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ENGINEERING MATERIALS Properties of Materials

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES:
 Explain and analyse the mechanical properties of materials
 Differentiate different type of mechanical testing for each materials

Lesson Objectives:
• At the end of the semester, students should be able to:
 Analyze the physical properties of engineering materials and concept of corrosion
and metal alloys microstructure, phase diagram and heat treatment processes

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TOPIC CONTENT

1. Mechanical Properties
2. Mechanical Testing
i. Tensile test
ii. Compression
iii. Torsion
iv. Bending
v. Hardness
vi. Impact
vii. Fatigue
viii. Creep

1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Issues To Address...

• Stress and strain: What are they and why are they used instead of load and deformation?

• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much deformation occurs? What materials deform
least?

• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent deformation occur? What materials are
most resistant to permanent deformation?

• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how do we measure them?

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1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1. Strength: ability to withstand an applied load without failure

2. Stiffness: the rigidity of an object (the resistant to deformation); the more flexible
an object is, the less stiff it is.
3. Resilience:the ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed
elastically, and release that energy upon unloading
4. Hardness: a measure of how resistant solid matter is to various kinds of permanent
shape change when a compressive force is applied
5. Toughness: the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform
without fracturing
6. Fatigue: is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads
7. Creep: is the tendency of a material to deform permanently under the influence of
mechanical stresses (at high temperature).

1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

- Relative Mechanical Properties of Materials at Room Temperature
Strength Hardness
Glass fibers Diamond
Graphite fibers Cubic boron nitride
Kevlar fibers Carbides
Carbides Hardened steels
Molybdenum Titanium
Steels Cast irons
Tantalum Copper
Titanium Thermosets
Copper Magnesium
Reinforced thermosets
Reinforced thermoplastics
Thermoplastics Lead
Lead Rubbers

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1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

- Relative Mechanical Properties of Materials at Room Temperature
Toughness Stiffness
Ductile metals Diamond
Reinforced plastics Carbides
Thermoplastics Tungsten
Wood Steel
Thermosets Copper
Ceramics Titanium
Glass Aluminum
Ceramics Tantalum
Reinforced plastics
Thermoplastics Wood
Tin Thermosets
Thermoplastics

1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Elastic Deformation (metals)

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial F Linear-
δ elastic

F Non-Linear-
elastic
δ
Elastic means reversible!

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1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Plastic Deformation (metals)

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch & planes
planes still
shear sheared

δplastic
δelastic + plastic linear linear
elastic elastic
δ
F δplastic
F
Plastic means permanent!

1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, σ: • Shear stress, τ:
Ft Ft F

Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao

Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
F τ F
σ= t = N Ao
Ao m2 =
original cross-sectional area before loading ∴ Stress has units: N/m2 = Pa

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1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Common States of Stress

𝜎 𝜎 𝜎

𝜎
𝜎

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1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Simple compression

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

𝐹 Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches
National Park 𝜎 structure member (s
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson) 𝐴 < 0 here).

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1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Common States of Stress
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
σ > 0

σz > 0 σ h< 0

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1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Common States of Stress

Strain is always dimensionless

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1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Poisson's Ratio, 𝑣

• Most materials will get narrow

when stretched and thicken when
compressed
• This behavior is qualified by
Poisson’s ratio, which is defined as
the ratio of lateral and axial strain

Poisson's Ratio, 𝑣 = – σ x (lateral) = – s y

σ z (longitudinal) s z
• The minus sign is there because
usually if σ Z > 0, σ x+ σ y < 0  𝑣 >0

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1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Poisson's Ratio (𝒗)

• For isotropic materials (i.e. material composed of many randomly -

oriented grains) 𝒗 = 0.25
• For most metals: 0.25 < 𝒗 < 0.4
• If 𝒗 = 0 : means that the width of the material doesn’t change when it
is stretched or compressed
• Can be: 𝒗 < 0
(i.e. the material gets thicker when stretched)

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1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Poisson's Ratio (v)

𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠 w 𝑤
𝑣
𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠 𝑙 𝑙
Usually poisons ratio ranges
from 0.25 to 0.4
Example:
w0 w Stainless steel 0.28
l l
0
Copper 0.33

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1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Engineering Stress and Engineering Strain

Engineering Stress, 𝜎
Average uniaxial tensile force, P, divided by
original cross-sectional area, 𝐴
∆
Engineering Strain, 𝜀
Ratio of a change of length, L divided by the original
length, L0 due to an applied force

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING – I. TENSILE TEST

Stress-Strain Testing
• Tensile test machine

extensometer specimen
• Tensile specimen

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
Stress-Strain Testing
Strength of materials can be tested by pulling the metal to failure.

Load cell

Specimen
Extensometer
Force data is obtained from Load cell
Strain data is obtained from Extensometer.

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING Stress-strain curve

Stress-Strain Testing

Commonly used tension test specimen

• Test specimen preparation – In the United States, the

specimen is preparedaccording to ASTM (other standards: JIS,
ISO-EN, etc.)
• The specimen is mounted between the grips of the tensile test
machine

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
Stress-Strain Testing

Load – Extension Stress - Strain

(MPa)
(N)

(mm)

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EXERCISE 1
Calculate the engineering stress in SI units on a 2.00-cm-diameter rod
that is subjected to a load of 1300 kg.
Solution:
First, convert the load to a force. In SI unit, the force on the bar is
𝐹 𝑚𝑎 1300 kg 9.81 m/s 12,753 N.
The engineering stress is then,
𝐹 12,753 N
𝜎 𝜋 40.6 MPa
𝐴 0.02 m
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EXERCISE 2
Calculate the engineering stress in SI units on a bar 15 cm long and having a
cross section of 4.25 mm x 12.0 mm that is subjected to a load of 5000 kg.
Solution:

First, convert the load to a force. In SI unit, the force on the bar is
𝐹 𝑚𝑎 5000 kg 9.81 m/s 49,050 N.
The engineering stress is then,
𝐹 49,050 N
𝜎 9.62 MPa
𝐴 0.0425 m 0.12 m

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EXERCISE 3
A tensile specimen of cartridge brass sheet has a cross section of 10.0 mm
x 4.0 mm and a gage length of 51 mm. Calculate the engineering strain
that occurred during a test if the distance between gauge markings is 63
mm after the test.
Solution:

Engineering strain, ε
𝑙 𝑙 63 mm 51 mm
ε 0.235
𝑙 51 mm

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
Stress-Strain Testing : Mechanical Properties of Tensile Test

ELASTIC
YIELD ULTIMATE
MODULUS /
STRENGTH TENSILE
YOUNG’S
(σ y at 0.2% STRENGTH
MODULUS offset) (UTS)
(E)

REDUCTION
ELONGATION
AT FRACTURE
IN AREA AT
(%) FRACTURE
(%)

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
Stress-Strain Testing: Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
Stress-Strain Testing: Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
Stress-Strain Testing: (i) Elastic Modulus/ Young’s Modulus (E)

• Elastic modulus (E) : Stress and strain are linearly related in elastic region. (Hook’s Law)
• Hook’s Law: 𝜎 𝑬𝜀
𝜎 F
• Elastic modulus is used to measure the material stiffness
• Behavior is related to atomic bonding between the atoms E
in a metal or alloy
• The higher the bonding strength, the higher is the elastic
Linear-
𝜀
modulus
elastic F
simple
tension
test

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
Stress-Strain Testing: (i) Elastic Modulus/ Young’s Modulus (E)

• Young’s Moduli Comparison between metal,

ceramics, polymers, composites and
semiconductors materials

Based on data in Table B.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Composite data based on reinforced epoxy with 60 vol% of aligned
carbon (CFRE), aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE) fibers.

