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C H A P T E R
• • • •
5
Determinants
Types of determinants
There are two types of determinants:

• those factors which determine whether or not someone will

be able to take a holiday or not
• those factors which determine the type of trip, if the first
set of determinants allow a holiday to be taken.

In this chapter we will generally be considering the latter

set of factors.
The type of trip taken can encompass a huge range of vari-
ables, including:

• the destination for the trip

• when the trip will be taken
• the mode of travel to be used
• the duration of the trip
• who will comprise the holiday party or group
• the type of accommodation that will be used
• the activities undertaken by the tourist during the holiday
• how much will be spent on the trip.

We can further subdivide determinants into:

• those which are personal to the tourist

• those which are external to the tourist.

These two types of factors are illustrated in Figures 5.1 and

5.2 respectively. Both are generalized pictures but they serve
to illustrate the variety of determinants that exist.
Some of these determinants can preclude the individual
from taking any trip. Health problems could be the best ex-
ample of this phenomenon. Others will simply affect the type
of trip which is taken.
It is clear that the determinants listed in Figure 5.1 will
not carry equal weight with all tourists at all times. Different
individuals will perceive certain determinants to be more
important than others, based on their attitudes, personalities,
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Determinants

Circumstances: Knowledge of:

* health * destinations
* disposable income * the availability of
available different tourism products
* leisure time * price differences between
* work commitments competitor organizations
* family commitments
* car ownership

Individual Tourist
Attitudes and perceptions:
* perceptions of destinations
and tourism organizations
* political views Experience of:
* preferences for particular * types of holidays
countries and cultures * different destinations
* fear of certain modes of * the products offered by
travel different tourism organizations
* how far in advance they like * taking a trip with particular
to plan and book a trip individuals or groups
* ideas on what constitutes value * attempting to find
for money discounted prices
* their attitudes to standards
of behaviour as a tourist

Figure 5.1
Personal determinants of tourist behaviour

principles, fears and past experiences. Even for the same individual the
weighting given to each determinant will vary over time with changes
in age, family situation and experience as a tourist. Personal determi-
nants that are shared by a large proportion of the population may
represent a market opportunity for the tourist industry.
As economies grow in the Pacific Rim, and European and American
companies fight to compete in world markets, there are pressures on
leisure time. Managers feel they need to be at work as much of the time
as possible. This has been one of the reasons for the growth of intense
short duration forms of vacation such as themed weekend breaks.
These meet the needs of tourists looking for a short break from work,
which will stimulate them.

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Consumer Behaviour in Tourism

Global, political, economic, social and technological factors

National, society-wide political, economic, social and technological factors

The influences of the media

The marketing activities of the tourism industry

Views of friends and relatives

Individual
tourist

Figure 5.2
External determinants of tourist behaviour

At the same time, many airlines have seized upon the determinant
which can stop some people taking any form of foreign holiday,
namely, the fear of flying. This determinant clearly reduces their po-
tential market. Therefore, they have begun to offer courses to help peo-
ple overcome their fear of flying.
It is clear from these two brief examples, therefore, that the tourism
industry can exploit certain determinants for their own benefit, or seek
to influence them, again for their own benefit.
Perhaps the best example of the industry influencing and exploit-
ing a determinant is the issue of price. Many tourists like to feel they
have found a holiday at a discounted price. There is potentially
considerable status value in being seen to have ‘negotiated’ a good
deal for a tourism product. Therefore, the industry emphasizes the
bargain dimension in its selling, with banner headlines in travel
agencies and offers such as ‘free child places’, ‘20% off’ and ‘free
insurance’.
The factors in Figure 5.2 can clearly be broken down into ‘sub-
factors’ as the following examples demonstrate.

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Determinants

Political factors:

– government legislation and policy

– immigration restrictions and visa requirements
– civil disorder and terrorism
– the nature of the political system
– taxation policy, e.g. airport taxes
– tourist taxes.

The media:

– travel media, e.g. holiday features on television, in newspapers,

and guidebooks
– non-travel media, e.g. news programmes and wildlife pro-
grammes on television

Tourism organization marketing:

– foreign destinations’ advertising campaigns

– tour operator’s brochures
– travel agent’s special promotions.

The extent to which tourists’ behaviour is determined by their own

personal determinants or external determinants varies according to
their own personality and lifestyle. Extrovert people may be more in-
clined to take account of external determinants, such as the views of
their many friends and relatives. Introverts may rely more on their own
experiences. Well-educated people who regularly watch news pro-
grammes and take an interest in worldwide social or environmental is-
sues might be influenced by external factors such as the human rights
record of a particular country’s government. Those who either do not
worry about such things, or do not even know of the situation in that
country, might not even consider this factor.
It is also important to note that most determinants can be either
facilitators or constraints upon tourists who wish to turn their moti-
vations and desires into reality. For instance, high disposable income
will be a facilitator while limited and low disposable income would
be a constraint. Likewise, a guidebook which painted a rosy picture of
a resort would be likely to persuade a potential tourist to visit it, in
contrast to a negative portrayal which would normally have the
opposite effect.

The determinants of group travel

In the case of group travel, whether it be a family or a party of friends,
the issue of determinants is particularly complex. Each individual has
his or her own determinants but the group has a set of determinants of
its own. Each individual’s determinants must be satisfied in a way that

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keeps the group as a whole content. This means compromise on behalf

of every group member.
Alternatively, a strong group member may impose his or her own
determinants, such as a fear of flying, on every other group member.
The others would have preferred to fly to their holiday destination, but
find themselves taking a ferry instead to meet the needs of the domi-
nant group member.

