Agriculture

Agriculture
UNIT 6 AGRICULTURE
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Agricultural Revolutions in India
6.3.1 Green Revolution
6.3.2 White Revolution
6.3.3 Yellow Revolution
6.3.4 Rainbow Revolution

6.4 Strategies for Sustainable Agriculture Management

6.5 Strategies for Land Degradation Management

6.6 Strategies to Manage Irrigation Water

6.7 Strategies to Manage Organic Matter in Soils

6.8 Strategies for Sustainable Livestock Management

6.9 Strategies for Sustainable Grazing Land Management

6.10 Strategies to Reduce Losses in The Food Supply Chain

6.11 Strategies for Managing Changing Indian Diet

6.12 Let Us Sum Up

6.13 Key Word

6.14 Suggested Further Reading/References

6.15 Answers to Check Your Progress

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the science and art, and process of cultivation of crops and rearing
of domestic animals (livestock) for producing food, feed, fiber, and many other
desired products. The study of agriculture to understand more about the
theoretical and practical application of farming is known as agricultural science.
It has a comprehensive multidisciplinary approach in the field of biology that
encompasses the natural, economic and social sciences that are used in practice
and many kinds of agriculture. The history of agriculture began thousands of
years ago and continued even today to mold nature to satisfy human needs.
Since independence, India has made a significant improvement in agricultural
production. It has grown at a rate of about 2.6% per year in the post-
independence era (Planning commission 1997).

Agriculture is a significant component of the Indian Economy, as they contribute

about 15% of India’s gross domestic product (GDP) and employs about 50%
of our country’s workforce. India is known for the production of pulses, rice, 5
Agriculture, Forestry and wheat, spices, fruits and vegetables. The green revolution staved off famine by
Other Land Uses
raising crop yields dramatically, and the white revolution turned India into the
world’s largest milk producer. Many factors are responsible for these achievements
such as favorable government policies, receptivity of the farmers and also the
establishment of higher agricultural education institutions. The new breed of skilled
human resources was instrumental in generating new technologies, and in its
assessment, refinement and finally its dissemination to the farming community
through extension methods.

India has been self-sufficient in food production since the seventies by

strengthening of multi-pronged strategies, and multi-sectoral programme.
However, food loss is one of the substantial challenges to food security
in India. Inefficiencies and ineffectiveness of management in supply chains
are considered as the primary reasons for postharvest food losses. Therefore,
it is necessary to increase the knowledge base for reducing postharvest food
losses using an efficient and adequate food supply chain management.
Although, agri-business has opened many opportunities to increase farmer’s
income, it is facing challenges viz. market information, etc.

Soil, water, climate, energy, and biodiversity resources are fundamental for
the structure and function of agricultural ecosystem sustainability, in
support of life on earth. Rapid depletion of natural resources, especially
deterioration of air, water and soil quality and the destruction of ecosystems
has been indicated in many reports. In other words, these deteriorations
are expressed as the loss of fertile soils, desertification, reduction in forest
cover, decreasing the availability of freshwater and extreme biodiversity
loss. These concerns have been prevalent not only in India but also in many
nations of the world as well. There has been a significant correlation in
economic growth, development, and environmental sustainability.

Sustainable activities seek to increase agricultural productivity through the

adoption of best management practices which maintain the long-term agro-
ecological integrity of natural resources. There are needs to increases in
farm productivity and better economic returns through the efficient use of
soil, water, and other resources. On the other hand, autonomous and planned
strategies need to be adapted for sustainable agriculture and empowerment
of farmers, as well as partnership development among all stakeholders. That
would play a crucial role to harmonize intensive farming with environmental
integrity and also support social equity while maintaining economic and
production objectives.

6.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

z explain the strategies for sustainable agriculture management;

z explain the strategies for land degradation management;

z explain the strategies for sustainable livestock management; and

z explain the strategies for sustainable grazing land management.

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 Agriculture
6.3 AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS IN INDIA
India achieved significant growths in agriculture, milk, fish, oilseeds, and fruits,
and vegetables due to green, white, blue and yellow revolutions. All these
revolutions have brought prosperity for the farmers.

