialism is a value that
represents the individual’s
perspective regarding the role
possessions should play in (a
person’s) life.” (Richins, 1994 p. 522)
• Materialistic traits.
 Possessiveness- control or
ownership of possessions (Blek,
1983 p. 514)
 Non-generosity- unwillingness
to share (Blek, 1984 p. 291)
 Envy- feelings of hatred or
superiority (Schoeck, 1966)
• A value Conceptualization of
Materialism (Mpoula, 2017) 109
Pursuit of possessions and
materialism’s role in consumption
choices eflects materialism as a
value . The importance of acquisition
to reach satisfaction Impossible to
achieve happiness (Fournier and
Richins, 1991 p. 411)
• Possessions and happiness
 Devotion of time and money
(Boven, 2005 pp. 132)
 The importance of buying more
( Richins, 2003 p. 1)
 “…joyless material
possessions[….] resulting in
comfort but not pleasure” (as
cited in Nicolac et al., 2009 p.
189)
2. Implications of possessions or
lack of them for self-esteem and
feeling of wellbeing (Vashishtha,
2012).
• Possession and Self: When
knowingly or unknowingly,
internationally, we regard our
possessions as parts of ourselves
• “ A man Self is the sum total of all
that he can call his, not only his body
and his psychic powers, but his
clothes and his house, his wife and
his children, his ancestors and
friends, his reputation and works, his
lands, and yacht and bank account.
All these things give him the same
emotions. If they wax and prosper,
he feels triumphant; if they dwindle
and die away, he feels cast down-
not necessarily in the same degree
for each thing, but in much the same
way for all. “William James (1980).
• Possessions - The extended
includes external objects, personal
possessions, personal, places and
groups possession, body parts, vital
organs… (Which as “me” and also
which as “mine”). Between what a
men calls me and what he calls mine
the line is difficult to draw. We feel
and act about certain things that are
ours very much as we feel and act
about ourselves. Our fame, our
children, the work of our hands, may
be as dear to us as our bodies are
(James - 1890). External objects
become a viewed as part of self
when we are able to exercise power
or control over them, just as we
might control an arm or a leg. The
greater the control we exercise, the
more closely allied with self the
object should become, (McClelland-
1951).
• Extended Self - Cannot
differentiate between me and mine.
A product or a thing becomes a part
of personal well- being and it gets
attached to emotions, sentiments,
later becoming the part of one’s
personality.
• Wealth - essentially means a lot of
influential, famous and intellectual
people around you. It leads to your
social status and how seriously and
respectfully people treat you. This
leads to self- confidence.
Lesson 2. The Spiritual Self
1. RELIGIOUS AND RITUAL
SPIRITUALITY
• The concept of the “whole person”
is usually associated to the idea of
human beings as having physical
and psychological aspects.
However, there is third aspect of
being human that is as important as
the 2 precedents: the spiritual
aspect (Valerio, n.d.).
• Highlighting the mind-body-spirit
connection, the spiritual self is an
ongoing, personal life journey,
contextualize by the belief in a
higher being, culture, relationships,
nature, and the discovery of
meaning in one’s life (Valerio, n.d.).
There are several definitions that
have been formulated regarding
spirituality.
• As cited by Puchalski (2014),
spirituality is the aspect of the self
that is associated to an individual’s
process of seeking and expressing
meaning and how he or she is
connected to the self, to others, to
the moment and to everything else
that composes his/her environment,
including the sacred and significant.
• Beauregard and O’Leary (2007),
spirituality is any experience that is
thought to bring the experiencer in
contact with the divine; it is not just
any experience that feels meaningful.
• Sinnott (2002), spirituality is also
posited as the individual’s personal
relation to the sacred or
transcendent, a relation that then
informs other relationships and the
meaning of one’s own life.
• Myers and his colleagues (2000),
spirituality is the “personal and
private beliefs that transcend the
material aspects of life and give a
deep sense of wholeness,
connectedness, and openness to the
infinite.”
What do these definitions have in
common with regard to spirituality?
• Spirituality talks about meaning
and purpose that go beyond the
physical realities of life. Going
through development, people are
inevitably programmed to make
realizations about life, and those
insights are not always about
observable phenomena or
environmental experiences.
• Spirituality is focused on a person’s
connections to different aspects of
his/her existence: to other people, to
nature, and to sacredness and
divinity. In the pursuit of and
applying meaning to one’s life,
relationships are created and
sustained not only with people but
with other life forms or with a higher
being.
• Spirituality talks about the sacred
and transcendent. It is a general
belief that in this vast universe, there
is a force higher than the self.
• However, people are not born with
innate spirituality. It is something
acquired as a result of various
personal, social, and environmental
factors present throughout one’s
lifetime. In this regard, spirituality is
related to religiosity, which is often
used interchangeably with the former.
There are, however, distinct
differences between the 2.
RELIGIOSITY (Valerio, n.d.)
- It is defined as the adherence to a
belief system and practices
associated with a tradition in which
there is agreement about what is
believed and practiced. It is a formal
attachment to the set of beliefs,
values, and practices of a particular
religious sect. It includes specific
practices, proscriptions (what
should not be done and avoided),
and participation in a specific
community that shares the same
beliefs and practices. However, as
one grows older, he/she begins to
form questions that are rooted in
religious orientations, slowly
making realizations and insights until
his/her search for meaning and
transcendence goes beyond his/her
religious orientation.
DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN
RELIGIOSITY AND SPIRITUALITY:
(Valerio, n.d.)
1. If religiosity is communal, then
spirituality is individual.
2. In religiosity, beliefs and practices
are within religious groups, and
religious commitment, conservatism,
and skepticism are manifested.
Spiritual attributes include the need
for spiritual quest, ecumenical
worldviews, compassion, service,
and inner peace.
3. A person can possess spirituality
even he/she does not subscribe to
any religion. Spiritual models are
present everywhere. They function
for respondents as exemplars or
spiritual qualities, such as
compassion, self-control, or faith.
Thus, a person can be spiritual
without being religious.
• What does spirituality bring to
one’s life?
 For many people, the search for
sacredness and transcendence
can bring positive consequences
to life. A spiritual person finds
contentment and serenity in
his/her life circumstances.
Through spirituality, questions
such as “Am I a good person?”
and “How can I live my life to the
fullest?” are answered. Most
importantly, spirituality allows
one to become resilient a midst
challenges and roadblocks that
occur in daily life.
