HAPTER 5: KNoWLEDGE BASES OF OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY 121

I o immuet) Cnvironnwnal fxtuors. The serises
dthe ellect
of these factors depends on the type of intluence
nce,
sntensity of the intluence, and the time the influence is
iensi
tnduced
Snce the germinal ancl embryonic sages are formaikon and
hferentiation periox s, the first trimester of pregnancy (frst 12
ks) is critical in development. If normal growth Is inter-
npted during this ti ne, defects can arise.
lereditary facte rs also contribute to the integrity of the
rUNing oganism. T efore, it is imperative that the therapist
nerstand the basis of genetic functioning, the implications of
etic malfunctioni ig for the developing organism, and those
sfunctions that are a direct result of genetic inheritance. In-
reased understandii g of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has shed
tht on those develc pmental traits that have specific hereditary
omponents.
incluce larning t«) walk, le:alrningg to lak: solicl loods, learningto
alk, and learning ) control the elimiaticon of body wastes
(lavighurst, 1972).
The skills and issues of the toddler blend into those of the
preschooler (ages 3 to 5 ycars). During this time the child is
refining his or her motor skill>, learniig sex differences and
sexual modesty, forming concepts and learning languageto
describe social and physical reality, getuing ready to read, and
learning to distinguish right and wrong and develop a con-
sclence (Havighurst, 1972).
The period of birth to 5 years encompasses a strong sen
Sorimotor period in which the child is learning through big
activittes how to handle his or her bodly. "The child will learn
more by participating in gross motor activities than he or she will
through many fine motor, table-top actiities. When the child is
secure with his or her body and the spatial relations that gross
motor activity have provided, skill in fine motor ventures will

Early cbildbood OCcur.

mplishments occur quickly for the infant and young child.

The irst year of life is full of developmental tasks that transform a
relatively helpless infant into a baby with abilities in independent
comotion through sequential events of rolling, crawling,
eeping, and perhaps even walking. Communication skills are
resent through meaningful sounds and gestures Selffeedingis
ginning, initiated first by holding the botle and progressing to
mple finger foods. A definite personality and temperament
merge.
Postural suability is a prerequisite to locomotion as well as
ne motor skills. Early movement begins on a reflexive basis, ie,
hen the infant turns his or her head, neck righting aligns the
unk and limbs with the head and neck, which initiates a sponta
eous roll. Thus, the skill of rolling begins. The infant manages
ravling, which is forward progression with the abdomentouch
g the supporting surface, by pushing forward
with leg exten-
On, facilitated
possibly by positive support
a reaction as tactile
timulation to the sole of the foot occurs. Creeping, or four-point
nobility with the abdomen above the supporting surface and
ly the hands and knees on the floor, requires dynamic stability
tthe shoulders and hips to allow movement that is controlled.
0on the infant has matured enough to be able to pull
him- or
lateral cruising as the child
erselfup to stand. This progresses to
nOvEs sideways, supporting him- or herself on a coucl, coffee
toy box. By practicing using flexors
ADle, or and extensors to
Midile childhood
Middle childhood is the period from about 6 to 12 years, or
preadolescence. The child is becoming more independent, tak-
ing part in activities that take him or her out of the home and
involve people other than family members. He or she makes
friends with a peer group, becomes physical and athletic, some
times taking part in organized sports. The child's maturing body
has allowed refinement of motor skills; Lowever, care must be
taken not to overexert or damage the growing body.
School is importait, as the child learns to follow rules, both
implicit and explicit, while interacting in this new social setting.
The child is also experiencing mental changes that allow him or
her to make more complex connections with information at
school as well as the outside world. It is an exciting time to grow,
explore, make friends, nurture special skills and interests, and
develop the self-awareness that will be available when entering
the sometimes rocky teenage years.
Havighurst (1972) outlines the developmental issiues and
tasks of the middle years. They include learning physical skills
necessary for ordinary games; building wholesome atitudes
toward oneself as a growing organism; earning to get along ith
age-mates; learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social
role; developing fundamental skills in reading, writirng, and cal
culating; developing concepts for everyday living; developing