6.3.1 Green Revolution

The term Green revolution in agriculture was coined in 1968 by Dr. William
S. Gaud to describe the breakthrough in foodgrain production. Green
revolution refers to a quantum jump in food grain production following
the use of high yielding varieties, fertilizers, and pesticides coupled with
the expansion of irrigation facility, multiple cropping and use of modern
mechanized implements. Before the green revolution, the problem of hunger
and malnutrition prevailed in the country, and the demand for food was
satisfied through imported food grains from abroad. Dr. Norman Borlaug,
an American agronomist, humanitarian, and Nobel laureate known as the
father of Green Revolution, said he had worked with a large number of
agriculture researchers, especially Dr. M S Swaminathan to persuade the
government of India to accept high-yielding wheat varieties. Finally, the
government of India agreed to import 18,000 tons of the seeds from Mexico,
which marked the origin of the Green Revolution. The Green Revolution
led by Dr. M S Swaminathan was known as the Father of Green
Revolution in India.

For wheat improvement, a dwarfing gene from a Japanese variety of wheat

Norin-10 was the source to develop dwarf varieties in India. The semi-
dwarf wheat varieties, Sonora 64 and Lerma Rojo were developed at
CIMMYT through dwarfing gene and introduced to India in 1963. The
modified form of dwarf wheat varieties Kalyan Sona and Sonalika was
launched in India. Majority of wheat varieties now grown in India are semi-
dwarf, fertilizer responsive, high yielding and resistant to lodging and
diseases. For rice improvement, a dwarfing gene De-geo-woo-gen, from
an early maturing variety of Japonica rice from Taiwan was a source to
develop dwarf rice varieties in India. Taichung Native 1 (TN1) and international
Rice 8 (IR8) were designed by the introduction of dwarfing genes in Taiwan
and IRRI, Philippines and introduced to India in 1966. They were extensively
grown, then replaced by superior Indian developed semi-dwarf varieties Jaya
and Ratna, which are resistant to lodging, fertilizer responsive, high yielding and
photo-insensitive.

India has achieved significant growths in cereals production by adopting green

revolution technologies, especially rice, wheat, maize, and barley grains production
rose from 61 million tons (Mt) in 1949-50 to 131 Mt in 1978. Food grains
production had increased from 51 Mt to about 272 Mt in 2016-17. Further,
enhanced food grain production and providing food security to India. In 2017-
18, total food grain production was estimated at 275 million tonnes (MT). Fig.
6.1 shows the production of crops over the past few decades.

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Agriculture, Forestry and
Other Land Uses

Rice
Wheat

Oil Seeds

Pulses

Fig. 6.1: Agricultural production (million tonnes)

Source: Ministry of Agriculture; PRS.

Green revolution in India has led to increased foodgrain production as a result

of new advances and triggered by high yielding varieties brought a complete
change in production technology, marketing, storage, and extension. Agriculture
sectors are the largest source of livelihood in India. About 82 percent of the
country’s farmers are small and marginal, having holdings less than one hectare.
Over the years, irrigation potential has increased primarily due to increased
access to precious groundwater. However, 60% of our land is still mostly rain-
fed. Today a significant challenge for the Indian agriculture is to provide nutritious
food to its ever-growing population.

Although the green revolution had several benefits, it also had many harmful
effects on the environment and society. In many research findings, it has been
observed that urea as sole N source is used more than phosphatic and potassic
(P&K) fertilizers. While the recommended ratio of NPK fertilizer use is 4:2:1,
this ratio in India is currently at 6.7:2.4:1 (Fig. 6.2). Indiscriminate use of chemical
fertilizers and different types of pesticides for enhanced crop yield have caused
the environment problem of air, water, and soil pollution. The excessive chemical
fertilizer use destroys the soil structure making the soil prone to erosive forces
like water and wind. The intensive cultivation practices under the green revolution
without following sustainable planning have put severe pressure on land resources
leading to land degradation and natural resource depletion, loss of biodiversity,
pest, and diseases resurgence, etc. Continuous use of nitrogenous fertilizer (N)
to enhance the crop yield has led to the soil acidification problem thus resulting
in the loss of soil fertility. The harmful effects of green revolution have been
witnessed on ecology and environment, human health and agriculture.

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 Agriculture

Fig. 6.2: Consumption of fertilizers (lakh tonnes)

Source: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2015; Ministry of Agriculture &

Farmers Welfare, Government of India.

