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About The Author
GEORGE S. MORRISON is Professor Emeritus of early of early childhood education, the influence of contempo-
childhood education at the University of North Texas where rary educational reforms on education, and the application
he taught early childhood education and development to of best practices to early childhood education. Professor
undergraduates and mentored masters and doctoral stu- Morrison also lectures and gives keynote addresses on early
dents. He is an experienced teacher and principal in the childhood education and development in Thailand, Taiwan,
public schools. China, South Korea, and the Philippines.
Professor Morrison’s accomplishments include a Dis-
tinguished Academic Service Award from the Pennsylva-
nia Department of Education, Outstanding Service and
Teaching Awards from Florida International University, About The Contributing
and the College of Education Faculty Teaching Excellence
Award at the University of North Texas. His books include Authors
Early Childhood Education Today; Fundamentals of Early Child- With this fourteenth edition of Early Childhood Education
hood Education, Eighth Edition; and Teaching in America, Today, it is my pleasure to welcome Lorraine Breffni and
Fifth Edition. Professor Morrison has also written books Mary Jean Woika as collaborators and chapter authors.
about the education and development of infants, toddlers, Lorraine and Mary Jean have a vast background of expe-
and preschoolers; child development; the contemporary riences in early childhood education and are dedicated to
curriculum; and parent/family/community involvement. providing early childhood professionals the knowledge and
Dr. Morrison is a popular author, speaker, and presenter. skills necessary to help young children learn and be suc-
His research and presentations focus on the globalization cessful in school and life.
Professor Morrison with mentor teacher Wendy Schwind, intern Meagan Brewer, and children
at Caprock Elementary, Keller (TX) ISD. Professor Morrison participates in various school-based
activities.
A01_MORR0841_14_SE_FM.indd 5 10/14/16 2:31 PM

vi About The Author
Contributing Authors Practice in Emergent Literacy, and Best Practice in

Prekindergarten Curriculum.
LORRAINE BREFFNI, Ed.D. is the Executive Director of
Early Childhood and Parenting Institutes at Nova Southeast- MARY JEAN WOIKA has worked in early childhood
ern University’s (NSU) Mailman Segal Center for Human education and early childhood special education for over
Development. She is also Affiliate Faculty at NSU’s Fischler 30 years. She is currently an assistant professor and pro-
College of Education. Dr. Breffni directly supervises three gram manager at Broward College. In addition to teach-
early childhood programs, including an infant and toddler ing, her responsibilities at the college include mentoring
program; a preschool program; and a parent and child edu- practicum students in their early childhood classrooms
cation program. She has worked as an instructor/mentor throughout Broward County and mentorship to the North
for the Community Outreach initiative at the Mailman Segal Campus Lab School. Ms. Woika has coauthored a textbook
Center assisting preschool teachers as they enhance emergent and trainee’s manual, All About Child Care and Early Edu-
literacy practices in their classrooms and as they develop cation, which was developed to be used in the training of
strategies to accommodate the needs of at-risk children CDA students.
and families. Before coming to Broward College Ms. Woika was a
Dr. Breffni has coauthored the text All About Child Care child care director, an early interventionist, an early child-
and Early Education (Pearson) and its companion resource hood special education teacher, a behavior consultant, and
All About Child Care and Early Education: A Trainee’s Manual. inclusion specialist in an outreach program. She has taught
She has written numerous articles for publication and has college courses in Pennsylvania, Colorado, Massachusetts,
developed and taught a diverse range of academic sub- and Florida, in face-to-face, blended, and online formats.
jects at Nova Southeastern University, including courses Ms. Woika has sat on several state and county early child-
on Developmental Psychopathology, Play Therapy, Best hood education committees.

Preface
C
hanges are sweeping across the early childhood the end of each major section give you immediate, specific
landscape, transforming our profession before our feedback on how you are performing, allowing you to learn
eyes! These changes create exciting possibilities for from your mistakes and correct any misconceptions right
you and all early childhood professionals. We discuss these away. Instructors have access to student performance infor-
changes in every chapter of Early Childhood Education Today, mation to help them intervene when necessary to keep each
which is designed to keep you current and on the cutting student on track.
edge of early childhood teaching practice. To learn more about REVEL, go to www.pearsonhigh-
Changes in early childhood education and development ered.com/revel/.
