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HISTORY OF COMPUTERS ANALYTICAL ENGINE

ABACUS • This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in

• The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is
believed to be the first computer. It is said that Chinese invented Abacus
around 4,000 years ago.
NAPIER’S BONE
1830. It was a mechanical computer that used punch-cards as input.
DIFFERENTIAL ANALYZER
• It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in
1930. It was an analog device invented by Vannevar Bush.

• It was a manually operated calculating device which was invented by GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
John Napier (1550-1617) of Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used
9 different ivory strips or bones marked with numbers to multiply and FIRST GENERATION
divide. • The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge and
PASCALINE expensive. In these computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic
components of CPU and memory.
• Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It
was invented between 1642 and 1644 by a French mathematician- The main features of the first generation are:
philosopher Blaise Pascal. It is believed that it was the first mechanical ▪ Vacuum tube technology
and automatic calculator. ▪ Unreliable
STEPPED RECKONER OR LEIBNITZ WHEEL ▪ Supported machine language only
▪ Very costly
• It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried ▪ Generated a lot of heat
Wilhelm Leibnitz in 1673. He improved Pascal's invention to develop this ▪ Slow input and output devices
machine. ▪ Huge size
▪ Need of AC
TABULATING MACHINE
▪ Non-portable
• It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. ▪ Consumed a lot of electricity
It was a mechanical tabulator based on punch cards. It could tabulate
Some of the popular first-generation computers are:
statistics and record or sort data or information. This machine was used
in the 1890 U.S. Census. ▪ ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
▪ EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
DIFFERENCE ENGINE
▪ UNIVACI (Universal Automatic Computer)
• In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as ▪ IBM-701
"Father of Modern Computer". It was a mechanical computer which ▪ IBM-650
could perform simple calculations.

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SECOND GENERATION COMPUTERS FOURTH GENERATION COMPUTERS
• The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor • The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers of
computers. fourth generation used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI
• These computers used transistors which were cheap, compact and circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements with
consuming less power; it made transistor computers faster than the their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
first-generation computers. microcomputers of fourth generation.
THIRD GENERATION COMPUTERS
The main features of fourth generation are:
• The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.
▪ VLSI technology used
• The third-generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of
▪ Very cheap
transistors. A single IC can pack huge number of transistors which
increased the power of a computer and reduced the cost. ▪ Portable and reliable
▪ Use of PCs
The main features of third generation are: ▪ Very small size
▪ Pipeline processing
▪ IC used
▪ No AC required
▪ More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
▪ Concept of internet was introduced
▪ Smaller size
▪ Great developments in the fields of networks
▪ Generated less heat
▪ Computers became easily available
▪ Faster
▪ Lesser maintenance FIFTH GENERATION COMPUTERS
▪ Costly
▪ AC required • The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation,
▪ Consumed lesser electricity VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large-Scale Integration) technology,
▪ Supported high-level language resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million
electronic components.
Examples:
AI includes:
▪ IBM-360 series
▪ Honewell-6000 series • Robotics
▪ PDP (Personal Data Processor) • Neural Networks
▪ IBM-370/168 • Game Playing
▪ TDC-316 • Development of expert systems to make decisions
in real-life situations
• Natural language understanding and generation

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ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING
Electronic Data Processing
➢ is a generic term that signifies the gathering, intelligent analysis,
and manipulation of data that is put to work.
COMPONENTS OF ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING
▪ Hardware
▪ Software
▪ Peopleware
HARDWARE
❖ Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a
computer
Examples of Hardware are the following:
o Input devices − keyboard, mouse, etc.
o Output devices − printer, monitor, etc.
o Secondary storage devices − Hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.
o Internal components − CPU, motherboard, RAM, etc.
SOFTWARE
• The commonly used operating systems are Microsoft Windows,
Linux, and Apple Mac OS X.
c. Application Software
• Application software is a set of programs designed to perform a
specific task. It does not control the working of a computer as it
is designed for end-users.
• Microsoft Office Suite, Adobe Photoshop, and any other
software like payroll software or income tax software are
application software. As we know, they are designed to perform
specific tasks. Accordingly, they can be of different types such
as:
DIFFERENT TYPES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE
o Word Processing Software
o Spreadsheet Software
o Multimedia Software
o Enterprise Software
d. Programming Software
✓ It is a set or collection of tools that help developers in writing
other software or programs. It assists them in creating,
debugging, and maintaining software or programs or
applications.

