Engineering Materials

and Heat treatment-Key

to successful Design
Ganapathi.K.N
 Disclaimer

I have used many picture in this presentation, Taken

out from Google Image/books etc. Copyright of
these images belongs to the Owners.

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 Objective
• Introduction to materials
• Material specifications
• Steel, CI, Al and copper alloys
• Heat treatment of steel
• Machine tool part material case study

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Who has contributed to sweeping change
in product in the last many Years?

•Technology
•Materials
•Processes
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 What is engineering Materials?
• Materials used for engineering applications
• Material used in making Designed parts
Origin of New Engineering Materials?
Design
Why? Output of Design
4S
• Size
• Shape
• Strength- Materials
• Special properties 6
 Design Process
Need for a device Product Function?
or product

Synthesis
Redesign
(Creativity-Ideas)

Change Material selection

• material?
• process?
Product part
Satisfactory (prototype)

Unsatisfactory
Evaluate Put Part
performance into Service

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 Engineering Materials

Transmit or
Accept or Reject
Reflect light
Support Load Magnetic Flux

Things
Resist Corrosion Made up of Conduct
Material Electricity

Resist chemical
Insulate
Conduct heat Reaction

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Materials Science Tetrahedron

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 Strength

TS
F = fracture or
y
YS ultimate
strength
engineering
stress

Neck – acts
as stress
Typical response of a metal concentrator

strain
engineering strain

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 Ductility
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress,  larger %EL
Ao
Lo Af Lf

Engineering tensile strain, e

Ao - Af
• Another ductility measure: %RA = x 100
Ao

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 Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

E ngineering small toughness (CI, ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals, steel)
stress, 

Engineering tensile strain, e

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
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 Types of Materials

•Pure Metals •Copper wires

•Alloys •Steel, Cast iron
•Composites •Al SiC, Alnextel
•Compound •NaCl, Ceramics,
Al2O3 , TiN, TiC
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Classification of Engineering Materials
Metallics

Pure Metals
Alloys

Polymers Composites Ceramics

Glasses
Plastics Porcelain
Rubber Semiconductors
Elastomers Oxides,
Carbides of metals
Cement

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 Engineering Materials

High strength, High ductility

Metals
High Density, Poor corrosion Resistance
Abrasion resistant
Polymers Ceramics
Low density, high ductility Composites Low density, brittle
Tailor made properties
Corrosion resistant Corrosion resistant

Elastomers Glasses
creep at low temp Brittle

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`

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 Why Ferrous Alloys are important as engineering
construction materials?

• Iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within

the earths crust
• Metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively
economical manufacturing techniques
• Extremely versatile
Steels
and
Cast Iron

Composition, Microstructure, Properties and Applications

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Some Specifications applicable to Steel Products
and other Metals
Specifications
SAE-AISI Society of Automotive Engineers – American
Iron and Steel Institute
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
(UNS) (www.astm.org)
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
MIL U.S. Department of Defense
AMS Aerospace Materials Specification
BS British Standards Institution
(http://www.bsi-global.com/index.xalter)
EN European Committee for Standardization
(http://www.cenorm.be)
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 Low-carbon steels (mild steels): 0.1-0.3 %C
• high formability, high ductility, toughness
• Microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite
• Cold work is used to increase hardness
• typical applications: pipes, panels, sheets, wires
• Most stampings made from these steels
AISI 1008, 1010, 1015, 1018, 1020, 1022, 1025

Composition of plain carbon steels 25

 Medium-Carbon Steels: 0.3-0.60 wt%
• Microstructure: Tempered Martensite
Quench and Anneal
• High strength and Reasonable Ductility
• Railway wheels, tracks, gears,
crankshafts etc
• Common Alloys AISI 1030, 1040, 1050,
1060