• How is spirituality enhanced?
 The best way of enhancing
spirituality lies within the self.
Constant reflection and
meditation of life choices and
decisions, developing empathy
and compassion toward other
people, and having faith in a
higher being can enhance
spiritual intelligence. It is not
about finding meaning in life,
but rather, how meaning is
applied to life.
2. CONNECTIONS WITH NATURE
(Valerio, n.d.)
The Self and The Natural
Environment
• The spiritual self is not only tied in
one’s connection with a higher being
and other people; it is also related to
how people relates to nature.
• Religiosity aside, a significant
number of people have made a
serious commitment to nature by
taking care of animals, pledging
advocacy for environmental issues,
and practicing daily behaviours that
manifest a growing concern for the
world. These are embodied in the
concepts of affinity with nature and
Eco psychology.
•Affinity with nature can be defined
as the ties that bind people and
nature together. It can also mean
nature connectedness, defined as
the extent to which individuals
include nature as part of their identity.
If people feel that they are one with
nature, then destroying it can mean
self-destruction and vice versa.
•Ecopsychology shares many
similarities with the concept of
having affinity with nature. It is
concerned with the fundamental
interconnections between humans
and the natural world through a
phenomenological and sensorial link,
and the integration of practices
based on the notion that direct
contact with the natural world has
healing potential.
•Affinity with nature highlights the
emotional connection with nature,
anchored on positive affective
experiences and authentic love for
nature.
•Ecopsychology is based on a
transpersonal and philosophical
relationship with nature, highlighting
beliefs and practices that promote
and enhance ecological, personal,
and community sustainability.
4. DISCOVERING LIFE’S
MEANING
Well-being and Life Satisfaction
• Human beings are naturally
inclined to assess their life, reflect on
the choice they have made, evaluate
the consequences of such choice,
and learn lessons from various
experiences
• Well-being, being intrinsic in
nature, is an inner, personal
construct, associated with self-
esteem, and self-understanding. It is
how good one feels about
himself/herself.
• Life satisfaction is also intrinsic
but in this case, it is the general
attitude towards life. When well-
being and life satisfaction are
present, happiness naturally flow.
 This can also refer to the desire
to change one’s life, satisfaction
with the past, satisfaction with
the future, and significant other’s
views of one’s life (Diener, et al.,
1999). It is also associated with
quality of life.
 1. Effective self-perception. Being
• However, in some cases, able to change their attitude about
happiness is generally regarded as themselves and engage in self-
the emotional result of life monitoring to minimize negative
satisfaction. Happiness can be attitudes.
subjective and temporal while life
satisfaction is more encompassing. 2. Realistic self-esteem and self-
acceptance. Self-valuation and self-
How is well-being and life respect.
satisfaction achieved?
3. Control of behavior. Behavior
Personal factors such as awareness and regulation.
personality (such as openness to
experience and extraversion), 4. True perception of the world.
cognition, physical health, and vigor Harboring healthy perceptions of
have been associated with well- their environment and place within it.
being and life satisfaction.
5. Sustaining relationships and
• Environmental conditions affection. Manifesting empathy and
contribute to individual life sharing of positive emotions with
satisfaction. others.

• Socio-economic status, home 6. Self-direction and productivity.

and social environment, Making sure their goals and
interpersonal relationships, and behaviors are aligned to their core
education also influence one’s well- values and conscious beliefs of
being and life satisfaction. themselves.

• Engaging in forward thinking  Within the context of

(enabling fore though and planning) spirituality, being cognizant of
and becoming community oriented one’s purpose in life, accepting
are only some of the things that can limitations and celebrating
be done to enhance the over-all strengths, enabling love and
quality of life. However, well-being concern for others, and
and life satisfaction are highly engaging in behaviors that
personal and relative. Similar to embody all these will lead one to
personal meanings attributed to and have well-being and life
generated in daily life, how one feels satisfaction.
about him/her and the life he/she
lives is dependent on how he/she Lesson 3. Filipino Identity
defines a meaningful life. Values, Traits, and
Constitutional Rights
What are the characteristics of
people who have a high level of
well-being and life satisfaction? Traits and Characteristics (Tiletile,
Literature has posited a variety of 2014)
qualities associated to such
individuals  Filipinos have one of the best
traits in the world which you
must know. Although they have
 been colonized by several
countries, core values from their
ancestors remained intact and
are still applied up to this time.
Hospitable This is one of the most
popular qualities of Filipinos.
Foreigners who have gone to the
Philippines find themselves falling in
love for their hospitality. It’s a
different kind of values which already
existed thousands of years ago.
Respectful This is often observed
not just from younger people but
also form older ones.
Strong Family Ties and religious
Filipinos value their families so much
that they tend to be so intact.
Generous and Helpful This is
observed when one person has
nothing and they tend to share what
they have to them.
Hardworking Filipinos are
hardworking people to the fact that
they are willing to work several times
to almost whole day just to feed their
families. That’s how Filipinos are.
Loving and Caring This is so true!
Filipinos are the sweetest and loving
people in the world.
Strong Family Orientation Filipinos
possess a genuine and deep love for
family which includes not simply
spouse and children; parents and
siblings, but also grandparents,
aunts, uncles, cousins, godparents
and other ceremonial relatives.
Flexible, Adaptable, and creative
Filipinos have a great capacity to
adjust and to circumstances and the
surrounding environment, both
physical and social.
Ability to Survive Despite grinding
poverty, many Filipinos survive.
They can even make a livelihood
from garbage dumps. We have
survived many invaders, oppressors
and natural calamities, and have
come out with hope and
determination to carve out our
existence anew. Significantly, the
typical Filipino greeting is “Mabuhay!”
Camaraderie (Pakikisama or
Kapwa- Tao) While this trait is true
to some extent, it must be noted that
camaraderie is present only among
close friend and relatives.
Debt of Gratitude (Utang na Loob)
Debt of gratitude still persists in the
Filipino psyche. You give a Filipino a
favor and he will surely remember it
even if he already returned the favor.
Good Traits of a Filipino
Pakikisama/ harmony, Joyous,
Highly Intelligent, Faithful, Loyal,
Bayanihan, Being Optimistic, Self-
reliance, Very Competitive, Very
Brave, Adaptability, Endurance.