❖ Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well- Examples of Programming Software:
defined function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to
o Java
solve a particular problem.
o C++
❖ The software can be of three types:
o Python
system software, application software, and programming software.
o Eclipse: It is a java language editor.
a. System Software
o Coda: It is a programming language editor for Mac.
• a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and
o Notepad++: It is an open-source editor for windows.
extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself.
o Sublime text: It is a cross-platform code editor for Linux, Mac, and
b. Operating System
Windows.
• An operating system is the system software that works as an
interface to enable the user to communicate with the computer.

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PEOPLEWARE ADVANTAGES OF EDP

❖ PeopleSoft software (Peopleware) refers to a person associated ✓ Speed
with the use of computers in both the direct and indirect. ✓ Efficient
✓ Economic
Examples of Peopleware: ✓ Reduce Labor

o The author of the program or programmer (programmer). - The BENEFITS OF EDP

program applies to the account. Programs or systems of large ✓ Effective Version control
organizations ✓ Smooth Collaboration
o The analyst (system analyst) - Responsible for the analysis and ✓ Better Timelines
development of information systems. Analysts’ system analyzes, ✓ With EDP no Emails
processes and systems designed to meet the needs of users. This ✓ Security and control
may include the design database. ✓ Authentic backups
o The administrators and database administrators (database ✓ Cost-effective
administrator). - Responsible management database (database) ✓ Better management
including design. Maintenance Information Administration and ✓ Compliance
security of the database, such as the user's account. User Rights ✓ Reliable content
Assignment.
o Supervision and management system (system. administrator) -
Acts and management of computer systems in the organization. By
overseeing the installation and maintenance of operating.
o Administrator and network administrator (network
administrator). - Manage system and network management. And
the security of the corporate network, such as monitoring the use
of the network and install the network intrusion.
o The development and management of the site (webmaster) –
ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING PROCESSES
Functional design Update and maintain the site up to date. In
particular, need to be updated to the date.
o Technical staff (technician)- Serve computer maintenance. Install
Or install hardware and troubleshoot problems that may arise from
the use of computers in the organization.
o Writers game (game maker)- Acting, writing or a computer game
development program currently writing a pro career as a computer
program.

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CLASSIFICATIONS BY PURPOSE
THE COMPUTER 1. General Purpose
General computers can do various everyday tasks such as
writing a word processing letter, Document preparation, recording,
What is Computer?
financial analysis, Printing documents, creating databases, and
❖ A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw
calculations with accuracy and consistency.
data as input and processes it with a set of instructions (a program)
2. Special Purpose
to produce the result as output.
These computers are designed to perform a particular or
specialized task. The size, storage capacity, and cost of such
CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
computers mainly depend on the nature and size of the work. The
function of these computers is consistent with any particular task.
A. PC (Personal Computer)
➢ It is a single user computer system having a moderately
CLASSIFICATIONS BY TYPE OF DATA HANDELD
powerful microprocessor. It is termed as a computer that is
1. Analog Computer
equipped microprocessor as its CPU.
➢ An analog computer performs tasks using continuous data
(the physical amount that changes continuously). Analog
B. WORKSTATION
computers are used primarily to measure physical units like
➢ It is also a single user computer system, similar to the
the voltage, pressure, electric current, temperature, and
personal computer, however, has a more powerful microprocessor.
convert them into digits.
2. Digital Computer
C. MINI-COMPUTER
➢ A digital computer is machine that stores data in a
➢ It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting
numerical format and performs operations on that data
hundreds of users simultaneously.
using mathematical manipulation.
3. Hybrid Computer
D. MAIN FRAME
➢ A hybrid computer is a combined complex computer unit
➢ It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting
built using both analog and digital properties and united by
hundreds of users simultaneously. Software technology is different
a single control system.
from minicomputer.
CLASSIFICATIONS ACCORDING TO CAPACITY
E. SUPERCOMPUTER
1. Supercomputer
➢ Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently
➢ A Supercomputer is the very fastest and powerful, and
available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for
expensive type of computer for processing data.
specialized applications that require an immense amount of
Supercomputers’ size and storage capacity are also huge
mathematical calculations (number-crunching).
(can occupy huge premises) designed to process vast
amounts of data in a short time with high productivity.