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 High-Carbon Steels-0.60-1.4 wt% C
• Hardest, strongest and least ductility, wear resistant
• Carbon tool steels: 0.8~1.2%C
• High alloy tool steels are often alloyed with Mo, V, W, Cr and/or Ni.
• UNS: Txxxxx
• Typical applications: chisels, hammers, knives, saw blades, drills, dies,
machine tool cutters, punches, cutlery, springs (0.6~0.8%C) and high strength
wire
• Common alloys AISI 1080, 1095

Cutting blades

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Designation, composition and applications of Tool
steels

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 Stainless Steels (at least 11%Cr.)
• Corrosion resistant enhanced by Ni, Mo. Addition of Cr and Nickel to Fe-C will
significantly increase corrosion resistance
• Three basic classes, specified by microstructure:
Ferritic: Fe-Cr alloys (12~25%Cr), can be cheap
Martensitic: Fe-Cr alloys, low Cr, hard, cutting tools
Austenitic: Fe-Cr-Ni alloys (18Cr-8Ni), corrosion resistance
• Ultra high strength stainless steel (17-7PH): Precipitation
hardened, high strength and hardness
• Alloys designation
•Aust. & Ferretic steels are not HT,
AISI UNS so use cold work to strengthen
2xx S2xx00 •Martensitic and ferritic are
3xx S3xx00 304, 316, 316L (Austenitic) magnetic
4xx S4xx00 410 (Martensitic),446 (Ferritic) •Austenite may have large content
of Cr & Ni (best corrosion resistant)
• Stainless steels may resist oxidation @ high temperature up to 1000°C.
• Used in gas turbines, steam boilers, heat-treating furnaces, aircraft.

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 High Strength Steel Grades
Type Range of yield Strengthening mechanism
stress MPa
Low carbon mild 140-180 Residual carbon, Mn, Si
steel sheet
Rephosphorized 180-300 Solid solution hardening
Bake hardening 180-300 Strain age hardening
HSLA 260-420 Grain refinement and precipitation
hardening
Dual Phase 450-600 Martensitic (hard) phase in ferritic
ductile matrix
TRIP Steel 500-800 Transformation of retained austenite
to martensite on deformation
Complex and 800-1200 Bainitic/martensitic phases formed by
martensitic steels controlled heat treatment

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Equivalent specifications

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Equivalent specifications

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Equivalent specifications

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Yield Strengths Ranges of Steels

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 Cutting tool Materials
• High Speed Steel
• Cemented Carbides
• Ceramics Tool
• Carbides tool
• Diamond

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 Cast Iron
• Carbon content ranging from 2-4.3%
• Castable, hard & strong
• Wide range of types depending on:

1. The chemical composition of the iron; the existence of

certain alloying elements.
2. The cooling rate of the casting in the mould.
3. The type of graphite formed and its percent
composition.

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Non ferrous alloys

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 Al and its Alloys
It is alloyed to improve strength. Al is alloyed with any or
combination of five elements:

Cu, Mn, Mg, Zn, Si

In addition to alloying, Al alloys are also hardened by cold

working and by precipitation hardening.

Typical mechanical properties:

Low elastic modulus: ~70 GPa
Yield strength: 100~400MPa

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 Al and its Alloys
A1xxx pure Al (>99%) There are some 200 Al alloys commercially
A2xxx Cu available. The following are commonly used
ones:
A3xxx Mn Wrought: 1100 (pure), 3003, 5052, 6061*,
A4xxx Si 7075*
A5xxx Mg Sand cast: 355.0*
Die cast: 380.0
A6xxx Si+Mg
A7xxx Zn *: can be hardened by heat treatment

A6061-T6 an Al-Si-Mg alloy aged hardened to T6

condition
T: aged hardened
process condition: F: as fabricated
W: solution treated
O: annealed
H: work hardened
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 Copper and its alloys
• Copper is an industrial metal and widely used in alloyed and
unalloyed condition.