bring both opportunities and challenges. Opportunities are
endless for you to participate in the ongoing re-creation
of the early childhood profession. In fact, creating and re- New and Revised Content
creating the early childhood profession is one of your con- to This Edition
stant professional roles. In turn, this means that almost every
In addition, in the fourteenth edition, you can expect the
day, you have to re-create yourself as an early childhood pro-
following:
fessional. Early Childhood Education Today helps you achieve
this professional goal. The challenges involved in reforming • With its focus on empowering every student to imme-
the profession include collaboration, hard work, and con- diately identify as an early childhood professional and
stant dedication to achieving high-quality education for all learn the skills necessary for being a professional, all
children. I hope you will take full advantage of these oppor- seventeen chapters include the NAEYC Early Child-
tunities to help all children learn the knowledge and skills hood Standards for Professional Preparation which are
they need to succeed in school and life. I believe how you emphasized and covered in the particular chapters.
and I respond to the opportunities we have in front of us • An enhanced and expanded focus on practical and appli-
today determines the future of early childhood education. cable content, which provides students with instructional
Early Childhood Education Today helps you learn what it takes practices essential to applying critical knowledge to
to understand and teach young children and how to provide their professional practice:
them the support they and their families need and deserve. • Chapter 1: How to complete a Professional Portfolio
• Five new Voice from the Field features, including Com-
petency Builders, keeping you abreast of the latest in
New to This Edition classroom practices:
One of the many enhancements in this highly revised edi- • Chapter 2 Voice from the Field: Closing the Achieve-
tion of Early Childhood Education Today is the new format of ment Gap
the digital version, REVEL. Fully digital and highly engag- • Chapter 4 Voice from the Field: Building the Dream
ing, REVEL can completely replace the print textbook and Again
gives you everything you need to efficiently master course • Chapter 5: Voice from the Field: Competency Builder:
concepts. REVEL is an interactive learning environment that How to Use the ABA Approach in a Regular Early
seamlessly blends Early Childhood Education Today’s narra- Childhood Setting
tive, media, assessments, and grading, enabling you to read,
• Chapter 9: Voice from the Field: Follow the CAR
practice, and study in one continuous experience. Informed
• Chapter 11: Voice From the Field: Supporting English
by extensive research on how people read, think, and learn,
Learners
REVEL is designed to measurably boost your understand-
ing, retention, and preparedness. • Two New Activity Plans:
The REVEL version of Early Childhood Education Today • Chapter 9 “How to Plan a Curriculum for Infants
presents content in manageable pieces that makes it easier and Toddlers” Competency Builder: How to plan
for you to locate, process, and remember key material. Vid- a curriculum that promotes relationships and
eos, interactive figures, and exercises are interspersed regu- responds to children’s needs and interests.
larly within the text to foster your active engagement with • Chapter 10: Activity Planning in the Preschool—
the content, helping you to remember it better and—more Planning and Teaching: Activity Plans for
important—to use and apply it. Multiple-choice quizzes at Preschoolers
vii

viii Preface
• Two new Assessment features 1. The importance of all children’s language and literacy
• Chapter 3: How to create Children’s Digital development and competency. As more school districts
Portfolios move toward complying with legislation that requires
• Chapter 3: Inclusion of nine new children’s authen- children to read on grade level by grade 3, you must
tic classroom artifacts that illustrate how children know how to promote children’s reading achievement
from ages 3 to 8 demonstrate their knowledge and so that all children can learn and be successful. In addi-
skills specified in state standards. Teachers’ tion, as educators and politicians focus their attention
authentic comments about children’s artifacts on the 30 million word deficit of children along SES
illustrate what state standards where achieved and lines, there is a need for early childhood professionals
the teacher’s basis for assessment. to promote the importance of language development
beginning with parents in the home.
• A renewed focus on engaging the student in the
immediate application of theory to practice. Every 2. The critical importance of helping and enabling the
chapter has two to four new videos, which immerse increasing numbers of children from diverse cultures
the readers in applying what they are learning. This who need help with English language learning. Many
focused emphasis on teaching essential instructional suggested instructional practices and examples enable
skills and behaviors builds a solid foundation for the you to confidently teach all children.
early childhood professional’s roles and responsibili- 3. The growing number of diverse children and families, includ-
ties today. ing LGBTQ parents, military families, and grandparents, in
• In Chapter 8, students are engaged in an expanded America’s classrooms today and the implications of this
discussion of teaching with standards, including state demographic shift for your teaching and learning.
standards, Common Core State Standards, and pro- 4. The importance of developmentally appropriate practices
fessional organization standards, including state pre- (DAP) and the application of these practices to all
school and infant/toddler guidelines and frameworks, aspects of early childhood programs and classroom
demystifying the how and what of teaching with activities. With today’s emphasis on academic achieve-
standards. New information includes the Head Start ment, Early Childhood Education Today anchors your
Early Outcomes Framework Ages Birth to 5 the new professional practice in DAP, beginning in Chapter 1.