and carefully conscience, morality, and a scale of values; achieving personal

DOunce, experimenting with upright positions,
etting go of the supporting surfaces, enough postural stability
independence; and developing atitudes toward social groups
The first tentative and institutions. These prepare the child for the new issues of
merges to stand independently and then walk.
eps are taken with a wide-based gait and the arms held in "high independence, social interaction, and productivity that will
additional balance. emerge in puberty and adolescence.
burd, or abducted enough to provide
to 15
LEarning to walk can occur sometime between the ages of9
nonths. Biologic readiness must be present; the bones, muscles, Adolescence
and neural structures must be mature enough to support the
Adolescence is derived from a Latin word meaning to come 10
activity. maturity. It begins at pubescence, a period of about 2 years
each developmen-
re concept of "readiness" is applied tonot be before the onset of puberty. Pubescence is a time of physiologic
ask.It is clear that the 1-week-old would ready to walk.
is critical period within which environmental factors and changes: a growth spurt, a synchronous growth of budy systems,
nere a

dily maturity create an optimum moment for learning. and increased hormonal activity that triggers the emergence of
Cupalional therapists recognize this moment, they can en primary and secondary sex characteristics. Pubescence culmi
hance the skills nates at puberty, when sexual nmaurity and reproductive capac-
required. growth period ity are complete.
ne time period of 0 to 3 years represents the
this time period It is not as easy to determine when adolescence ends and
niancy to toddlerhood. The issues in
 122 UNIT 1: HISTORY AND PHILOsOPHY

TABLE 5-7 Theuries of Adolescence

Theorist Theory and Hypothesis View of Adolescence
Assumption(s)
olutunari-l.iws n nature uniorm Natur.al selection, species variability adanpla Jturation is result of adaptation, sexu
behavior is influenced by learning
Smultaneous evwlution of de:elopmental Two distinct periods of adolescence (Eart
Evoltonarthery recauulation of ate) usually characterized
develpnxn spects of adolescence with particular by st rm/stresa
Adolescence is period of potentual pei Maa
biologic lactor
ephasis m
and societal changes
of devel- Adolescence is transition towarcd maturty.
Matur.it 1.a!-levelpmenn 18 natural Predictable sequences and cyeles
There are specific descriptions ot
pment (ages and stages) aspecs
of development during years 10-16

Exch stage of development has specitic

The adolescent years (12-18) fuCus on eig.
Hanghu. Arme-human belhaior is learning
teachable mo- developmental tasks:
leared iasks and there are
lor learning 1. Aclhieving new and nature relations wie
ments or sensiuive perids ageniates of both sexes
these tasks
2. Achieving appropriate sex-role develp
ment
3. Accepting one's physical developmeni
and using the bocly eftectivel
i. Emotional independence from primary
caretakers
5. Preparing for nnarriage and family life
6. Carer development
7.Value acquisition and development od
personal ideology
8. Developing and achieving sociall
responsible behavior

The unconscious; shilting sexual energy

re bihoarlvt-und1niental bivlugical
instincts. tocus is on gratification of basic
2ints 1 schosexUal stages ot develop-
Final stage of personaliy development in
from the mouth to the anus to the genital
preadolescence; puberty results in re
emergence of infantile themes, especialiy
three
area: id, ego, and superego as the Oedipal or Electra conilicts: patierns of
basic mental iunctions
inipulse expresion, delensive sn le, and
Defense mechanisms, which prutect cgo
sublination crystuallize into a life orient
from unaceptable wishes
tion: the genital stage

Sanme as S. Freud
Time of increased libidinal energy 1ssu
Same as S Freud ated with biological maruration: ego is in
4 Freud
danger of being overwhelmed by insidt
emphasizes a0eticism and intelleTUI
as two powerful adolescent defenses
Adolescence is psychological adaptation to Three phases of adolescence: (1) ear
Same as Freud
P.Bios biologic matu.auion; the coping system onset of puberty; (2) adolescence proper
autonomy from earlier objects o' cather
(3) late-development of judgment,im
etab-
ests, and intellect; sexual identity
lished: consolidation ot personal idenli"y