6.3.2 White Revolution

Before independence, India was solely dependent on foreign milk products.
Milk was severely short in supply. It was a luxury. Even to get a liter
of milk, people used to stand in queues for hours. Keeping milch cattle
hoping to earn out of its milk was not seen as a great business proposition.
Yields were low and Indian breeds were way behind their foreign
counterparts. Indeed, the white revolution has played an essential role in
empowering women and their families for improving the living standards
of rural India. “Operation Flood” programme is leading to the “White
Revolution” in India was started by National Dairy Development Board
(NDDB) in the 1970s under the chairmanship of Dr. Verghese Kurien with
the objective of creating a nationwide milk grid.
The principal architect of this successful programme is Dr. Verghese Kurien,
also called the father of the White Revolution. “Operation Flood”
programme was implemented as a dairy program to generate self-
employment and regular incomes for millions of rural households. Often,
farmers hardly get one-third of the retail price because a large share of
retail prices of farm products goes to the middlemen and competitive forces
do not operate in the case of the agricultural value-chain. Co-operative
structure of Operation Flood programme also helped eradicate the middle-
man thereby saving on logistics costs and reducing the seasonal milk and
milk products price variations.
From a chronic milk deficit nation in 1950-51, with a production of 19
Million Ton (MMT) per year, the production had increased to 176 MMT
in 2017, and per capita availability of milk has reached 375 grams per
day (Singh, 2018). Today, the Dairy Cooperative Network covers 177 milk
unions. Starting with the Kaira district in Gujarat, the cooperative movement
spread as it was such a successful model that was changing the face of rural
India. It works in over 346 districts including almost 1, 28,799 village societies.
Today, India is the world’s leading dairying nation.
In the White Revolution, the focus was on the introduction of exotic cattle breeds
like Holstein Friesians and Jersey and producing their crossbred. Development 9
Agriculture, Forestry and of recognized Indian breeds was largely neglected. The challenge of increasing
Other Land Uses milk productivity of Indian cattle breeds remains a significant bottleneck. The
average productivity of Indian cattle per year is 1719 kg while in Denmark,
it is 9386, USA 10360, and Israel above 13000 kg. Major producers like
the USA and the European Union are experiencing a boom in productivity
through the use of genomic breeding interventions.

Rearing a large number of animals creates high pressure on our resources and
environment also. Introduction of exotic cattle breeds also threaten genetic
resources wealth of Indian animals, especially in dairy sector due to misdirected
crossbreeding with exotic stock, and the indiscriminate crossing of native stocks.
Domestic animals, which are well-adapted to adverse climatic conditions and
disease, are gradually being replaced by crossbreeds whose productivity is
declining. Indigenous breeds adjust productivity to adverse climatic conditions
and availability of food. In the long run, exotic breeds imported from foreign
is economically not viable breeds. They give higher milk yield but require more
feed and unsuitable for Indian conditions. The milk obtained from exotic breeds
do not contain all the nutrients that are necessary, so milk obtained is not good
for health as mentioned in many reports. There is urgent attention to focus on
development and conservation of Indian breeds like Gir, Sahiwal and Red Sindhi.

6.3.3 Yellow Revolution

The term yellow revolution has been adopted to express the remarkable increase
in oilseed production in India which started in 1986. The objective of the yellow
revolution is to achieve self-reliance in the production of oilseeds. Oilseeds
technological mission was launched to ensure optimum utilization of production,
processing, management and technology in oilseed crops. The impact of the
yellow revolution and its success had a dramatic increase from 10.83 MT in
1985-86 to 24.75 MT in 1998-99. However, after that, we have not been
able to achieve self-sufficiency in oilseeds. A second yellow revolution is crying
need of the hour. Also, a technical invention in dryland farming is required to
maximize yield, productivity, and farm income. Achieving the aim of making the
nation self-sufficient in oilseeds would have a significant impact on agriculture
and the economy and would serve to reduce dependence on foreign markets.