Bad Traits of a Filipino
Judgmental, Plastikan/ Backstabbers,
Nepotism/ favoritism, Crab Mentality,
Always late, Tsismoso/Tsismosa,
Pakialamero, Paasa, Habit Dirty
Minded, Pilosopo, Too much
hospitability, Ningas Kugon, Lack of
Historical Knowledge, Padrino
System.
The Constitutional Rights of
Filipino Citizens (Dayang, 2016)
• Due Process Is a law that hears
before it condemns. This clause in
our fundamental charter means that
no person shall be deprived of his
life, liberty or property unless due
process is observed.
• Equal Protection of the Law This
refers to equality in the enjoyment of
similar rights and privileges granted
by law.
• Right against Unreasonable
Searches and Seizures The right
of the people to be secure in their
persons, houses papers, and effects
against unreasonable searches and
seizures of whatever nature and for
any purpose should be inviolable
and that no search warrant shall be
issued except upon probable cause
to be determined personally by judge
after examination under oath or
affirmation of the complaint and the
witnesses he may produce, and
particularly describing the place to
be searched and the persons or
things to be seized. (Sec.2. Article 3).
• Freedom of Speech No law shall
be passed abridging the freedom of
speech, of expression, or of press,
or the right of the people to
peaceably assemble and petition the
government for redress of
grievances (Sec. 4, Article III).
• Clear and Present Danger Rule
Under this test, freedom of speech is
not an absolute right. A government
can punish a person for speech that
presents a clear and present a
danger leading to illegal acts. Thus,
the right can be curtailed by the
government when it can
demonstrate a close connection
between speech and illegal action.
• Right of Assembly It is the right
on the part of the citizens to
congregate peacefully in a public
meeting to discuss issues and
matters of interest to them.
• Freedom of Religion It refers to
the right of a person to worship God
in his own way and practice his
religious beliefs without any
interference from the government,
anybody or group.
• Liberty of Adobe and Travel It
refers to the freedom to choose
where one should reside, while
liberty of travel means the freedom
to move from one place to another
without the interference from
anybody or government.
• Right to Information on Matters
of Public Concern The right of the
people shall be recognized. Access
to officials’ records, and to
documents, and papers pertaining to
official acts, transactions or
decisions, as well as to
governmental research data used as
basis for policy development. Shall
be afforded the citizens, subject to
such limitations as may be provided
by the law.
• Right to Association Means the
freedom of any Filipino citizen to
organize and join any society or
group, as long as its goals and
activities are not contrary to existing
laws of the land.
• Right to Just Compensation
Private property shall not be taken
for public use without just
compensation.
• Non- Impairment of Contracts No
law impairing the obligations of
contracts shall be passed. The
principal purpose of this is that of
safeguarding the integrity of valid
contractual agreements against
unwarranted from the States in the
form of the law.
• Free Access to Courts States that
free access to the courts and
quasijudicial bodies and adequate
legal assistance shall not be denied
to any person by reason of poverty.

• Rights of a Person Under
Custodial investigation The right
states that any person under
investigation for the commission of
an offense shall have the right to be
informed of his right to remain silent
and to have a competent and
independent counsel preferably of
his own choice, if the person cannot
afford the services of the counsel, he
must be provided one. And this right
sometimes called Miranda rights.
• Right of an Accused in Criminal
Cases The rights of the accused in
criminal cases are outlined in greater
detail in Section 14 of Article III.
MODULE 6: THE
EMOTIONAL AND
SOCIAL SELF
Lesson 1. The Emotional Self
The Function of Emotions
 According to Dialect Behavior
Therapy (DBT), a combines
cognitive and behavioral therapy,
incorporating methodologies
from various practices including
Eastern mindfulness techniques
that until we begin to understand
the functions of emotions, why
we have them, what their effect
is on others, we cannot expect
ourselves to change them.
Major Function of Emotions;
1. Emotions Communicate to and
Influence Others. We communicate
our emotions to other with verbal
and nonverbal (facial expressions,
body gestures or postures) language.
Some expressions of emotion have
an automatic effect on others. When
there is a difference in what a person
communicates non-verbally versus
verbally, the other person will usually
respond to the nonverbal expression.
2. Emotions Organize and
Motivate Action
Emotions prepare for and motivate
action. There is an action urge
connected to specific emotions that
is hard-wired. “Hard-wired” means it
is an automatic, built- in part of our
behavior.
3. Emotions Can be Self-
Validating
Emotions can give us information
about a situation or event. They can
signal to us that something is going
on. Sometimes signals about a
situation will be picked
unconsciously, and then we may an
emotional reaction, but not be sure
what set off the reaction. Think of
some times when emotions are self-
validating.
9 Simple Tips to Help You Manage
Your Emotions (Rosenthal, 2011)
 Use your emotions and bodily
responses to recognize when
you are stressed.
 Write down your thoughts and
feelings about what is stressing
you.
 Control whatever aspect of the
stress that you can
 Don’t make mountains out of
molehills.
 Redefine the Problem
 Develop behaviors that distract
you from stress.
 Reach out to a friend or family
member.
 Exercise Regularly
 Meditate and Relax
Lesson 2. The Social Self
1. What is the “Self?”
Self-awareness is a crucial aspect
of human development, often
triggered by a slap on a newborn's
backside or a sudden breath of air.
However, the scientific challenge lies
in consistently discovering how and
when we develop self-recognition,
a concept that is challenging to
document reliably and validity.
The Scientific Study of Self-
Awareness
 A 1977 study of well-known 2- to
3-week-old infants imitating
a mouth opening, a finger moving, or
a tongue appearing
between the lips
 By 1989, the same research
team had predicted imitation
among
infants who were less than 72 hours
old (including a
42-minute-old infant).
 Four-month-old infants reliably
display a more distinct sense of
self by smiling more and looking
longer at pictures of others
related to looking at pictures of
themselves
 Infants mirror the expressions of
adults while becoming
conscious of themselves as
independent beings.
Defining and Measuring the Self-
Concept
 The self-concept is the personal
summary of who we
believe we are
 Social comparison theory
 Social identity theory
 Self-schema theory
Social Comparison Theory
suggests that we use social
comparisons to construct our self-
concept especially when we have
no other objective standard
available to us.
For example, if you are walking by
yourself on the beach, you may not
even be thinking about your physical
appearance. But when someone
much more
attractive walks by, the
uncomplimentary social comparison
can deliver a small shock to your
previously contented self-concept.