Neutrrudin-tocus on conscious seli (ego
EEriun
deve pment h psvchosocial stages; social
and cltural intluences attert behaior
Eight stages of psychosocial development ldentity versus role diffusion or conts
from infancy throughout adult life, with a adolescent reexamines identity
and ra
(Sexual and occupational identiticsk r
psychasocial crisis or bipular situation to be
resolved during each stage. Developmental tion of cris task results idealy n
or

periods are defined partly by mauration tegried sense of self

Pchoanalyuic Social Psychology-all people Three kinds of expesience (1) sensations, Three phaes of adolescence: (1) pre
eu in an intepersonal tield with specific perceptions, and emouons experienced Cence-nee-1 for a close relationsiup *
sune sex:
i2) n
deterinants ot its oWn before language: (2) private symbols, in another person of the
chuding fantasies and daydreams (3) shared interest in heterosexual
relticnsus,
SVmbols. DVmamismsratterns ot inter liCT berween needs for intimacy
action tor sexual gratification: (3) l
of mature repertoire of uei
ent of selofe
emergence
relationshins,
(see Table 5-2)
 OCCUPAI1ONAL THERAPY 123
CHAPTER 5: KNOWLEDGE BASES OF

ABLE 5-7.
Theortes
of Adolescence (contiued)
View of Adolescence
corist
Theory and Hypothesis Assumption(s)
Adult reasoning achieved during adoles.
Cognitive'developmental-knowledge is Scheme: adaptation, which consists of as
based on action; structural properties of similation and accommodation; stages o cence, governed by principles of
thought
logic; hypothesis raising and testing: simul
human brain, sense receptors, and nervous development: sensorimotor, preoperational, taneous manipulation of more than two
system provide universal bases for human concrete operations, formal operations
variables; consequences of actions antici
ognition
pated; logical inconsistencies recognized:
futuie computeralized
Period during which personal morality
Cognitive'developmental-moral reasoning Levels of moral reasoning: preconventional conventional
berween
is reflectin of level of cognitive devel ages 4-10); conventional (ages 10-16); emerges; transition
and postcnventional levels may bring
peostconventional (ages 16 on)
opment doubi, personal refertion, and contuson:
moral
period when new moral code or
philosophy can emerge

Behavior is function of life space, which Acdolescent as "marginal man" straddling of

Social psychology-all behavior must be adult-
lain
understood in context of field in which it includes person and all facts or events in boundary between childhood and
occurs; every psychological concept can environment of which person is aware; per hood unstable; Greater uncertainty about
regions of environment and about interper
Son has a perceptual-motor region and an
be expressed by a mathematical formula
Sonal and perceptual-motor regions
interpersonal region; environment is di-
vided into regions that represent settings,
relationships, and barriers to access
Uniform elements of common psychological
Integrated psychology of adolescent-adoles- Adolescence is period of reorganization;
Auechel birosocial changes are evident and discon- reacions, sCXual maturation,
scx roles com-
cence is distinct developmental phase with bined with personality traits, changed states,
and social in tinuous, changes are cross-cultural
changes that are biologic and emerging adult roles
origin Gave crosSs-cultural perspective on adoles
Cultural anthropology Degree of continuity between child and
Mcad and R adult roles is central focus in cultural im centbehavior. Delineated operations of
Berxdct biology and culture in adolescent develop-
pact on personality development (Benedict). into our
Relation berween biologic and cultural de- ment and gave increased insight
terminants studied by Mead; was known as Own and Other cultures.

culural determinants, which implied that

culture was dominant factor in personality

development Adolescent is seen individually in context of

There is hierarchy of ecologic microsystems
Brienbrenner Ecologic theory-child develops within con- systems in which he or she is involved
text of ecologic systems mesosystems, and exosystems overarched
by macrosystem; these systems alffect child's
development and manner in which child
perceives and deals with his or her environ-
ment; basis units of analysis are dyad, triad,
etc.