6.3.4 Rainbow Revolution

The multiple colors of the Rainbow Revolution indicate multiple farm practices
such as “Green Revolution (Foodgrains), White Revolution (Milk), Yellow
Revolution (Oilseeds), Blue Revolution (Fisheries); Golden Revolution
(Fruits); Silver Revolution (Eggs), Round Revolution (Potato), Pink
Revolution (Meat), Grey Revolution (Fertilizers)” and so on. Thus, the concept
of Rainbow revolution is an integrated development of crop cultivation,
horticulture, forestry, fishery, poultry, animal husbandry, and food processing
industry. The concept of Rainbow revolution in agriculture is a step towards
sustainability. India has already achieved resilience in agriculture (including the
horticultural sector) through effective agricultural technology generation and
suggests that the country is now on the threshold of a “rainbow revolution”
that will ensure both household nutrition security and prosperity for its people.
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 Agriculture
6.4 STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE MANAGEMENT
Sustainable agriculture is a kind of agriculture that focuses on producing long-
term crops and livestock while having minimal impacts on the environment. This
type of agriculture seeks to find the right balance between the need for food
production and the conservation of the ecological system within the context.
“The primary goal of it is to meet social needs especially food and fuel
in the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their needs” (https://eda-gti.org/news/text-what-is-sustainable-agriculture/
). According to FAO, there are five fundamental principles for sustainability in
food and agriculture “(i) Improving the resources use efficiency is crucial
to sustainable agriculture. (ii) Sustainability needs immediate action to
conserve, protect and enhance natural resources. (iii) Agriculture that fails
to protect and improve farm livelihoods, equity, and social well-being is
unsustainable. (iv) Enhanced resilience of rural people, communities, and
ecosystems is vital to agriculture sustainability (v) Sustainable food and
agriculture require responsible and effective governance mechanisms” (FAO
2017; http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3940e.pdf). Sustainable agriculture practitioners
seek to integrate three principal objectives into their work: “a healthy
environment, economic profitability, and social and economic equity. Every
person involved in the food system growers, food processors, distributors,
retailers, consumers, and waste administrators can perform a vital role in
ensuring a sustainable agricultural system” (http://woodlandhighag.weebly.com/
sustainable-ag.html).

FAO has come up with an innovative strategy to increase agricultural productivity

through “(i) Efficient resource use: changing towards sustainable intensification
of agriculture to produce more with less resource use. (ii) Preserving and
conserving the environment: providing better care for resources so that we
protect the biodiversity of the ecosystem, water, soil fertility and reduce
pollution. (iii) Making agriculture resilient: adopting a new approach,
particularly sustainable agriculture, to adapt and mitigate climate change”
(http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6488e.pdf).

Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1) What are the sustainability principles in food and agriculture?

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Agriculture, Forestry and ii) How to achieve sustainable agricultural productivity?
Other Land Uses
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6.5 STRATEGIES FOR LAND DEGRADATION

MANAGEMENT
Land degradation is a global issue because of its severe adverse economic
and environmental impacts. According to the National Remote Sensing
Agency, about 114.07 Mha (35% approx.) out of 328.73 Mha of land has
been degraded. The National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land-Use Planning
(NBSS&LUP) data shows that nearly 3.7 Mha suffers from nutrient loss
or depletion of organic matter. It is figured out that every year, 20.2 Mt
of the three major nutrients is removed. Degradation of land is a
consequence of either natural hazards or direct causes or underlying causes.
Natural hazards are the environmental conditions which lead to high
susceptibility to erosion such as high-intensity storms on steep slopes and
soils having less resistance to water erosion, high-speed winds, acidity or
loss of nutrients, waterlogging, etc.
The direct causes are human-induced which result from unsustainable land
use and inappropriate land management practices such as deforestation and
over-exploitation of vegetation, overgrazing, cultivation on steep slopes and
marginal/fragile lands without the adoption of soil conservation measures,
shifting cultivation, etc. The underlying causes are the factors indirectly
responsible for land degradation such as population pressures, land shortage,
tenancy rights, economic pressures, and poverty. Soil degradation through
the loss of top-soil is one of the significant factors of low and unstable
crop yield in the rain-fed, semi-arid to sub-humid subtropics of India. Top-
soil act as a medium for biomass production and biomass yields depend
on its fertility status and many other essential functions. Erosion of soil
by wind or water affects these functions adversely and contribute a
significant negative impact both on-site as well as off-site. A recent study
by IFPRI (2000), using an overlay of cropland areas and GLASOD data,
showed that soil degradation had significant impacts on the productivity
of about 16% of the world’s agricultural land. According to Eswaran et
al., (2001), the productivity of some areas has declined by 50% due to
soil erosion and desertification.