Head Start Performance Standards, and a discussion 5. The effects of poverty on children and their families.
of the new Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). More children and families than ever before live below
• In every chapter, an expanded coverage of diversity the poverty line. Many of your children come to school
emphasizing how students can respond to the diverse unprepared to meet the challenges of preschool or kin-
populations found in American classrooms today, dergarten. This text helps you educate all children and
including examples of how they can meet children’s learn ways to close the achievement gaps that exist
needs through accommodations, differentiated between children in poverty and their more economi-
instruction, and culturally respectful practices. Chap- cally advantaged peers.
ter 15 contains new examples of practices used by 6. The integration of the fields of special education and
teachers when teaching children who are bilingual. early childhood education. Increasingly, special educa-
• An enhanced emphasis on developmentally appro- tion practices are influencing early childhood practices.
priate practices and the development of children in Early Childhood Education Today, fourteenth edition,
kindergarten and grades 1, 2, and 3. This focus on helps you understand the integration of the two fields
grades K–3 is another feature that sets ECET 14 apart and how this integration provides enhanced opportu-
from other early childhood textbooks. See Chap- nities for you and the children you teach.
ters 11 and 12. 7. The inclusive classroom. You will teach in an inclusive
• An expanded discussion of the integration of technol- classroom. With its focus on inclusive teaching practices,
ogy in teaching and learning, providing many exam- this book prepares you to be an inclusive teacher of all
ples of how you can integrate technology into your young children regardless of disability, in the least-
teaching, including a revised 5E lesson plan specifi- restrictive environment possible.
cally designed around teaching with technology. 8. School readiness. How to help families get their children
ready for school and how to promote children’s school
readiness is at the forefront of issues facing society
Themes of This Book today. This 14th edition provides you with helpful
The fourteenth edition of Early Childhood Education Today inte- information and strategies that enable you to close the
grates fourteen critical themes that are foundational to the readiness gaps that exist across ethnic, gender, linguis-
field today. tic, and socioeconomic backgrounds.

Preface ix
9. The expanding role of preschool education and its children’s healthy social and emotional development.
importance and its critical role in laying the foundation Society needs children who are healthy socially and
for children’s school and life success. emotionally.
10. The emphasis on teacher accountability for student 13. The use of technology to support children’s learning.
achievement required of the Every Student Succeeds Act Contemporary teachers are savvy users of technology
(ESSA) and other federal, state, and local regulations. to promote children’s learning and their own profes-
Today, early childhood teachers—indeed, all teachers— sional development. Early Childhood Education Today,
are accountable for how, what, and to what extent chil- fourteenth edition, helps you gain the technological
dren learn. This edition helps you meet this challenge skills you need to teach in today’s classroom. Practicing
confidently and boldly; it provides you with step-by- teachers provide you practical technological examples
step strategies for helping all children learn in develop- for how to use technology to support teaching and
mentally appropriate ways. learning in your classroom.
11. The integration of STEAM (science, technology, engi- 14. Ongoing professional development. As an early childhood
neering, arts, and mathematics) subjects into the cur- professional, you will be constantly challenged to cre-
riculum. STEAM subjects are considered to be of great ate and re-create yourself as society and professional
importance by the nation’s business leaders, and they practices change. Early Childhood Education Today, four-
constitute the foundation for providing a well-trained teenth edition, helps you be the professional you need
and educated workforce. to be by explaining and demonstrating the competen-
12. A renewed emphasis on providing for children’s mental cies you need in the classroom today. See the Seventeen
health growth and development With the increase in Competencies for Becoming a Professional at the end of
school shootings and other violent tragedies around Chapter 1 for how to immediately begin your profes-
the nation, such as the Orlando mass shooting, society sional journey of becoming the best early childhood
is demanding that the nation’s schools provide for teacher you can be.

investigation of how indigenous people lived, but the project also covered skills in writ-
ing, technology, reading, research, speaking and presentation, math, and science.8
TECHNOLOGY USE AND INTEGRATION Children are different today from those of
a decade ago because of new and different kinds of technology. Today’s generation is
the “dot-com” or Net Generation. They have grown up surrounded by technology and
are familiar and comfortable with it. Children’s involvement with computer games
Text Features
enables them to think abstractly and to make rapid-fire decisions. Just over 80 percent
of homes in the United States have Internet access via home or mobile connectivity,9
enabling children to have almost immediate access to vast amounts of information that
enrich their lives and learning.