U, & Crouler A.C. (1983). Tbe eoltion of emiromental models derelopmertal

in
developing child (pp. 330-339). New York: Harper & Rou; Bronjenbrenner,
Alznedfrom Bee, H. ( 1985). 1 ie
4th ed, Vol. 1: History, theory and methods
New lork:Jobn Wiley &. Sons; Dauis, I. (1985). Adolescence: Theoretical and helping perspectives
reearch In P.Mussen (Ed.), Har dbook of child psychology, New York: Harper &kou
M. (1985). Adolescence (pp. 9-20),
9 25-40). Buston: Kluweré Nijbof; Lloyd,
buds" (age 8 to 13 years). Puberty is completed within 3 years
combination of physical,
3dulthood begins. Tliis depends on a Menarche (10 to 16.5 years) occurs at tle end of this
time after
determinants.
emotional, social, leg,al, and cultural the peak of height spurt. Puberty in boys starts approximate 2 ly
years later than girls. Pubic hair appears t erween 10 and 15 years;
Theories of adolesce nt behavior starts berween 11 and 14.5 years, with ejaculation
penis growth
ol
taking place a year :after acceleraned penis growth.
M present, there is single unificd or comprehensive theory a
no n addition to primary and secondary sex characteristics,
adolescence from
adolescent behavior. Many theorists view other changes include:
continuum. Table 5-7 sum-
Specific aspect of the developmental
1.ungs and heart increase in size. The heart rate drops. This
narizes the theoretical orientations.
change is more pronounced in boys than in girls.
muscle
Boys experience greater growth in muscle and
nmass
2.
ratio of
Developmental stages in relation to body weight; girls have an increased
fat tissue to body weight.
P'ysical development 3. Facial sructures begin to take on acilt
features.
are gradual procesSes
dily growth and sexual maturation 4. Sex differences in the shape and proportions of the trunk
and other hormones.
g t about by androgens, estrogens, of "breast
become obvious
C
irst sign of puberty in girls is the appearance
 124 UNIT 1: HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY

the
5 Sex differences in strength (boy greater
girls) appear
than
that scem tw be related to the increase in muscle size, other people have their
adolescents'
thoughts and perceptions
own
heit
skeletal growth, boly wcight and neural organization
selfpreocupation persuades him or herceribes
thoughts are focuscd on him or her. Elkind (1967) desc
(Lloyd. 1985; Tanner, 1970; Tanner, 1980). manlfestations of this egocentrism as follows:
. Motor coordinaion shows litle sex ditference until approx-
umately age 14. Boys continue to develop coordination after aginary audience. The adolescent is consturucg
14 years, whereas girls do not demonstrate marked reacting to an imagined audience. For exampie d
changes Student catches the eye of the teacher he or she wOnde
ater this age (Malina, 1975). her at that mo

Some what the teacher is thinking about him or

body organs and structures do not change apprecia-
bly duringadolescence. Por example, the brain reaches 95% ment.
that bCCause so
aloleseent ingines
f ulult si and weight by age l0 (Tanner, 1970). . e o d Jahle. "The her, then he she
Or
are interested in him r
There is evidence that puberty is beginning earlier. This many people the adolescent
knows
De very special. For example,
change is thought to be a result of beuer nutrition and a decrease nust"no
that one ever has felt the way I do.
in diseases. Another interesting hypothesis is the stimulaion and adolescent ternds to interpret situa
5. Pseudostupidity. The warranted. The ob
stress factor theory, which states that such factors as
stimulation, tions at a more complex level than is
he may look
noise, crowding, and artificial light may effect these changes vious tends to elude him orher. For xumple,
(Adams, 1981). book in the pl.ices
he is least likelyto
for a lostsock, shoe, or