The myth of rational decision-making

Tourists do not make wholly rational decisions based on perfect infor-
mation. They may be ignorant of many of the determinants listed in
Figures 5.1 and 5.2. Alternatively, they may be well aware of the
determinants but choose to ignore them. For example, a young couple
with two small children and stressful jobs may know they cannot
afford a holiday, but they feel so desperate for a break from the daily
routine that they decide to take a trip anyway. This is not rational
behaviour, although to anyone in their situation it is wholly under-
standable! As in other aspects of life, pressure and emotion often over-
whelm logic.

The role of unforeseen circumstances and opportunism

Following on from the issue of rational decision-making, are the twin
matters of unforeseen circumstances and opportunism. Plans based
on a tourist’s current situation may become obsolete literally
overnight owing to unforeseen changes in their personal circum-
stances. An obvious example relates to the tourist’s health, where a
decision to take a skiing holiday based on good previous experiences
of such holidays would need to be rethought if the prospective tourist
broke a leg!
Unforeseen circumstances can have a positive effect on tourist be-
haviour. A family may have decided that they cannot afford to take a
trip from the UK to France this year. Then the value of the pound
against the euro rises dramatically and newspapers start offering cheap
ferry tickets. This persuades the family to change its mind and take a
short trip to northern France.

The last minute discounted purchase phenomenon

The concept of determinants is geared to the idea of a relatively long
period spent by the tourist planning the vacation, gathering infor-
mation and evaluating alternatives. However, one of the growing
phenomena of the tourist industry is the ‘last-minute purchase’ deci-
sion. Here the determinant is a desire to escape at short notice and a
willingness to accept a less than ideal product if the price is low
enough.

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Determinants

The role of the tourism industry

The tourism industry plays a major role in effecting the determinants
of tourist behaviour. For example, it:

• develops products specifically to match the determinants of some

tourist behaviour; for example, it can offer packages designed for
tourists who have particular health problems such as mobility diffi-
culties
• provides information to prospective tourists on everything from
health problems to visa requirements, destination climate data to the
destination’s cultural attractions
• designs its promotional messages to fit the key determinants of the
behaviour of different groups of tourists. This might include empha-
sis on discount deals for those with limited incomes or those who
like to search for bargains, reassurance about the safety of a destina-
tion or selling the resort as one which has good facilities for children
• influences determinants such as offering people with limited budg-
ets the opportunity to purchase tourism products on credit with re-
payments over a period of time.

A key role is played in this respect by the travel agent who is the in-
termediary between producers in the tourism industry and their
clients. As Ryan (1997) says: ‘The information provided becomes part
of the information that determines a holiday-maker’s expectations. The
travel agent possesses the means to create the antecedents of success or
failure of the holiday.’
Poor or inappropriate advice from an agent that leads to the tourist
having an unsatisfactory holiday may well determine their future be-
haviour. It might make them:

• avoid using the same agent in the future

• decide not to buy the products of the same tourism organization
again
• give a negative view of their holiday destination to friends and rela-
tives.

Time lapses and determinants

Many tourists probably make purchasing decisions under the influence
of determinants, or perceptions of determinants, which are outdated.
They might have perceptions of destinations and tourism organiza-
tions which are no longer accurate.
For example, someone might still have an image of a quiet unspoilt
Greek island as it was twenty years ago, when they last visited it. This
may persuade them to make a return trip to the island, which is now
highly developed and crowded. Or a business traveller may avoid

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booking with an airline because of its reputation gained a few years

ago for being unreliable and having old aircraft. However, in the inter-
vening period this problem might have been eliminated by the pur-
chase of new aircraft.
Tourism organizations must be aware of these time lapses and out-
dated determinants of tourist behaviour when planning their market-
ing activities.

One-off experiences of determinants of tourism behaviour

The industry should not underestimate the impact of one-off bad ex-
periences as determinants of future tourist behaviour. A delayed flight
or a failure of the airline to deliver a pre-ordered special diet meal on
one flight can result in tourists:

• boycotting the airline in future

• giving negative views about the airline to friends and relatives.

Conclusions
The determinants of tourist behaviour are complex and diverse. They
include personal determinants which are different for each tourist.
There are also external determinants, which will be interpreted in dif-
ferent ways by individual tourists. Finally, we have also seen that the
issue of determinants is linked to other matters, such as the actions of
the tourism industry, the idea of rational decision-making, last-minute
purchases and the composition of holiday parties.
In the next chapter, we will see how motivators and determinants
combine in the purchase decision process.

Discussion points and essay questions

1 Describe the ways in which personal circumstances such as health,
family commitments, and work commitments could influence the
type of trip taken by tourists.
2 Discuss the range of media that might influence tourist behaviour
and the ways in which they might affect purchase decisions.
3 Explore the reasons why tourists’ perceptions may not accurately
reflect the main determinants that are, in reality, affecting them at a
particular time.

Exercise
Carry out a survey among a small group of your friends/colleagues/
fellow students to try to identify which of the determinants in Figures
5.1 and 5.2 were the most influential when they last booked a holiday.
Then produce a report, outlining your results, and noting any difficul-
ties you experienced in collecting and interpreting the data.

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