6.6 STRATEGIES TO MANAGE IRRIGATION

WATER
As per the international norms, the country is placed as water stressed when
water accessibility is less than 1,700 m3 per capita per year, whereas it
is categorized as water scarce if it is less than 1,000 m3 per capita per
year. India is already a water-stressed country with 1544 m3 per capita water
availability. Irrigation is essential for crop establishment and increasing
fertilizer-use efficiency.
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Cross-country comparison of water use efficiency reveals that India uses 2 to Agriculture
3 times the water used to produce 1 tonne of grain in countries like China,
Brazil, and the USA. This implies that with water use efficiency of those countries
India can at least double irrigation coverage or save 50% water currently used
in irrigation. Achieving these goals, India would require the application of a
multiplicity of instruments.
The current method of flood-irrigation followed in India results in a water
use efficiency of just 65%, or a water loss of 35%. Higher efficiency can
be achieved through proper designing of the irrigation system infrastructure
for decreasing water conveyance loss. Selection and adoption of water-saving
technologies such as sprinkler and a drip irrigation system have proven very
effective in not only water conservation but also leading to more crop yields
by supplying water in a controlled manner to the crop where it is most efficiently
absorbed. New agronomic practices like raised bed planting, a ridge-furrow
method of sowing, sub-surface irrigation, precision farming offer broad scope
for economizing water use. Higher water productivity can be improved by using
the concept of multiple uses of water, which is beyond the conventional sectoral
barriers of the productive sectors (NITI Aayog 2015).
Similarly, modern machinery such as laser land levelers, self-propelled sprayers,
precision seeders and planters, transplanters for rice and vegetable seedlings,
multi-crop threshers, harvesters for cereals and sugarcane today allow technically
highly efficient farming and resource conservation. The single operation of laser
leveling can reduce water application charges by 25 to 30% with higher water
use efficiency. Coupled with precision farming, the resource conservation
technologies like zero tillage and residue management can reduce the cost of
cultivation by 25 to 30% over conventional farming practices. There is scope
for increasing the income through crop diversification and integration of fish,
poultry and other enterprises in the farming system. Multiple uses of water
approach generate more income benefits, decreases vulnerability by allowing
more diversified livelihood strategies and increases the sustainability of the
ecosystem.

6.7 STRATEGIES TO MANAGE ORGANIC

MATTER IN SOILS
Soil fertility is governed by a set of interactions like soil nutrient status,
physical soil conditions, and biological activity of soil. Organic matter
contains many things and essential for soil fertility. Use of organic matter
in the soil helps to maintain good physical property e.g., water holding
capacity, soil structure, aeration, and many more. Organic matter also keeps
most of the soil nitrogen (N) reserve and vast proportions of other nutrients
such as phosphorus (P) and sulfur (S). Organic rotations avoid inputs of
water-soluble (readily plant available) nutrients. Sustainable Agriculture
Research & Education (2012) has suggested four general strategies for soil
organic matter management. First, utilize crop-residues more efficiently and
find new sources of residues to add to soils, for example, cover crops,
or residues available from several local sources. Second, try to use different
types of materials such as crop residues, manures, composts, cover crops,
leaves to maintain the various groups of soil organisms. Third, the use
of organic materials from off-farm for building soil organic matter and adding
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Agriculture, Forestry and nutrients. Fourth, execute practices that decrease the loss of organic matter from
Other Land Uses soils because of accelerated decomposition or erosion.
Organic farming mainly depends on the supplementation of organic matter sources
in soil and biological processes; therefore, it relies on (i) Release of nutrients
(mineralization) from organic residues or natural soil sources. (ii) Solubilization
of insoluble fertilizer sources. Soil organisms are an essential part of the system,
for example, bacteria, fungi, earthworms, and many soil micro-flora-fauna helping
to release nutrients and recycle organic matter in the soil. Organic farming relies
on healthy crop rotations to include fertility building and fertility depleting stages,
returns of crop residues, nitrogen fixation by legumes/Rhizobium, and nutrient
retention by green manures and effective use of manures/composts. Effective
manure management can minimize nutrient losses and maximize crop yields. Green
manures and cover crops form an essential part of some organic systems, but
most farmers could probably use them more effectively.