find it.
Sensory and perceptrual development
The sensory and perceptual Emotional development
capabilities of the adolescent are
negligible in contrast to his or her physical and cognitive Emotional responses are particularly sign1ficant in adolescence
changes. The perceptual world of the adolescent is enhanced by lie experiences, affea
Childhood feelings, coupled with new
its interrelationship with expanding cognitive skill. emotional development. Hormonal changes tha
personality and
maturation cause frequent emotional la
accompany physical
Cognitive deelopment bility. Cognitive changes allow for personal introspection and
Adolescence ushers in changes in cognitive processes.
Piaget's enable the young person to think about him-or herselfin a more
period of formal operations emerges. Inhelder and Piaget char- abstract manner. The focus of thought shifts inward. The adoles
acterize the adolescent's formal operational thought process as cent is concerned wich his or her own feelings as he or she
follows: responds to others and to his or her expanding world. This
1. The capability of dealing logically with many factors at once. emotional awakening afects the evolving self-image and esteem
2. The ability to use a secondary system, or example, trigo- ofthe adolescent. The teen must also adapt to new role behavios
nometry. This ability to manipulate synmbols makes the and expectations within his or her environment. These changs
adolescent's hought processes more flexible. He or she is often evoke strong emotional responses.
now able to introspect and relect on his or her own mental
capacities. Concept of Self. Changes in self-concept are a reflectiou not
3. The ability to consuruct ideal or contrary-to-fact situations. only of physical ancl Cognitive naturation but :also of tie search
4. The ability tw deal with the possible as well as the real for a new understanding of self. Sell-esteem (or how one
per
(Inhelder & Piaget, l958). ceives how others see him or her) is rooted in
early family
interactions, Self-esteem tends to increase from youth through
One of the significant of formal
outcomes
thought is that the adolescent is freed from
operational
the cognitive limia-
late adolescence.
tions of the present. He or she now has a view of what is
of the future. This mode of
possible, Sex Roles. Sex-role
concepts are formed in early childhood
thought is linked to the idealism of The adolescen's view of sexual
youth. identity depends a great deal on
the kinds of models encountered.
During adolescence, the
Social Cognition. Social cognition is the young person's sell-concept becomes more abstract and les
servations, information, and
development of ob- dependent on external physlcal qualities. By late adolescence,
conceptualizations
and others' social roles and about
about our own the self-concept undergoes a kind of
relationships, thoughts, feel- a new andl
reorganization. The resul
ings, intentons, and moral or religous judgments. The adoles- future-oriented personal and ileological identity
cent's ability to make moral
judgments seems to be related to
his or her ability to see another's
Soclal development
point of view and to relate it Peer
to him-or herself.
Flavell and Ailman's view
of social cognition
relationships in adolescence are anpartessential ot e
parallels the adolescent's al.:lity to reach formal transition from dependent child to
operational action with equals allows the teen independent adult. Inter
thought (Flavell, 1977). to
practice aspects ot rer
ships that are critical to later role
Adolescent the grouf seems to development. The influenc
of
Egocentricism. The concept of egocentricism is and declines in later
peak in the early adolescent years (i2 to 1)
special interest because it
seems w be an adolescence (Berndt, 1979).
between personality important link The strucure
dynanics and cognitive processes. The
freedom and flexibility of
of groups changes in adolescence. ade
cliques or small cohesive
lions can also cause the thought
that come with formal groups evolve into largerpersoet
adolescent to be
opera up of several cliques. At 13 to 15 years, the young crow ins
ns
or her uverly conscious of his
thoughts, appearance, and feelings. He or she realizes to try out new
heterosexual skills in the protected
that of the crowd. Once env"ero
feelings of self-confidence develop
 OCCUPA1!Ou. !APY i25
OF
ER 5: KNoWLEDGE BASES

she tests
he or

goals. In peer rclationships

wal pair relationships
begin. Individual friendships take on and establish sroup
social roles while reinforcing
or her increased various
in the adolescent years. With his and begins to understand
rortance
the skill.
the teen is able to understand more fully the his or her own identity
and feelings of others. This ability fosters more inti-
nonts and development of intimacy
sharing of feelings between friends. The development of Auakentng of seruality--need for her to face
adolescen: force him or
evolves
through adolescence, and, as Erikson Physical changes in the young
Ae fricndships of sexuality and body
image.
in the early adult years. or identify his or her concept
eggests. peaks attitudes, values, goals, and
Familv relationships in early adolescence are more complex
Sexuality is the totality oftheperson's based on, o r determined
The teen now understands and desires the behaviors (both internal and external)
tan friendships.
her gender.
based mutual toler- his or her perception of his o r
anp oa more
intinmate relationship on
by,
in and develops from early child
he she is also keenly aware of Sexual begins
ae(Sclman, 1980); however, or a w a r e n e s s

a heightened,
often acute, aware
fat that adults possess more power. Conflict is
natural a hood, but adolescence brings relationships,
anequence ot these polarized concepts. This cycle of intimacy, ness of gender difference, erotic sensations, sexual
for intimacy
cTeendence, and autonomy causes fluctuations and contin- potential adult roles, and the need intellectual difference be-
d sruggle berween the family and child throughout the life Although there is no significant social
there are cultural and
Tk* (Sclman, 1980). tween a male and female adolescent,
(Schuster &
his or her self-concept
pressures that may influence
hal dervelopment Ashburn, 1992). come to terms
to
Derlopmental psychologists have been struggling with the Emotionally, adolescents must
att mpt forced to
se.ves. They are
esion, "Is adolescencea culture unto itself or just a subculture with both their ideal and their real
their gender
ahin society?" The evidence suggests that it is a subculure. evaluate their masculine/feminine roles, reviewing
here seems to be only a broad transmission of values and identity, orientation, and gender preference. of the adolescent
the issues
adtions from one generation of teens to another; for instance, As the young person resolves
and self-identity emerges. This
es customs, behaviors, and mutual leisure activities provide a period, a feeling of well-being for all
formation does not evolve smoothly
erficial "shared culture." But the behavior of teens does not process of identity
role diffusion results.
nsstently influence their adult life. The peer subculture ap- adolescents. If the crisis is not resolved,
unable to respond to the demands of
The young person is
ar instead, to be a vehicle for transition into the adult world. various role expectations. The youth beset by
role diffusion
wanders from one goal to another. Instead of constructive exper
ssues in adolescence imentation with options, this adolescent makes aimless and
vague attempts at problem solving.
Nedfor and development of independence In a predominantly peer environment, charged
with sexual
he adolescent's need for and development of independence is curiosity, adolescents confront two major types of relatior.ships:

aften manifested in parent-child conflict. Elkind (1967) inter- homosexual and heterosexual. Evidence suggests that a homo-
the age of the adolescent
prets this conflict as a function of
sexual relationship is not uncommon in adolescence. Possibly
arise a s a
ard the maturity parent. He states that conflicts
of the this stems from the adolescent's sexual insecurity-the need to
result of three kinds of arrangements: bargains, agreements, herself with and
compare him- or someone
nonthreatening
sexually similar. The encounter, conducted in a "safe" and com
and contracts.
For Elkind, the parent-adolescent conflict is a staze in the fortable environment, may be his or her first extrafamilial attach-
that each ar
process of self-differentiation. l e hypothesizes ment. The development of a meaningful heterosexual relation-
"invariant clauses" whose ship is based on both physical and psychosocial intimacy. To
rangement has three complementary
Content varies with age level. develop true intimacy, the adolescent must be aware of his or her
Responsibility-freedom. The parent demands that the adoles abilities and be able to share him- or herself with others. It is
in return for com-
critical that his or her internal identity be secure to prevent
cent fulfill certain social responsibilities
of this clause changes identity diffusion and stress on his or her sexuality.
plementaryy freedo.ns. The content

with age. Deelopment of a philosophy of lije, a value systenm,

Aohievenent-support. This clause functions development
in the
and a humanistic attitude
of a sense of competence: in the adolescent's ability to meet

SOcial and academic standards and in the parent's ability to According to Piaget (1948), the adolescent (12 + years) develops
and reinforce his or her accomplish- a "morality of reciprocity." When a child reaches formal opera-
instruct, supervise,
ments.
tional thought, he or she is able to engage in the abstract thinking
Loally-commitment. This clause is closely related to the devel- and introspection that help him or her to develop an internally
opment of a value system. The parent expects
the adolescent monitored value system. The adolescent's ability to interpret and
o give primary allegiance to the family, and the young internalize rules enables him or her to "discover the boundaries
and make a that separate his self from the other person, but (he) will learn to
pErson expects the parent to support him or her
conimitment to his or her values and beliefs. understand the other person and be understood by him."|
Through this process the adolescent begins to develop an empa
interactions and peer relationships provide the tran- thetic attitude toward others.
urcup
Ent fecdback necessary for the adolescent's development of Many factors influence the development of an ideology
the parents, peers, significant others, religious training, and cultural
xlal independence and self-worth. Peer interaction teaches too and social background. Some theorists speculate that from the
CSCEnt he norms of society, as well as how to contribute
126 UNIT I: 1uSORY AND PUILOsoPIHY