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 Copper and its alloys

• Properties
1. High electrical conductivity
2. High thermal conductivity
3. High corrosion resistance
4. Good ductility and
malleability
5. Reasonable tensile
strength

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 Classifications of copper and copper alloys
• Copper and copper
alloys are designated
according to copper
development
authorities ( CDA)
• Wrought alloys
C100 to C799
• Cast alloys
C800 to C999

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POLL: Set 1

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Use Chat box
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 What is Heat Treatment?

Heat treatment is thermal processing

of alloys for inducing certain property
changes in the material

Any component to perform, Should have

• Size
• Shape
• Strength-From Material

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 Purpose of Heat treatment

Abrasion
Improving wear resistance

None HT HT
Heat
Treatment
Improving fatigue strength HT

(Stress)
Raw-

None HT
Improving machinability property
Change
Repeat cycle
Property
Improving cold press property

Improving other property (Magnetic Property etc

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 Three Stages of Heat Treatment Process

Soaking or Holding
Temperature Time

Heating Cooling

Rate of heating Rate of cooling

Stages of Heat Treatment Process

 Heat treatment-
First stage
• Rate of Heating
• Temperature of Heating

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 Heat treatment-
Second stage

Soaking time

1 Hour/ Every one inch thickness — Air media

½ Hour / Every one inch thickness —Liquid media

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 Heat treatment-
Third stage
Rate of Cooling

Furnace cooling
Open Air cooling
Forced Air cooling
Oil quenching
Polymer quenching
Water quenching
Brine quenching

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Effect of Cooling Rate

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 Types of Heat Treatment

• Bulk Heat treatment or Through Hardening

Examples: Annealing, Normalizing, Hardening Tempering

• Surface Heat treatment or Case hardening

Examples: Carburizing, Induction Hardening, Nitriding etc.

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Types of Bulk or Through Heat treatment
Processes

• Annealing
• Normalizing
• Hardening
• Tempering

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Annealing and Normalizing
• Stress Relief: Reduce
stress caused by:
-plastic deformation
-nonuniform cooling
-phase transform.
• Spheroidize (steels):
Make very soft steels for
good machining. Heat just
below TE & hold for
15-25 h.

• Full Anneal (steels):

Types of Make soft steels for
good forming by heating
Annealing to get g, then cool in
furnace to get coarse P.
• Process Anneal:
Negate effect of
• Normalize (steels):
cold working by
Deform steel with large
(recovery/
grains, then normalize
recrystallization)
to make grains small.

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Annealing and normalizing

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 Hardening and Tempering

Hardening Tempering
• Quenched in Oil, Water or Brine • Forms Tempered Martensite
• Forms Martensite • Tailor made Hardness can be
• 65 HRC achieved by selecting tempering
temp between 200 to 700 Deg
• Very hard, List engineering
centigrade
application
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Temperature
910 o C Austenite
Austenite + Ferrite
723 o C

Water or oil Furnace cooling

cooling Air cooling

Heat Quench
treatment hardening
Normalizing Annealing Austempering Isothermal Spheroidizing
annealing annealing

Purpose Strength Machinability Machinability Strength, Machinability Cold

toughness forgeability
Ferrite +
Micro Ferrite + spheroidized
Martensite Ferrite+Pearlite Ferrite+ Bainite
structure Pearlite cementite
Pearlite
Con-rod, Transmission Transmission Bolt, ball
steering gear, drive Spring gear, drive, joint
Parts
knuckle pinion pinion

Time 61
Use Chat box
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 Surface Hardening
• Also called case hardening

• May or may not require quenching

• Surface is hard, wear resistance

• Interior remains tough and strong

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 Reasons to surface harden

• Harden surface layers (0.1mm – 5mm)

-Increase wear resistance
- Increase surface strength for load carrying (crush resistance)
- Impact favorable residual compressive stresses
- Improve fatigue resistance
- Produce tough core for resistance to impact

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 Ways to surface harden
a component
Selective hardening Diffusion
Hardening

Induction Carburising

Flame Cyaniding

Laser Carbonitriding

Light Nitriding

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 Flame Hardening

(a) Surface hardening by localized heating. (b) Only the surface

heats above the A1 temperature and is quenched to martensite.