Upward Social Comparisons - we
relate ourselves to someone who is
better than us.
Downward Social Comparisons -
This occurs when we compare
ourselves to someone who is worse
than we are.
The W.I.D.E. guide to social
comparisons identifies four
factors related to our subjective
processing of what we see around
us:
• Who. We assess our abilities
automatically by comparing
ourselves to similar others.
• Interpretation. How we interpret
and take social comparisons
influences our self-concept.
• Direction. The direction of our
social comparison impacts our
selfconcept (upward & downward
social comparisons)
• Esteem. Protecting our self-esteem
powers our self-concept.
Social Identity Theory
The self is composed of two general
categories:

(1) personal characteristics (serious,
funny, grumpy, tall, or rich), and
(2) social role characteristics (son,
mother, musician, Catholic, or
accountant).
Self-Schema Theory
 A schema in general is a both our good and bad qualities, as
cognitive and memory
structure for organizing the world
 Self-schemas convert the raw
material from cultural
social comparisons into the building
blocks of our
self-concept
 also called “the architecture of
personality.”
2. How do we Know the Self is
Social?
Here are three strands of evidence
representing that the self is social:
(1) Our Self-Perceptions Depend On
The Behaviors We Display To
Others, (2) Self-Discrepancy Theory
Defines How Different Components
Of The Self Are Influenced By
Others, And
(2) (3) Our Sense Of Self Often
Comprises Other People.
Self-Perception Theory
 proposes that we get help
answering the question, “Who
am I?” by making implications about
ourselves based on
observing our own behaviors.
 theory suggests that we form our
self-concept in very
similar ways.
 the idea that our self-concept
forms by observing our
own behaviors in a social world
Self-Discrepancy Theory: Are We
Trying to Juggle Three Selves?
The Actual Self Our first self is our
“actual self,” which is simply who we
think we are, right now. It includes
well as the qualities we think other
people see in us. The actual self is
who we are currently, as if someone
took a snapshot of our evolving lives.
A meaningful actual self can
acknowledge our strengths and
admit our weaknesses.
The Ideal Self We also have an
“ideal self,” which is the person we
would like to become in the future. It
includes enhancing or adding
positive qualities that we don’t think
are maximized in the actual self, and
it means eliminating or at least
reducing negative qualities we have
right now. Our ideal self is our
dreams and goals, the person we
strive to become. Importantly, our
ideal self is truly based on what we
want; even if that means secret
desires we’ve never been able to
admit to anyone else.
The Ought Self In contrast with the
ideal self, our “ought” self is what we
think other people expect of us. The
ought self is based on our perception
of 145 what our social world hopes
for us, perhaps what our parents
want us to do or be, what our friends
believe would be good for us, or
even what our culture tells us is
proper and correct. The ought self
may influence how we dress, for
example, because we know what is
expected of us. Interestingly, our
ought self might change based on
whom our reference is.

Self-Expansion Theory
 It is the idea that all of us have a
basic motivation to grow,
improve, and enhance our self-
concept
 We all want to extent our
greatest potential.
 specifically recommends that
one common way we attempt to
“expand” our self-concept is
through close social
relationships.
 If we psychologically pledge with
others and feel that these
individuals now become part of
who we are, then their strengths,
resources, knowledge, and skills
can help us grow and have new
opportunities.
Inclusion of the Other in the Self
(IOS) Scale, which presents people
with a series of seven Venn
diagrams with increasing overlap
between “self” and “other”. It has
also been used to measure how 146
much people see them as cognitively
including their social groups on a
larger scale.
3. Why Do We Present Different
Selves In Different Situations?
People perform in slightly different
ways for family, friends, peers,
supervisors, professors, and store
clerks. This tendency is called self-
presentation theory or impression
management. These are ways that
we correct the self to gain social
influence by the impressions that we
make on others.
There are specific tactics
associated with impression
management.
Ingratiation: Other-Enhancements
and Opinion Conformity
This short-term impression
management tactic is intended to
increase liking and attraction by
complimenting the other person and
seeming to admire him or her. One
practice of ingratiation is other-
enhancement, praising the
interviewer. A distinction with the
same goal is opinion conformity,
endorsing the interviewer’s
perceived attitudes or values.
Self-Promotion: Self-
Enhancements and Entitlements
Self-promotion is another short-term
impression management tactic that
customs positive statements about
the self to convey competence. One
form of self-promotion is self-
enhancements; that’s when you
suggest that your actual
accomplishments are more
significant than they first appear to
be. Another common form of self-
promotion is entitlements; that’s
when you take praise for positive
events even if you had nothing to do
with them. These may be actual
short-term tactics, but they can
backfire. For example, taking credit
for someone else’s work may turn a
friend into a long-term enemy and
loss your reputation with important
people.
Conspicuous Consumption
Depending on the type of job, getting
an advantage during a job interview
is a short-term tactic. But still there
are impression management
strategies with long-term goals.
Others will try to influence the
impression they sort on others by
spending money on flashy or high-
status items, such as expensive
homes, cars, clothes, and jewelry.
Publicly displaying the use of
expensive products in an effort to
impress others is called conspicuous
consumption.
Brain Damage Can Limit Self-
Presentation Ability
Some people with advanced cases
of Alzheimer’s disease cannot pass
the mirror self-recognition test. They
look into the mirror and have no idea
who is looking back at them
Alzheimer’s disease is not the only
tragic but suitable clue telling us how
the self and the brain are connected.
Self-Monitoring: Social
Chameleons
Self-monitoring recommends
awareness that we have a
complicated self that needs
monitoring. Some people outdo at
being “social chameleons” that can
blend into almost any environment.
Others just don’t seem to care.
There are benefits and drawbacks to
both approaches.
• Low Self-Monitors. Some people
turn the same way no matter where
they are or who is around them—
they are always shy, for example, or
always sarcastic. People who seem
to have little change in their
personality or self-presentation
across time and situations are
measured low in self-monitoring.
They pay little attention to how they
“come across” to other people and
act consistently no matter where
they are.
• High Self-Monitors. However,
other people are high in self
monitoring, and their behavior is in
contrast: They change how they act
all the time, liable on the situation.
For example, cooperative
environment, they cooperate; in a
competitive environment, they
compete. High self-monitors are
people who look around and assess
their environment, then adjust their
self-presentation to get whatever
they want out of that particular
situation.