6.8 STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE

LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT
Livestock plays a significant role in agricultural systems throughout the
developing world. Cattle, sheep, and goats not only provide manure, draft
power for field operations, but also they are a good source of income.
Livestock management needs sound business sense and a clear understanding
of how to operate poultry farms, dairy farms, cattle ranches or other
livestock-related agribusinesses. Traditional livestock management involves
mixing animals and crops on the same farm or grazing livestock on
grasslands. These systems are increasingly undergoing intensification, with
farmers grazing higher densities of livestock on pasture land or transitioning from
grazing to confined operations. However, with modern technological advances
being made so quickly within the field of agriculture, completing a post secondary
program may be necessary. Intensive livestock systems exacerbate the impacts
that livestock activities have on the environment, including effects on soil
conditions, biodiversity, water quality and quantity, and greenhouse gas emissions.
Livestock can play an essential role in both adapting to climate change and
mitigating the effects of climate change on human welfare. Efforts to mitigate
the impact of livestock on climate change focus on reducing GHG emissions
from livestock. Livestock can also help the poor adapt to the effects of climate
change. The ability of communities to adapt to and mitigate climate change
depends on their socio-economic and environmental circumstances and their
access to the right information and technology. Measures need to be taken to
address the impact of livestock production on ecosystems, which otherwise may
worsen dramatically given the projected expansion of the livestock sector.
Demand for animal products needs to be balanced with the growing demand
for environmental services, such as clean air and water, and recreation areas.

6.9 STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE GRAZING

LAND MANAGEMENT
Overgraze vegetation cause soil compaction and erosion. Increased animal
stocking rates put pressure on grazing lands, leading soil compaction and
erosion, grasslands degradation, and desertification in semi-arid areas. Concentrated
“hoof action” compacts wet soils, making them less able to absorb water and
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more prone to run-off and erosion. Livestock grazing between land and streams
can destabilize stream banks and release large amounts of sediment into fragile Agriculture
aquatic ecosystems. In the Irangi hills of central Tanzania, the government evicted
all livestock in 1979 due to extensive soil degradation and erosion caused by
overgrazing. Although the prohibition is still in place, farmers are increasingly
allowing livestock to graze freely, threatening the ongoing land recovery.
Proper management is crucial for sustainable food and fiber production and
supporting a broad diversity of other uses. Healthy grazing lands give an
economic base for various regions of the country. They are utilized for recreation,
camping, hunting, fishing, and also provide habitat for different wildlife populations.
Properly managed grazing sustainably produce a renewable resource to provide
food and fiber for cattle. Managed forage, soil, water, and grazing animals
provide economic stability as well as water quality and quantity.