time of adolescence the person is dealing with the "child of the SelE-Concept Theory (Super). Super states that as a pers
past; that each early experience in the child's social life and grows, he or
she
mnust integrate self-images into a self-concep
culture directly and indirectly affect his or her development of a that prevails in all daily actuvities, including his or her jot!
pnilosophy of life. This philosophy comes about, înally, as a Occupational experiences culminate in work roles and caree
result of the interaction between the individual's society and patterns that
are consistent wiuh the maturation of self-concep
identifies five developmental
vocational tasks.
culture and his or her internal learned responses. Super
Consistency of attitude is the most valuable commodity a 1. Crystallizatlon o vOcational
preference (14 to 16 yeay
intact self-concept matures, adolescents develof ldea
parent can trar smit to a child to help him or her form an As their
value system. I "igh self-esteem, internalization of expectations, about work,
and they begin to make educational de isicn
and self-discipl ne are linked with parental style and are crucial these ideas.
based on
for the format on of adult moral standards (Berkowitz, 1964; Specificatton of Ocational program (18 to 21 year. ). De
2 are set forth.
Coppersmith, 967). taile vocational plans
(21 to 24 ex
Peers and signilficant others (family nmembers, leachers, 3. mplementeition
ofrocational prefereces
his o r her initial tr iniv
has completed
friends) provide an avenue by which the adolescent can identify The young adult
ideas. Through testing, he or and has secured a job.
and test his orcapabilities and
hu r phase
c a r e e r (25 to 35 years).
The perse n e
she or her self-image and value
will eventua ly crystallize his Stabilization of
talents, narrews his
o r her of in creg
field
system. Religious tr.iining and experience adl another dimen hances his o r her
satisfactien in work.
to internalize.and reinforcCe nd finds personal
sion to the youn;. 1 erson's :ability role (35 up). The person dei elou
value systems. Religious exposure seems to be most eflective 5. Consolidation of career and acquires status
when both paren s follow similar standards and reinforce
their expertise, strengthens
his
or her skills,
(Super, 1963).
value system.
produce different value orientations.
only
valid in that there is a pr gre
Different cu :ures
be This developmental theory is
There differe. ices in values both within a culture and
are The range varies with socioecoi.om
deter sion ofvocational tasks. age
tween cultures. 1he expectations of the
individual are

life roles. Some conditions

mined by the way eople in a given culture view
roles determined
of the issues arc und which individual
are
Cognitive Social Theory (Ginsberg). believes
Ginsberg thu
include: vocational choice is related to a developmental precess ol des
makes continuous choices "betwes na
1. Responsibilit versus nonresponsibility sion making. A person
2. Authority fig1res versus nonauthority figures and the reality of the world ofv ot
reer preparation and goals

3. Dominance versus submission (Ginsberg, 1972) This process is open-ended and is conir uou
to the adolescent and yJurg
throughout life; it is not confined
Development of a vareer choice adult.
work occupies a
From approximat 2ly 15 through 65 years of age,
The adoles-
vocational decisions an Lifestyle Orientation (Holland). Holland focuses on the reb
large part of a pe son's life.
cent makes affeci his or
her future social reluionships, leisy1re tionship between personality characteristics and vocaiond
marital and child-rearing atti.údes. cholce (a Lrait-factor theory). Ile believes that job choice is
activities, materi.l gains, and
Major influences on career cholce include ability, gender, reflection of personality-that a person chooses work envire
community (rural versus urban), parental occupation, expeca ments that foster his or her personal orienation.
tions, and occupational auractiveness
whose
Planning for work is dificult for young person,
a

idealistic than realistic. With in- Adulthood

aspirations t end to be m o r e
a more realistic view of
creased ma urity, the adolescent gains Developmental progression reaclhes its h :ight in adultho004.
career choi :e and h1s or her abilitles and needs. the person grows beyond childhood, he r she refineshis or ta
One r ight surm ise that minority studenus, wlio sornetimes selimage, develops sexual and psychos1cial intimacy, betcou
encounter stiff barriers and resistance as they move loward
productive and effective in the world of work and family,
status roles, would tend to luwer their carcer expeciaions.
Studies have proved that the opposite is true however (Cosby,
finally reaches an integrity and a sense o fulfilment tha
1974; Kuvleky et al., 1971). This increase in vocational aspiration life as a meaningful adventure. ltut

their efforts to conform to the The complexity of the modern world, society,and
may reflect three atuitudes: (1) inhibit the smooth resolution of many issues of adu
American cultural emphasis on occupational success and staus;
(2) their substitution of future projections for heir inability to
move ahead in a success-oriented society:; or (3) their exagge- Issues in young adulthood
rated perception of thhe new horizons open to minority groups.
Gender also plays an important role in career decisions. The Paycbological issues
agesbetwen
feminist movement has had a strong impact on society's view of
Our society desigates young adulhood (theagdre
women's carcer options. Inuroduced early in the socialization and 40)
process, these attitudes toward female career possibilities ex.
as
prime time-when life is most salisiy others
ing. Those persons considered ppiest" by s notdle
tend a girl's job scope. Even a girl with uraditional expectations
middle aged. Cameron concludes that happiness cun
should take the time to explore her real career potential. latively
mined by, or closely related to, it is a l s oc o n c a
Briel summaries of three theories concerning career choice age as suc;
across the lifespan. In
and development are discussed below another study, Lowent Isuring

that neither age nor life

stage is relevint