4. Is the Truth Always the Self’s
Friend?
Optimal Margin Theory: Positive
Illusions Can Be Beneficial
recommends a slight to moderate
range of healthy distortions of reality.
A little bit of self-deception can make
us feel good but too much alteration
of reality causes problems.
Instead of the “cold, hard truth,” we
often wish to trust positive illusions,
beliefs that depart from reality in
ways that influence us to remain
optimistic.
We use three types of self-
deceptions that help our own
positive mental health.
(1) adhere to the belief we can
control our own lives more than we
can (control),
(2) rely on unrealistically optimistic
view of the future (optimism), and
(3) determine meaning in critical life
events, such as bereavement
(meaning).
Self-Serving Cognitive Biases
Cognitive distortions that improve
our self-concept by making us
observe that we’re a little better than
we are, objectively, are called self-
serving cognitive biases.
Let’s look at three specific
examples of how we alter reality,
just a little, to keep these self-
serving views.
1. Biased Views of Our Own Traits
We can confess fears, such as
speaking in front of a group, but we
express ourselves that everyone
else shares our anxieties and, thus,
these problems are not “fatal flaws.”
We ease ourselves by simply
enclosing our “best” and “worst”
qualities in this way that makes us
feel just a little better.
2. Biased Views of Our Own
Behaviors Another self-serving
cognitive bias arises when we study
causes for our own successes and
failures. Like stating negative traits
we possess, we can disclose that
we’ve done bad things or failed at
something but we often defend our
view of the self by coming up with an
excuse or justification for bad
behaviors.
3. Biased Views of Feedback
About the Self A third self-serving
cognitive bias is the tendency for
people to view feedback about
themselves in a twisted manner.
Many people appreciate taking little
quizzes about themselves on
websites like Facebook, for example.
When you like the result, you might
think, “Hey that was a great quiz! But
if you don’t like the outcome, it’s
easy for you to understand how the
questions were flawed.
4. What is Self-Esteem and How
Can We Measure It?
Defining Self-Esteem Self-esteem
is our subjective, personal evaluation
of our self-concept. Earlier, we
learned that our self-concept is our
perception of qualities, relationships,
beliefs, and opinions. When we
assess that self-concept and choose
that it is good, bad, worthwhile,
worthless, or any other type of
judgment, that’s self-esteem.
For example, self-esteem is not the
same thing as self-compassion, an
orientation to maintain for oneself. It
defines that self-compassion as self-
esteem but without the “the self-
enhancing illusions”. Self-esteem is
also distinct from narcissism, an
extreme self-love based on
unwarranted belief in one’s
specialness virtual to others.
Narcissism is mostly arrogance.
Self-esteem emphases on whether
we respect ourselves as a person of
worth; narcissism focuses on
whether we regard ourselves as
more worthy than others. Self-
esteem is also different from self-
efficacy, the degree to which you
trust that you are able of completing
a specific task or attaining a
particular goal. Self-efficacy appears
to be a good thing, at least most of
the time. Self-efficacy contributes to
self-esteem; benefits people cope
with failure in the workplace, and
encourage resilience in the face of
chronic diseases such as diabetes.
Self-esteem is not self-compassion,
narcissism, or self-efficacy. It’s our
estimation of our own worth, based
on our assessment of our self-
concept.
Two Strategies for Measuring
Self-Esteem Because self-esteem is
a complex, abstract, and subjective
construct, it’s important to
understand about how researchers
operationalize it in scientific studies.
There are two general strategies for
measuring self-esteem: explicit,
direct measures and implicit, indirect
measures.
1. Measuring Explicit Self-Esteem
(Directly) Researchers frequently
use this technique, called reverse
scoring, to inspire careful reading of
each item on a scale; it stops people
from simply writing the same
response to every question without
really reading them. Read the
scoring instructions to confirm you the concept of self-
come up with the correct result. creation/presentation.
2. Measuring Implicit Self-Esteem
(Indirectly) Sometimes people are 1. What is a selective Self-
neither willing nor able to give Presentation? (Fleming, 2015) The
researchers a precise report. A process of creating a digital artefact
problem called social desirability which is carefully chosen
(one type of impression representation or expression of
management) may inspire one’s real world self. It is use to
inaccurate answering to topics that, control the impressions of others
if answered honestly, might trigger social interaction.
an uncomfortable response. For
example, social desirability might Types of Self-presentation
reassure dishonest boost to • Authentic - Goal is to create an
selfreport of taboo or personal image consistent with the way we
sexual behavior, family violence, or view ourselves.
out of favor political loyalties. When • Ideal - Goal is to establish an
this is the case, indirect or implicit image consistent with what we wish
methodologies may yield more were.
reliable, valid responses than direct, • Tactical - Goal is to establish a
explicit, self-report lines to collecting public image consistent with what
data. the others want or expect us to be.
3. Collective Self-Esteem
Collective self-esteem is our Impression Management
assessment of the value of the social A person influencing another’s
groups in which we are members. It person interpretation place or thing
is defined as “that aspect of an by controlling the information they
individual’s self-concept which receive. In tactical self-
comes from his knowledge of his presentation, a person cares only
membership in a social group (or about the impact of the image they
groups) together with the value and present to others, not about whether
emotional significance attached to that image is consistent with the real
that membership”. You have or ideal self.
collective self-esteem for the • People who engage in tactical self-
reputation of your college or presentation usually have an ulterior
university motive.
• They often want others to view
them positively to get rewards.
MODULE 7 THE
DIGITAL SELF Characteristics of Impression
Management
• Explains why our behavior can
Lesson 1. Selective Self change if we notice that we are
being watched or observed.
presentation and • It can change depending on who
Impression Management we are interacting with or what
Thompson’s (1995), Giddens’ (1991), personal information we need to be
and Hall’s (1992, 1996) concepts of providing to present ourselves in a
self-formation, self-identity, and way that will be acceptable to others.
identification respectively proposed
Thus, we can select only what we
want to present and impress to
others, what we view beneficial to
our personality, especially when we
create a digital self. We carefully
choose representation or expression
of one’s real world to the online
world.
Young people create/recreate
their self-identity by means of
“impression management”
(Gofman, 1959)
2. Online Identity and “Self” in
Cyberspace: (I, Me, Myself, and
My User ID Online Identity)
Online Identity (Internet Society, n.d.)