6.10 STRATEGIES TO REDUCE LOSSES IN THE

FOOD SUPPLY CHAIN
Food waste or food loss is food that is discarded or lost uneaten. Food
loss occurs not only at the beginning from the time of production,
processing, retailing and consumption but also at the end of the chain
(Goswami, 2018). According to the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization,
one-third of the food produced globally is wasted corresponding to an
annual generation of about 1.3 billion tonnes of food waste, costing the
world economy about $750 billion.
FAO estimated that saving one-fourth of the food wasted globally would
be enough to feed 870 million hungry people in the world, of which the
highest number (about 194.6 million) are in India. According to estimates
by FAO, nearly 40 percent of India’s fresh fruit and vegetables worth an
annual $8.3 billion or so perish before reaching consumers. Each year, some
21 MMT of wheat grain, an amount almost equal to Australia’s total yearly
production rots in India because of improper storage. In developing
countries, food waste and loss occur at the early stages of the food value
chain. That can be associated with a lack of support to farmers, poor/non-
scientific harvesting techniques, weak infrastructure, storage, cooling, and
transport facilities. Indian Council of Agricultural Research (2013) also
highlighted that the underlying cause of post-harvest loss in the country
is due to the lack of short-term storage infrastructure, especially at the farm,
and intermediate processing in the production area. The study estimated
that an annual value of harvest and post-harvest losses of major agricultural
produce at the national level was to the order of Rs 92,651 crore, calculated
using production data of 2012-13 at 2014 wholesale prices. FAO study
revealed that food wasted directly contributing to food shortages, water
stress, unnecessary biodiversity loss, and increased greenhouse gas emissions.
Food waste is often distinguished between unavoidable and avoidable, the
latter intended as the food (and eventually drinks) which at some point,
before being thrown out, was edible. The avoidable part represents a waste
of resources, as food demands land, energy, chemicals, and materials to be
produced and delivered to the various professionals involved in the food supply
chain. Such resources loss inevitably turns into significant environmental impacts
that may be avoided by prevention or mitigated by implementing best waste
management practices (Tonini at al., 2018). Food security has been a serious 15
Agriculture, Forestry and question in recent decades. Related to this, the relational view of competitive
Other Land Uses advantage in food supply chains is getting higher attention and acceptance in
academia and practice. That is based on the idea of transforming businesses
through networking and trustful partnership in supply chains (Lambert and
Cooper, 2000). Supply chain management has already been evolved into the
food sector. However, there are lots of concepts which need empirical evidence
to understand and practice these concepts, particularly in less developed agro-
value chains. One of the essential topics that need investigations is the interface
among food security, practices in food supply chain management, and food
losses. According to a study conducted by the IIM-Kolkata, cold storage
facilities are available for just 10 percent of India’s perishable produce and are
mostly used for potatoes to meet India’s robust demand for chips. The study
estimates that India needs storage facilities for another 370m metric ton of
perishable produce. In India, this methodology developed by the agro-food
industry group of the FAO nutrition and food system division was used for
case studies on the food supply chains of rice, chickpea, milk and mango in
Andhra Pradesh. The study indicated a need for capacity building at different
levels of value chain actors. It also called for investment in large storage facilities
and other related infrastructures such as roads and electricity to ensure a
reduction in food loss and waste. That can eventually lead to enhanced food
security in the country as well as globally.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) What are the causes for land degradation?
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2) What are the modern machineries that upscale energy efficiency and
resource conservation?
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3) What are the strategies to manage soil organic matter?
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 Agriculture
6.11 STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING CHANGING
INDIAN DIET
Over the past 50 years, particularly in metropolitan areas income of the individual,
their preferences, eating habits of Indian have undergone some changes. The
traditional culture, geography, environment, social and economic circumstances
have influenced the changes in proper diet on a national level. The influence
of western food products and industrialization of food production processing
significantly changed the eating ha1bits, especially in youth. The average daily
protein consumption in India has increased from 55g/d to 59 g/d during 1990-
2015. The fraction of dietary energy supplied from cereals and roots has declined
from an average of 66g/d to 59g/d.
Moreover, the consumption of food grains has declined while the average daily
sugar and fat intake have also raised. The current scenario reflects some
disturbing tendencies for human nutrition. A recent study conducted by the World
Health Organization (WHO) revealed that India had 69.2 million people living
with diabetes in 2015. Almost 98 million people in India may suffer type 2
diabetes by 2030. Yes, the nation’s people might be living longer, but they are
not necessarily enjoying good health in their later years. It is essential to improve
the availability of multi-grains types of food, especially course grain like millets,
and other nutritious food like pulses to achieve nutritional security. The fruits
and vegetables are rich sources of micronutrients and also contain some health-
giving phytochemicals which are potent antioxidants and detoxifying agents to
protect against degenerative diseases. The foods from animal origin like milk,
eggs, meat, and fish abound in quality proteins and a rich source of long-chain
fatty acids which have an important physiological role.

6.12 LET US SUM UP

Agricultural development in India witnessed revolutions like green revolution,
white revolution, yellow revolution, and rainbow revolution. In this unit, we have
learnt that these revolutions in addition to delivering positive impact, has
contributed certain negative impacts on the environment. Further, the changing
climate demands sustainable strategies in the arena of crop management, irrigation
management, land management, livestock management, grazing land management,
and management of food supply chain.