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
Stress-Strain Testing: (ii) Yield Strength (𝜎 )
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has occurred.
when 𝜀 = 0.002
• Construction line, starting at 0.2% strain and parallel to elastic
region is drawn to find 0.2% offset yield strength. 𝜎 =yield strength

tensile stress, 𝜎
𝜎 Note: for 2 inch sample

∆𝑍
𝜀 0.002
𝑍
∴ ∆𝑍 0.004 inch

engineering strain, 𝜀
𝜀 = 0.002
Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING Graphite/

Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
Stress-Strain Testing: (ii) Yield Strength 2000
Steel (4140) qt
(𝜎 ) comparison
1000
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
700 W (pure)
in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since in

600
Yield strength, σy (MPa)

Cu (71500) cw
500
since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Mo (pure)
tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

400 Steel (4140) a

Steel (1020) cd
300
Al (6061) ag
Hard to measure ,

Hard to measure,

200 Steel (1020) hr

Room temperature Ti (pure) a
¨
Ta (pure)
values Cu (71500)hr
100
dry
70 PC
a = annealed 60
Al (6061) a Nylon 6,6
50 PET
hr = hot rolled 40 PVC humid
ag = aged 30
PP
cd = cold drawn HDPE
cw = cold worked 20
qt = quenched & tempered
Based on data in Table B.4, LDPE
Tin (pure)
10
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
Stress-Strain Testing: (iii) Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
• UTS - maximum strength on engineering stress-strain curve.
• Necking starts after UTS is reached.

Necking or localized deformation begins at

maximum load, where the increase in stress
due to decrease in the cross-sectional area
of the specimen becomes greater than the
increase in the load-carrying ability of the
metal due to strain hardening.

• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.

• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are aligned and about to break.

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING Graphite/

Metals/ Composites/
Stress-Strain Testing: (iii) Ultimate Tensile Alloys
Ceramics/
Semicond
Polymers
fibers
Strength (UTS) comparison 5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
2000
(MPa)

Steel (4140) qt
AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140c)a Si nitride
Cu (71500) w
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
Steel (10a2g0)
300 Al (6061)
Ti (pure) a
Room temperature 200 Ta (pure)
values Al (6061) a
Tensile strength, TS

Si crystal wood(||
100 <100> Nylon 6,6 fiber)
Based on data in Table B.4, Glass-soda PC PET
40 Concrete PVC GFRE( fiber)
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. 30 PP CFRE( fiber)
AFRE( fiber)
a = annealed HDPE
20 Graphite
hr= hot rolled LDPE

ag = aged 10
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE = cd = cold drawn
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy cw = cold worked
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol% qt = quenched &
fibers. tempered 1

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
Stress-Strain Testing: (iv) Ductility
• It is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation
that has been sustained at fracture.
• A material that experiences very little or no plastic
deformation upon fracture is termed brittle.
• Ductile material – Significant plastic deformation and
energy absorption (toughness) before fracture.
Characteristic feature of ductile material – necking.
• Brittle material – Little plastic deformation or energy
absorption before fracture. Characteristic feature of
brittle materials – fracture surface perpendicular to
the stress.

Schematic representations of tensile stress-strain behavior for brittle and

ductile materials loaded to fracture.

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
Stress-Strain Testing: (iv) Ductility
𝐿 𝐿
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: % 𝐸𝐿 𝑋 100
𝐿

smaller %EL
Engineering tensile
stress, 𝜎
Ao
larger %EL Lo Af Lf

Engineering tensile strain, 𝜀

𝐴 𝐴
• Another ductility measure: % 𝑅𝐴 𝑋 100
𝐴 Adapted from Fig. 6.13, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
Stress-Strain Testing: (v) Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering tensile small toughness (ceramics) Brittle fracture: elastic energy

stress, 𝜎 Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
large toughness (metals)

very small toughness

(unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, 𝜀

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
Stress-Strain Testing: (vi) Resilience (Ur)
• Ability of a material to store energy
• Energy stored best in elastic region

y
Ur   d
0
If we assume a linear stress-strain curve this simplifies to

1
Ur  y  y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
Stress-Strain Testing: True Stress & Strain

• True stress and true strain are based upon instantaneous cross-sectional area and
length.
• True stress is the stress determined by the instantaneous load acting on the
instantaneous cross-sectional area

• True stress: 𝜎

• True strain is the rate of instantaneous increase in the instantaneous gauge length
li dl l  A 
• True strain: T    ln  i   ln  o 
lo l  lo   Ai 

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
Stress-Strain Testing: True Stress & Strain
• True stress and true strain are based upon instantaneous cross-sectional area and length.