The sum of your characteristics and
interactions. Sometimes the different
representation of you are referred to
as partial identities.
How do you build your online
identity?
Every website that you interact with
what will collect its own version of
who you are, based on the
information that you have shared.
Thus, it is up to you on how you will
represent yourself as closely as who
you are and what you do in a real life
or selectively, to create a constructing our individual and joint
representation far from your real life.
3. Impact of Online Interactions of
Self (Margalit, 2018) When
interacting with people, we
automatically make inferences about
them without even consciously
aware of it.
4. Extended Self in a Digital World
- Russel W. Berk (2013)
a. Dematerialization Things are
disappearing before our eyes- our
information, communications, photos,
videos, music, messages, words, are
now largely invisible and immaterial-
composed of electronic-stored in a
digital storage device in location we
will never know. Complicate our
thinking about organizations.
b. Re-embodiment This is the
“breakout if the visual” online,
leading to a new “construction” and
definition of self in the virtual world
where online games, webpages,
photo, and video sharing sites are
possible. We are disembodied and
re-embodied as avatars, sharing
identity with the chosen avatar
virtually. We may employ
anonymous and pseudonymous
identities online and enact wild
fantasy identities in online games
and virtual worlds.
c. Sharing Uploading, downloading
and sharing, etc. provides free
access of information through web
surfing. In Facebook, social media
friends know more than the
immediate families about our daily
activities, connection and thoughts.
Diaries that were once private or
shared only with close friends are
now posted as blogs for everyone to
read.
d. Co-Construction of Self Digital
involvement in social in nature,
social interactions which help in
extended sense of self as the new
version of Cooley’s “Looking Glass
Self Theory” known as the
collaborative self. Friends also help
to co-construct and reaffirm each
other’s sense of self through their
posting, tagging and comments.
e. Distributed Memory The identity
is not to be found in behavior nor in
the reactions of others, but in the
capacity to keep a particular
narrative going, done by continually
integrating events in the outside
world into our ongoing story about
the self. Photos posted in the online
world may not be accurate in giving
memories of the past since the
photos, blogs, etc. may just be
selected representation of happy
times, hence may not be sufficient to
tell our stories.
5. Boundaries of the Online Self
Setting boundaries to your Online
Self (Ben-Jospeh, 2018)
• Stick to safer sites.
• Guard your passwords
• Be choosy about your online
friends.
• Remember that anything you put
online or post on a site is there
forever, even if you try to delete it.
• Limit what you share
• Don’t be mean or embarrass other
people online
Lesson 2. Self Revelation
 The sharing of information about
self through online facilitated by
the disinhibiting and
confessional effects means that
it is now far easier to present
ourselves in ways that would
have been awkward at best in
pre-digital times.
 Madden and Smith report that
57% of American adults admit
online “ego searching” for
information about themselves
more than search for information
about past (46%) or present
(38%) friends.
Loss of Control (Belk, 2013)
Sharing confidences with friends is
not new, but the potential audience
is now far broader. As some have
learned the hard way, appearing
literally or figuratively naked before
the world can come back to haunt us
in school admissions, hiring,
promotions, and friendships. What
was once private is now more likely
to be public. While we may exercise
self-control, it is far harder to control
all our digital self-representations
when others may reshare with
unintended audiences.
Shared Digital Possessions and
Aggregate Self (Belk, 2013)
When things are jointly owned, they
are also likely to be more relevant to
the aggregate level of self-
encompassing those with whom they
are shared. In the digital realm,
however, we are part of imagined
communities whose members may
not be personally known aside from
their pseudonyms and online
contributions. A case in point is file
sharers who jointly assemble and
share ownership of a set of musical
files. This need not be so-called
pirated music like that of Napster
and its successors. It could be a
group of friends who swap music in
person. It could also be a channel or
group within YouTube or Vimeo.
Both the act of sharing and the
sense of joint possession enhance
the sense of imagined community
and aggregate extended self in a
digital age.
Moreover, the acts of sharing either
the files or information about the
subject matter (e.g., a musical or film
genre) on forums, in blogs, or via
ratings and comments on sites like
Amazon and iTunes, create feelings
of group identity. Joint identity is also
found in open-source software
collaborations like Linux. Thus, the
possibilities of digital sharing online
foster feelings of community and
aggregate sense of self, even with
others we would not recognize in
person.
Shared Sense of (Cyber) Space
(Belk, 2013)
The sense of aggregate self can also
extend to a shared sense of space
online. The overlap between digital
aggregate extended self among
those seeking access rather than
ownership is apparent when we
consider cyberspace as a public
place that is occupied by a partially
rotating set of participants. Although
there is ownership of property within
Second Life and retail web sites like
Amazon.com have owners, on these
sites there is a sense that these are
public access spaces. They invite
interaction, comments, ratings, and
other forms of Web 2.0 participation
by anyone. Individuals may feel
proprietary toward their blogs, web
sites, 167 and social media spaces
and may even own a domain name,
but in most of these cases shared
access is sought more than
ownership. The whole point of Web
2.0 and most digital devices is to
facilitate access and communication.
The Internet and many digital
devices free us from the constraints
of time and place and create other,
virtual, times and places. Kozinets
and Kedzior call this process of
virtual place creation “re-worlding,”
meaning taking us out of the
constraints of our physical space
and providing us with new abilities:
“The ability to remodel the virtual
environment extends the identity
project far beyond the body.
Gender and Sexuality Online
According to Marwick (2013), while
the terms “sex,” “gender,” and
“sexuality” are often thought of as
synonymous, they are actually quite
distinct. The differences between the
common understandings of these
terms and how researchers think
about them yield key insights about
the social functioning of gender.
Sexuality is an individual expression
and understanding of desire. While
like gender, this is often viewed as
binary (homosexual or heterosexual),
in reality sexuality is often
experienced as fluid.
Performing Gender Online
(Morgenroth and Ryan, 2018)
Theorist Judith Butler (1990)
conceptualized gender as a
performance. She explained that
popular understandings of gender
and sexuality came to be through
discourse and social processes. She
argued that gender was performative,
in that it is produced through millions
of individual actions, rather than
something that comes naturally to
men and women.
Setting Boundaries to Your Online
Self: Smart Sharing The following
guidelines will help you share
information online in a smart way
that will protect yourself and not
harm others. Before posting or
sharing anything online, consider the
following: • Is this post/story
necessary? • Is there a real benefit
to this post? Is it funny, warm-
hearted, teachable- or am I just
making noise online without purpose?