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2. Mainframe Computer
➢ Mainframe computers are multi-programming, high-
performance computers, and multi-user, which means they LIMITATIONS
can handle the workload of more than 100 users at a time
on the computer.
3. Mini-Computer
➢ Minicomputer is a digital and multi-user computer system
with the connection of more than one CPU.
4. Micro Computer
➢ A microcomputer is a complete computer on a small scale,
designed for use by one person at a time.
COMPUTER CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS
CAPABILITIES
1. It is self-directing. The user merely feeds all the instructions to the
computer at the start and later proceeds without any need for
human intervention.
2. Ability to store and retrieve information. The computer has the
ability to remember or recall data when finds the need for them.
3. Ability to perform mathematical operations and solve complex WHY COMPUTER SOMETIMES FAIL?
formula at high speed and with great precision. A very fast computer
can perform the addition of 20 million pairs of ten-digit numbers in
one second.
4. Ability to perform logic operation. The computer is capable of
comparing numbers, letters of alphabet and special characters.
Based on the results of comparison, the computer can direct to take
alternative actions.
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1. It can do only what is designed or programmed to do. If you ask the
computer to get the total payroll for a certain period, it will give
you only the total payroll and not the net salary or gross salary of
each employee.
2. It cannot correct input data. If you mistakenly entered an hour rate
of P50 per hour, the computer cannot respond to the actual rate of
P40 per hour.
3. It cannot think and cannot derive meanings from objects. The
computer cannot interpret your favorite poem or your present
mood.
4. It can only process jobs expressed in a number of steps leading to
a precisely defined goal.
5. It cannot completely avoid making errors due to power
fluctuations, system malfunctions and human disorders.
❖ Computer fails to start
The causes of computer failure to boot up can be broken
down into four categories as follows:
o Bad electrical connection
o Power supply failure
o Operating system failure
o Hardware failure
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THE COMPUTER SYSTEM
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
A Central Processing Unit is also called a processor, central
processor, or microprocessor. It carries out all the important
functions of a computer. It receives instructions from both the
hardware and active software and produces output accordingly. It
stores all important programs like operating systems and
application software.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) Features
✓ CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
✓ CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
✓ It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions
(program).
✓ It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has following three components:
o Memory or Storage Unit
o Control Unit
o ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
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COMPONENTS OF CPU
 Control Unit: It is the circuitry in the control unit, which makes use
of electrical signals to instruct the computer system for executing
already stored instructions.
 ALU: It is the arithmetic logic unit, which performs arithmetic and
logical functions. Arithmetic functions include addition, subtraction,
multiplication division, and comparisons.
 Memory or Storage Unit/ Registers: It is called Random access
memory (RAM). It temporarily stores data, programs, and
intermediate and final results of processing.
TYPES OF CPU
 Single Core CPU: Single Core is the oldest type of computer CPU,
which was used in the 1970s. It has only one core to process
different operations.
 Dual Core CPU: As the name suggests, Dual Core CPU contains two
cores in a single Integrated Circuit (IC).
 Quad Core CPU: This type of CPU comes with two dual-core
processors in one integrated circuit (IC) or chip.
 Quad Core CPU uses a technology that allows four independent
processing units (cores) to run in parallel on a single chip.
OPERATIONS PERFORMED BY CPU
CPU performs four basic steps:
▪ Fetch: Each instruction is stored in memory and has its own address.
▪ Decode: All programs to be executed are translated into Assembly
instructions.
▪ Execute: While executing instructions, the CPU can do one of three
things: Do calculations with its ALU, move data from one memory
location to another, or jump to a different address.
▪ Store: The CPU must give feedback after executing an instruction,
and the output data is written to the memory.
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INPUT/OUTPUT UNITS Function Keys