6.13 KEY WORD

Land Degradation : “Land degradation in arid,semi-arid, and dry
sub-humid areas is reduction or loss of the
biological or economic productivity and
complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland,
or range, pasture, forest, and woodlands resulting
from land uses or from a process or combination
of processes, including processes arising from
human activities and habitation patterns, such
as (1) soil erosion caused by wind and/or water;
(2) deterioration of the physical,chemical,
biological, or economic properties of soil; and
(3) long-term loss of natural vegetation”(https:/
/www.ipcc.ch/sit e/asset s/uploads/2018/02/
WGIIAR5-AnnexII_FINAL.pdf). 17
Agriculture, Forestry and
Other Land Uses 6.14 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/
REFERENCES
Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2015, Government of India. Ministry of
Agriculture and Farmers Welfare. http://eands.dacnet.nic.in/PDF/
Agricultural_Statistics_At_Glance-2015.pdf.
Eswaran H, Lal R, Reich PF. (2001). Land degradation: An overview. In
Response to Land Degradation, Bridges EM, Hannan ID, Oldeman LR, Penning
de Fries FWT, Scherr SJ, Sombatpanit S (eds). Science Publishers, Inc.: Enfield
FAO (2017) Strategic work of FAO for strategic programme to make
agriculture, forestry, and fisheries more productive and sustainable, <http://
www.fao.org/3/a-i6488e.pdf>
Fourth Advance Estimates of Production of Food grains for 2015-16, Directorate
of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, August 17, 2015, http:/
/eands.dacnet.nic.in/Advance_Estimate/4th_Adv2014-15Eng.pdf.
Goswami, A. (2018). Food wastage crisis in India <https://
www.cleanindiajournal.com/food-wastage-crisis-in-india/>
IFPRI. (2000). Global study reveals new warming signals: Degraded agricultural
lands threaten world’s food production capacity. News release, May 21, 2000.
Internet URL, http://www. cgiar.org/ifpri/pressrel/052500.htm. (June 9, 2000).
Lambert D, Cooper M. (2000). Issues in supply chain management. Ind Mark
Manage, 29(1):65 – 84.
Planning commission (1997), Economy and the plan: an overview. Annual Report
1996-1997<http://planningcommission.gov.in/reports/genrep/arep9099/
index.php?repts=ar96-97.htm>
Singh, M K. (2018). Joint Secretary, Cattle & Dairy Development, GoI, White
Revolution 3.0? - The Economic Times <https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/
news/economy/agriculture/white-revolution-3 0/articleshow/66794515.cms>
Statistics, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, http://
www.fao.org/faostat/en/#compare.
Sustainable Agriculture Research & Education, (2012). Organic Matter
Management <https://www.sare.org/Learning-Center/Books/Building-Soils-for-
Better-Crops-3rd-Edition/Text-Version/Managing-for-High-Quality-Soils-Organic-
Matter-Soil-Physical-Condition-Nutrient-Availability/Organic-Matter-
Management>
Tonini D, Federic P, Thomas A, Astrup F. (2018). Environmental impacts of
food waste: Learnings and challenges from a case study on the UK, Waste
Management, 76: 744-766.
NITI Aayog (2015), Raising Agricultural Productivity and Making Farming
Remunerative for Farmer http://niti.gov.in/writereaddata/files/document_publication/
RAP3.pdf
18
 Agriculture
6.15 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1. The basic principles for sustainability in food and agriculture are (i)
Improving the resources use efficiency is crucial to sustainable
agriculture. (ii) Sustainability needs immediate action to conserve,
protect and enhance natural resources. (iii) Agriculture that fails to
protect and improve farm livelihoods, equity, and social well-being is
unsustainable. (iv) Enhanced resilience of rural people, communities,
and ecosystems is vital to agriculture sustainability (v) Sustainable food
and agriculture require responsible and effective governance mechanisms.
2. Sustainable agricultural productivity can be achieved by (i) Efficient
resource use: changing towards sustainable intensification of agriculture
to produce more with less resource use. (ii) Preserving and conserving
the environment: providing better care for resources so that we protect
the biodiversity of the ecosystem, water, soil fertility and reduce
pollution. (iii) Making agriculture resilient: adopting a new approach,
particularly sustainable agriculture, to adapt and mitigate climate
change.
Check Your Progress 2
1. The causes for land degradation are unsustainable land use and
inappropriate land management practices such as deforestation and
over-exploitation of vegetation, overgrazing, cultivation on steep slopes
and marginal/fragile lands without the adoption of soil conservation
measures, shifting cultivation, etc.
2. The modern machineries that are used to increase energy efficiency
and resource conservation are laser land levelers, self-propelled
sprayers, precision seeders and planters, transplanters for rice and
vegetable seedlings, combine harvesters, and multi-crop threshers.
3. The strategies for sustainable soil organic matter management are as
follows:
z Efficient utilization of crop residues.
z Maintenance of soil microbes through use of crop residues, manures,
composts, cover crops, etc.
z Use of organic materials from off-farm for building soil organic matter
and adding nutrients.

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