• Have we (as a family or
parent/child) resolved this issue? An
issue that is still being worked out at
home, or one that is either
vulnerable or highly emotional,
should not be made public. • Is it
appropriate? Does it stay within the
boundaries of our family values? •
Will this seem as funny in 5, 10, or
15 years? Or is this post better
suited for sharing with a small group
of family members? Or maybe not at
all? Here are additional for proper
sharing of information and ethical
use of the Internet according to New
(2014): • Stick to safer sites. • Guard
your passwords. • Limit what you
share. • Remember that anything
you put online or post on a site is
there forever, even if you try to
delete it. • Do not be mean or
embarrass other people online. •
Always tell if you see strange or bad
behavior online. • Be choosy about
your online friends. • Be patient.
MODULE 8
MANAGING AND
CARING FOR THE
SELF: A BETTER ME
AND MY FUTURE
GOALS
Lesson 1. Learning to be
a Better Student
What Happens To Your Brain
During Learning?
According to to Dr. Pascale
Michelon (2008) it was believed that
as we aged, the connections in the
brain became fixed, and then simply
faded. Research has shown that the
brain never stops changing through
learning. Learning a new skill at any
age has a specific and definite
impact on your brain that scientists
now know a lot about. After you
learn something new, your brain is
never the same again. Each and
every time we learn something new
our brain forms new connections and
neurons and makes existing neural
pathways stronger or weaker. Some
experts call these changes
“plasticity” in the brain. “Dendrites
in your neurons get signals from
other dendrites, and the signals
travel along the axon, which
connects them to other neurons and
dendrites. These signals travel fast,
often in only fractions of a second,
and many of the signals are sent
without the brain being aware of the
action”. Your brain will continue
changing right up until the end of
your life, and the more you learn
along the way, the more your brain
will change and the more “plastic” it
will be.
Manage your own learning with
the Zimmerman’s Model
(Zimmerman, n.d.)
Plan it, Practice it, evaluate it
Within each phase, there are
multiple opportunities for students to
gather and effectively use feedback
to improve their performance. During
the planning phase, students learn
to more accurately assess their
academic situation and choose
strategies that best address a
specific learning challenge. They
also set achievable short- and long-
term goals. During the practice
phase, learners implement the
selected strategies and make
ongoing adjustments to their plan as
they self-monitor their progress. Last,
during the evaluation phase,
students evaluate the effectiveness
of each strategy in helping them
achieve their goals. Feedback from
the evaluation phase is then applied
to the start of the next cycle of
learning.
Lesson 2. Goal Setting
Goal Setting vs. Mind Setting
Personal Goal Setting (Mindtools,
n.d.) Goal setting is a powerful
process for thinking about your ideal
future, and for motivating yourself to
turn your vision of this future into
reality. The process of setting goals
helps you choose where you want to
go in life. By knowing precisely what
you want to achieve, you know
where you have to concentrate your
efforts. You'll also quickly spot the
distractions that can, so easily, lead
you astray.
A useful way of making goals more
powerful is to use the SMART goals.
SMART usually stands for:
S – Specific (or Significant). M –
Measurable (or Meaningful). A –
Attainable (or Action-Oriented). R –
Relevant (or Rewarding). T – Time-
bound (or Trackable)
Goal setting is an important method
for:
1. Deciding what you want to
achieve in your life.
2. Separating what's important from
what's irrelevant, or a distraction.
3. Motivating you.
4. Building your self-confidence,
based on successful achievement of
goals.
Set your lifetime goals first. Then,
set a five-year plan of smaller goals
that you need to complete if you are
to reach your lifetime plan. Keep the
process going by regularly reviewing
and updating your goals. And
remember to take time to enjoy the
satisfaction of achieving your goals
when you do so.
How does mindset affect learning?
Mindset Theory – Fixed Vs.
Growth Mindset from Dweck
Theory
“Mindset” refers to implicit theories
that individuals hold regarding the
nature of intelligent behavior; to the
degree that individuals attribute
intelligence to fixed traits, they hold a
“fixed” theory of intelligence (that is,
a fixed mindset), and to the degree
that they attribute intelligence to
learning, effort, training, and practice,
they hold a “growth” theory of
intelligence (that is, a growth
mindset). The terms fixed and
growth mindset replaced the earlier
terms for entity and incremental
theories of intelligence.
Individuals with a fixed mindset
believe that their qualities (such as
intelligence and other personality
traits) are “set in stone”– how God
made you is basically who you are.
One’s traits are fixed — not
something that can be practiced or
developed. Individuals with a growth
mindset, on the other hand, believe
that effort or training can change
one’s qualities and traits.
Developing A Growth Mindset
(Zimmerman, 2016)
1. Create a New Compelling Belief
Create a new compelling belief by
believing your talents and skills can
be honed by applying oneself. It is
your consistent effort and enjoyment
of one's chosen path in life that
illuminates the road to mastery.
2. View Failure in a Different Light
Failure is the time to apply extra
effort to significantly improve your
results. Failure is what you do and
understanding what you can learn
from it. Remember, it is not who you
are as a human being.
3. Sky Rocket Your Self-
Awareness Become acutely aware
of your many gifts and talents. Fully
comprehend your key strengths and
weaknesses. Ask others for
feedback such as your closest
friends, family members, boss and
colleagues as they can offer slightly
different views and give you an
overall perspective on what to focus
on and areas for development.
4. Become a Curious Learner Act
like a child does on a daily basis, live
in wonderment and discover the
beauty of life. Decide today, to
continually focus on learning and
growing. Begin by asking more
questions and being more curious
about everyone you meet, the
journey they have been on and what
they can teach you.
5. Challenges Are Your New Best
Friend As in life, it is the never
ending mountain ranges like the
highest mountain in the world,
Mauna Kea. When one chooses to
climb the mountain, they must
overcome the insurmountable
challenges in order to get to the top.
They choose to risk their life, help
others in their journey, and become
indestructible in body and mind.
Those with a growth mindset excel
with challenges. Challenges propel
them forward towards their goals, it
is the fuel that inevitably helps them
rise to the top. It is all about learning
and taking positive action time and
time again. No matter how far they
fall, they continue to get back up to
begin playing the game once more.