✓ The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are
INPUT DEVICES arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has
✓ Input device enables the user to send data, information, or control a unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.
signals to a computer. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a Control keys
computer receives the input and processes it to produce the output. ✓ These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four
directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert,
Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control (Ctrl), Alternate (Alt), Escape
computer: (Esc).
▪ Keyboard Special Purpose Keys
▪ Mouse ✓ Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter,
▪ Joystick Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.
▪ Light pen
▪ Track Ball 2) MOUSE
▪ Scanner ✓ The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move
▪ Graphic Tablet cursor or pointer across the screen.
▪ Microphone Advantages
▪ Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR) ▪ Easy to use
▪ Optical Character Reader (OCR) ▪ Not very expensive
▪ Bar Code Reader ▪ Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.
▪ Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
3) JOYSTICK
1) KEYBOARD ✓ Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the
✓ The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a
into a computer or any other electronic device by pressing keys. spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower
✓ The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in
although there are some additional keys provided for performing all four directions.
additional functions. 4) LIGHT PEN
Keys & Description ✓ Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select
Typing Keys a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen.
✓ These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small
generally give the same layout as that of typewriters. tube.
Numeric Keypad 5) TRACK BALL
✓ It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, ✓ Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or
it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same laptop computer, instead of a mouse.
configuration used by most adding machines and calculators. ✓ This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on
the ball, the pointer can be moved.

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6) SCANNER
✓ Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy
machine. It is used when some information is available on
paper, and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the
computer for further manipulation.
7) DIGITIZER
✓ Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information
into digital form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the
television or camera into a series of numbers that could be
stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to
create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.
8) MICROPHONE
✓ Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then
stored in a digital form.
✓ The microphone is used for various applications such as adding
sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.
9) MAGNETIC INK CARD READER (MICR)
✓ MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large
number of cheques to be processed every day. The bank's code
number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a
special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material
that are machine readable.
10) OPTICAL CHARACTER READER (OCR)
✓ OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.
11) BARCODE READER
✓ Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data
(data in the form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is
generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It
may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a
stationary scanner.
12) OPTICAL MARK READER (OMR)
✓ OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the
type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out
of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.
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OUTPUT DEVICES
✓ The output device displays the result of the processing of raw data
that is entered in the computer through an input device. There are
a number of output devices that display output in different ways
such as text, images, hard copies, and audio or video.
1) MONITORS
✓ Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are
the main output device of a computer.
✓ There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
1. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
2. Flat-Panel Display
❖ Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
o The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called
pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity or
resolution.
o There are some disadvantages of CRT –
1. Large in size
2. High power consumption
❖ Flat-Panel Display Monitor
o The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that
have reduced volume, weight and power requirement in
comparison to the CRT.
o The flat-panel display is divided into two categories –
1. Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices
that convert electrical energy into light. For
example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting
Diodes).
2. Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use
optical effects to convert sunlight or light from
some other source into graphics patterns. For
example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).
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NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
2) PRINTER ✓ Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon.
✓ A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It ✓ These printers are of two types:
enables the user, to print images, text or any other information a. Laser Printers
onto the paper. b. Inkjet Printers
✓ There are two types of printers:
1. Impact Printers LASER PRINTERS
2. Non-Impact Printers  These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce
the dots needed to form the characters to be printed on a page.
IMPACT PRINTERS
✓ Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon,
which is then pressed on the paper. STORAGE DEVICES

✓ Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following: What is a storage device?

o Very low consumable costs
o Very noisy
o Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
o There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
DOT MATRIX PRINTER
 In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer.
 These printers are popular because of their ease of printing and
economical price. Each character printed is in the form of pattern of
dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or
9*9) which come out to form a character which is why it is called
Dot Matrix Printer.
DAISY WHEEL
 Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are
like petals of Daisy (flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel
Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in
offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very
nice quality.
LINE PRINTERS
 Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
 These are of two types :
a. Drum Printer
b. Chain Printer
➢ Storage devices are the computer hardware used to
remember/store data.
➢ A storage unit is a part of the computer system which is
employed to store the information and instructions to be
processed. A storage device is an integral part of the computer
hardware which stores information/data to process the result of
any computational work.
COMPUTER STORAGE IS OF TWO TYPES:
❖ Primary Storage Devices: It is also known as internal memory and
main memory. This is a section of the CPU that holds program
instructions, input data, and intermediate results. It is generally
smaller in size. RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only
Memory) are examples of primary storage.
❖ Secondary Storage Devices: Secondary storage is a memory that is
stored external to the computer. It is mainly used for the
permanent and long-term storage of programs and data. Hard Disk,
CD, DVD, Pen/Flash drive, SSD, etc., are examples of secondary
storage.