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Induction hardening
1. Electric current flowing
through coil heats the parts.
2. Surface gets heated up &
quenched in water.
3. Speed is an advantage & High
cost is a disadvantage.
4. Process is used for
Crankshafts, piston rods,
sprocket teeth axles etc.

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Materials, which can be hardened inductively

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 Carburizing
• Low-carbon steels is heated in carbon-rich environment
– Pack carburizing – packing parts in charcoal or coke –
makes thick layer (0.635 to 3.81 mm)
– Gas carburizing – use of propane or other gas in a
closed furnace – makes thin layer (0.127 to 0.76 mm)
• Gas mixtures : CO, CO2, H2, H2O and N2 (Carrier gas)
– Liquid carburizing – molten salt bath containing
sodium cyanide, barium cyanide – thickness between
other two methods

• Followed by quenching, hardness about HRC 60

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Carburizing of a low-carbon steel to produce a high-carbon,
wear-resistant surface.

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Carburizing

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 Hardenability of Steels
Hardenability: A measure of the ability a specific alloy
to be hardened by forming martensite as a result of
given heat treatment

Hardenability not the same as hardness!

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 Hardenability--Steels
• Ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test to measure hardenability.

flat ground
specimen
(heated to γ
phase field) Rockwell C
24°C water hardness tests

• Hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness,

Distance from quenched end

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 Why hardness changes with position?
• The cooling rate varies with position

Adapted from Fig. 11.12, Callister 6e.

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 Effect of Carbon Content on Hardenability

The hardenability
increases with the
carbon content.

Hardenability curves for

four 8600 series alloys of
indicated carbon content.

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Effect of Alloying Elements on Hardenability

(1.85 Ni, 0.80 Cr, & 0.25Mo)

(1.0 Cr & 0.20 Mo)

(0.55 Ni, 0.50 Cr, & 0.20 Mo)

(0.85 Cr)

Hardenability Curves for

(plain carbon steel)
Five Steel Alloys (Each
Containing 0.4 wt% C)
Distance from quench end
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Effect of Alloying Elements on Hardenability

The hardenability
curves for several
steels.

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SELECTION OF MATERIAL

FOR A SPINDLE ASSEMBLY

A CASE STUDY
 TURNING

THREADI
NG

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 CNC LATHE SPECIFICATION
MACHINE SPECIFICATION
Machine Capacity
Swing over Saddle mm 350
Swing over Cross Slide mm 220
Chuck Size mm 165
Distance b/w Centres mm 380
Turning Diameter max. mm 165
Turning Length max. mm 350
Spindle
Nose A2-5
Bore taper MT-4
Power kW 5.5
Maximum Speed rpm 4000
Speed range at constant power rpm 1000-3500
Spindle Bore mm 40
Standard Bar Capacity mm 26
Travels & Feedrates
Stroke X-Axis mm 130
Stroke Z-Axis mm 350
Feed rate mm/min 0-5000
Rapid Traverse Rate m/min 24
Bed slant angle deg 45
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LATHE SPINDLE ASSEMBLY
LATHE SPINDLE ASSEMBLY

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LATHE SPINDLE ASSEMBLY

Outer spacer Cartridge

Headstock
Bearing Flange
spindle

Inner spacer
Cylinder flange

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CARTRIDGE Case carburize to depth 0.5 to 0.8

EN354

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BEARING FLANGE

Toughened to 75 to 90Kgf/sqmm

EN8
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SPINDLE

EN354

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 Case carburize to 0.5 – 0.6mm
CYLINDER FLANGE Harden & Temper to HRC 50 -55HRC

En 354

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 HOUSING

GREY CAST IRON

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POLL: Set 2

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 Conclusions

• Knowledge of Materials

• Knowledge of Heat treatment

Are key for successful design

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Use Chat box
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Thank You

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