6. Love Takes You to The Top
Those with a growth mindset whom
naturally love what they do, rise to
the top more organically. With some
of them having no aspirations to go
there, it is purely a spin-off from
doing what they absolutely love and
continuing to do so with all of their
heart and soul even when faced with
adversity and challenges.
7. Tenacity That Ignites The
tenacity forms part of their character
and is an essential ingredient in
becoming unstoppable. Giving up is
not part of their vocabulary, they
have a goal and won't stop until they
arrive. Their tenacity is an essential
ingredient to one's success, without
it one will falter, slip and inevitably
fall to the lowest levels. This is what
separates a novice from a champion.
8. Massively Inspired By Others
Those with a growth mindset love to
see others reach the echelons of
success. This add more fuel to their
blazing fire that is alight within and
helps them continue their journey.
Watching others succeed liberates
their soul as to the possibilities of life.
Their genuine happiness and
excitement for others unwittingly
attracts and returns success back to
them. For one can never receive
what they resent. The bottom line is
like all wonderful things in life it takes
time just as day moves into night,
the moon shines bright and the stars
light up the sky.
Lesson 3. Matacognition
(Millis, 2016)
Metacognition, simplistically
defined, can be described as
“cognition about cognition” or
“thinking about thinking” (Flavell,
Miller & Miller, 2002, p. 175; Shamir,
Metvarech, & Gida, 2009, p. 47;
Veeman, Van Hout-Wolters, &
Afflerbach, 2006, p. 5).
Basically, metacognition must be
viewed as an ongoing process that
involves reflection and action.
Metacognitive thinkers change both
their understandings and their
strategies. The clearest definitions of
metacognition emphasize its nature
as a process or cycle.
Several authors (Nilson, 2013, p. 9;
Schraw, 2001; & Zimmerman, 1998;
2000; 2002) narrow this process
down to three ongoing stages.
The first stage, pre-planning,
emphasizes the need for reflection
on both one’s own thinking and the
task at hand, including reflection on
past strategies that might have
succeeded or failed.
Following this self-reflection, during
planning, metacognitive thinkers
develop and implement—put into
action—a plan.
In the third and final stage—post-
planning adjustments/revisions—
subsequent analysis following
implementation leads to
modifications, revised decisions, and
new future plans. In an excellent
summary, Wirth states that
“metacognition requires students
both to understand how they are
learning and to develop the ability to
make plans, to monitor progress and
to make adjustments” (as cited in
Jaschik, 2011, p. 2).
Components of Metacognition
(Hendrick, 2014)
Metacognition is often simply defined
as, “thinking about thinking”. In
actuality, defining metacognition is
not that simple. 180 Metacognition is
classified into 3 components:
Metacognitive Knowledge or
Metacognitive Awareness
It is what individuals know about
themselves and others as cognitive
processes, knowledge that can be
used to control cognitive processes.
Flavell further divides.
Metacognitive Knowledge into 3
categories:
• Knowledge of Person variables
refers to general knowledge about
how human beings learn and
process information, as well as
individual’s knowledge of one’s own
learning processes.
• Knowledge of Task variables
include knowledge about the nature
of the task as well as the type of
processing demands that it will place
upon the individual.
• Knowledge of Strategy variables
include knowledge about both
cognitive and metacognitive
strategies, as well as conditional
knowledge about when and where it
is appropriate to use such strategies.
Metacognitive Regulation
Metacognitive Experiences involve
the use of Metacognitive Strategies
or Metacognitive Regulation (Brown,
1987). Metacognitive strategies are
sequential processes that one uses
to control cognitive activities, and to
ensure that a cognitive goal (eg:-
understanding a text) has been met.
These processes help to regulate
and oversee learning, and consist of
planning and monitoring cognitive
activities, as well as checking the
outcomes of those activities. Thus,
metacognitive regulation is the
regulation of cognition and learning
experiences through a set of
activities that help people control
their learning.
Metacognitive Experiences
Metacognition, or the ability to
control one’s cognitive processes
(self regulation) has been linked to
intelligence (Borokowski et al., 1987,
Brown, 1987, Sternberg, 1984,
1986). Sternberg refers to these
executive processes as
“Metacomponents in his triarchic
theory of control, other cognitive
components as well as receive feed
back from these components.
According to Sternberg,
Metacomponents are responsible for
“figuring out how to do a particular
task or set of tasks, and then making
sure that the task or set of tasks are
done correctly” (Sternberg, 1986).
These executive processes involve
planning, evaluating, monitoring and
problem solving activities. Sternberg
maintains that the ability to
appropriately allocate cognitive
resources, such as deciding how
and when a given task should be
accomplished is central to
intelligence.
Flavell (1979) offered a model of
Metacognition with four components.
• Metacognitive knowledge
• Metacognitive experience
• Goals (tasks)
• Actions (strategies)
Metacognitive Knowledge refers to progress as an individual learns and
the personal perspectives of one’s the second makes changes and
own learning abilities as well as adopts various strategies if a person
others. Metacognitive knowledge believes that they are not doing well
refers to one’s stored world (Nelson and Narens, 1994; Ridley, et
knowledge that “has to do people as al. ,1992).
cognitive creatures and with their
diverse cognitive tasks, goals, Metcognitive skills are:
actions and experiences. It consists • Task Analysis
of one’s knowledge or beliefs about • Planning
three general factors: his or her own • Monitoring
nature or nature of another as a • Checking or evaluation
cognitive processor, a task, its • Recapitulation
demands, and how those demands
can be met under varying conditions;
and strategies for accomplishing the
task (cognitive strategies that are
involved to make progress toward
goals and metacognitive strategies
that are invoked to monitor the
progress of cognitive strategies).
Metacognitive knowledge may
influence the course of cognitive
enterprises through a deliberate and
conscious memory search 182 or
through unconscious and automatic
cognitive processes. Metacognitive
knowledge may lead to a wide
variety of Metacognitive experience,
which Flavell describes a conscious
cognitive affective experience that
accompany and pertain to an
intellectual enterprise.

• Metacognitive experience is the

conscious consideration of
intellectual experiences that
accompany any success or failure in
learning.
• Metacognitive goals or tasks of
metacognition are the actual
objectives of cognitive endeavour,
such as reading and comprehension
of a passage.
• Metacognitive actions or
strategies refer to the utilization of
specific techniques that may assist
in understanding.
• Metamemory involves two
processes, the first process monitors