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PRIMARY STORAGE DEVICES
▪ RAM: It stands for Random Access Memory. It is used to store
information that is used immediately, or we can say that it is a
temporary memory. Computers bring the software installed on
a hard disk to RAM to process it and to be used by the user.
▪ ROM: It stands for Read-Only Memory. The data written or
stored in these devices are non-volatile, i.e., once the data is
stored in the memory cannot be modified or deleted. The
memory from which will only read but cannot write it. This type
of memory is non-volatile.
MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES
• Floppy Disk: It is also known as a floppy diskette. It is
generally used on a personal computer to store data
externally. A Floppy disk is made up of a plastic cartridge
and secures with a protective case. Nowadays floppy disk is
replaced by new and effective storage devices like USB, etc.
• Hard Disk: It is a storage device (HDD) that stores and
retrieves data using magnetic storage. It is a non-volatile
storage device that can be modified or deleted n number of
times without any problem.
• Magnetic Card: It is a card in which data is stored by
modifying or rearranging the magnetism of tiny iron-based
magnetic particles present on the band of the card. It is also
known as a swipe card. It is used like a passcode (to enter
into house or hotel room), credit card, identity card, etc.
• Tape Cassette: It is also known as a music cassette. It is a
rectangular flat container in which the data is stored in an
analog magnetic tape. It is generally used to store audio
recordings.
FLASH MEMORY DEVICES
• Pen Drive: It is also known as a USB flash drive that includes
flash memory with an integrated USB interface.
• SSD: It stands for Solid State Drive, a mass storage device
like HDDs. It is more durable because it does not contain
optical disks inside like hard disks.
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• SD Card: It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally
used with electronic devices like phones, digital cameras,
etc. to store larger data. It is portable and the size of the SD
card is also small so that it can easily fit into electronic
devices. It is available in different sizes like 2GB, 4GB, 8GB,
etc.
• Memory Card: It is generally used in digital cameras.
printers, game consoles, etc. It is also used to store large
amounts of data and is available in different sizes. To run a
memory card on a computer you require a separate
memory card reader.
• Multimedia Card: It is also known as MMC. It is an
integrated circuit that is generally used in-car radios, digital
cameras, etc. It is an external device to store
data/information.
OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES
• CD: It is known as Compact Disc. It contains tracks and
sectors on its surface to store data. It is made up of
polycarbonate plastic and is circular in shape. CD can store
data up to 700MB. It is of two types:
a. CD-R: It stands for Compact Disc read-only. In this
type of CD, once the data is written cannot be
erased. It is read-only.
b. CD-RW: It stands for Compact Disc read Write. In
this type of CD, you can easily write or erase data
multiple times.
• DVD: It is known as Digital Versatile Disc. DVDs are
circular flat optical discs used to store data. It comes in
two different sizes one is 4.7GB single-layer discs and
another one is 8.5GB double-layer discs. DVDs look like
CDs, but the storage capacity of DVDs is more than as
compared to CDs. It is of two types:
a. DVD-R: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read-
only. In this type of DVD, once the data is written
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cannot be erased. It is read-only. It is generally
used to write movies, etc.
b. DVD-RW: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read
Write. In this type of DVD, you can easily write or
erase data multiple times.
• Blu-ray Disc: It is just like CD and DVD, but the storage
capacity of Blu-ray is up to 25GB. To run a Blu-ray disc, you
need a separate Blu-ray reader. This Blu-ray technology is
used to read a disc from a blue-violet laser due to which the
information is stored in greater density with a longer
wavelength.

CLOUD AND VIRTUAL STORAGE

• Nowadays, secondary memory has been upgraded to virtual
or cloud storage devices. We can store our files and other
stuff in the cloud and the data is stored for as long as we
pay for the cloud storage. There are many companies that
provide cloud services largely Google, Amazon, Microsoft,
etc.

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