• True stress is always greater than engineering stress.

Adapted from Chapter 6, Smith & Hashemi 5e.

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
- Stress-Strain Testing cont’: Construction of True Stress-True Strain Curve cont’

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
- Stress-Strain Testing cont’: Temperature Effects on Stress-Strain Curves

Increasing temperature effects on stress-strain curves:

a) Raise ductility and toughness.

b) Lower yield stress and the modulus of elasticity.
c) Lower the ultimate tensile strength.
d) Lower the toughness (area under the curve) of
materials.

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
- Stress-Strain Testing cont’: Rate of Deformation Effects

• Deformation rate defined as the speed at which tension

test is being carried in unit (m/s, ft/min).
• The strain rate function of the specimen length.
• Increase Ultimate Tensile Strength.

Note:
Combine temperature effect

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2. MECHANICAL TESTING
Typical Ranges of Strain and Deformation Rate in Manufacturing Processes

Deformation rate
Process True strain
(m/s)
Cold working
Forging, rolling 0.1–0.5 0.1–100
Wire and tube drawing 0.05–0.5 0.1–100
Explosive forming 0.05–0.2 10–100
Hot working and warm working
Forging, rolling 0.1–0.5 0.1–30
Extrusion 2–5 0.1–1
Machining 1–10 0.1–100
Sheet-metal forming 0.1–0.5 0.05–2
Superplastic forming 0.2–3 10-4-10-2

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EXERCISE 4
A 0.500 mm diameter round sample of a 1030 carbon steel is pulled to failure in a
tensile testing machine. The diameter of the sample was 0.343 mm at the fracture
surface. Calculate the percent of reduction in area sample.

Solution:

𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
% reduction in area 100% 1 100%
𝐴 𝐴
𝜋⁄4 0.343 mm
1 100%
𝜋⁄4 0.500 mm
1 0.4707 100% 52.93%

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EXERCISE 5
If the original gage length of a round, 15 mm tensile bar is 50 mm and the final
gage length is 65 mm and the final diameter is 7 mm, determine the:

i. Elongation, %
ii. Ductility index (reduction in area,%)

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EXERCISE 6
A cylindrical specimen of a nickel alloy having an elastic modulus of 207 GPa
and an original diameter of 10.2 mm will experience only elastic deformation
when a tensile load of 8900 N is applied. Compute the maximum length of the
specimen before deformation if the maximum allowable elongation is 0.25 mm.

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EXERCISE 7
Figure below shows tensile testing results of three different materials A, B and C.
Based on the figure, evaluate the properties of each materials based on ductility,
toughness, and Young’s modulus.

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EXERCISE 8
Based on the table below:
i. which has the greatest % reduction in area?
ii. which is the strongest?
iii. which is the stiffest?
iv. which is the hardest?

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PROBLEMS
1.Explain about tensile test? What can we understand from tensile test?

2.Define engineering stress and strain with true stress and true strain?

3.Define ductility. Give examples of metals that have good ductility.

4.Distinguish between elastic and plastic deformation?

5.What is the reason that a yield strength is defined as 0.2% offset strength?

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PROBLEMS
6. The engineering stress-strain data were
obtained for a 0.2% C plain-carbon steel.
a) Plot the engineering stress-strain curve.
b) Plot the true stress-strain curve.
c) Determine the ultimate tensile strength
of the alloy.
d) Determine the percent elongation at
fracture.

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SUMMARY:
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent measures of load and misplacement,
respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often shows a linear relation between
stress and strain. To minimize deformation, select a material with a large elastic
modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation behavior occurs when the tensile (or
compressive) uniaxial stress reaches σy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure

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