Because today’s children are immersed in technology from the beginning of life,
you need to find many opportunities to integrate technology into their learning activi-
ties. Provide opportunities for children to access the Internet, use digital cameras or
The fourteenth edition of Early Childhood Education Today includes numerous features
iPads to gather information and document learning, create and transport reports on the
designed to illustrate developmentally appropriate practice and provide a framework for
Internet, and engage in electronic creativity discussions and the sharing of ideas.
you to master,
Just asreflect
not allon, and apply
of your the
children chapter
have accesscontent. Here are
to the Internet, not a
allfew things
of your to look for:
children
have the same access to technology. Making sure children have contact with technology
Dynamic, segmented
is an important factor when chapter content
designing a classroom organized
environment around
and planning curricula
essential learning
that promotes learningoutcomes,
and motivation.designed to measurably
You have to provide opportunities for boost
children
who don’t have or use technology at home opportunities to use technology in your
yourclassroom.
understanding.
• CHAPTER-OPENING
HEALTH AND WELLNESS LEARNING OUTCOMES.
Physical education Clarifying
at all levels exactly
is undergoing what you
a renais-
sance.
will learnOneinreason for its rejuvenation,
the chapter, these learning especially in the primary
outcomes align withand elementary
the major grades,
text sections
ofisthe
the chapter.
concern about the national epidemic of childhood obesity and increases in child-
hood diabetes. Physical education classes and programs are viewed as a way of provid-
The• NEW
Primary Grades CONTENT
351 PRESENTATION. REVEL’s content
ing children with the knowledge and activities they need to get in shape and stay that
way for the rest of their lives. presentation helps you focus on what’s relevant to
Learning Outcomes learning by breaking up the reading into manageable
ONGOING POLITICAL AND EDUCATIONAL CHANGES What politicians and law-
sections, placing all relevant content on screen simul-
12.1
makers believe is best for children and how to teach them changes with every state and
Explain how teaching in grades one to three is changing.
national election. Changes in politics taneously,in turn and providing
change how wecuesteachto highlight
children key mate-
and what
12.2 Explain the physical, motor, social, emotional, cognitive, and moral
development characteristics of children in gradesweoneteach them. For example, the new education law, Every Student Succeeds read
to three. rial. The responsive design allows you to Act and
12.3 (ESSA), places
Examine environments that support learning in grades one to three. an emphasis on interact
providing with
all course material
students—regardless on
of the devices
background—with you use,
12.4 the type of high-quality
Explain the instructional processes and teaching practices used in academic content that prepares them for success
including tablets, with content displayed clearly inin college and
the primary grades. career. For the ESSA to succeed,both however, it is critical
portrait that you look
and landscape at teaching in grades
view.
12.5 Identify and analyze the content areas of literacyone
and to threein differently
reading the from how you would approach preschool and kindergarten
primary grades curriculum. CHECK
education. You will want to•consider newYOUR UNDERSTANDING
and appropriate QUIZZES.
approaches for teaching in In
12.6 these three
Identify and analyze the content areas of math, science, social important
stud- grades. REVEL, multiple-choice quizzes at the end of every
ies, and the arts in the primary grades curriculum.
major chapter section followed by immediate, specific,
12.7 Identify and analyze contemporary topics in the primary grades
curriculum.
feedback help you determine if you understand fun-
video note 12.1
12.8 Describe how you can modify your classroom to accommodate chil- damental concepts covered in the section and have
dren’s learning needs. In this video teachers share their views on howthe
achieved to navigate the balancing
associated learning actoutcome.
between meeting
Instructors
children’s developmental needs and interests, and the demands of schooling. As you observe
have access to student performance information to
Teaching in Grades One to Three the video, reflect on the issues the narrator raises about teaching in the primary grades today and
how the
Reform continues to sweep across the educational landscape. Nowhere is thisteacher’s
more evi-
help them
role is changing intervene the
to accommodate when necessaryoftothe
requirements keep each stu-
various
stakeholders.
dent than in grades one to three. Changes include how schools operate and are organized, dent on track.
how teachers teach, how children are evaluated, and how schools involve and relate to
parents and the community. State governments are specifying curriculum and testing
agendas. Accountability and collaboration are in; schooling, as usual, is out.
The Primary Grades and Contemporary Schooling To gauge your understanding of this section, complete
Check
First-grade Teacher of the Year and thirty-year teaching veteran Teresa Cianchetti Your Understanding 12.1: Teaching in Grades One to Three
believes
that every student is capable of reaching his or her highest potential. Teresa encourages
her students to be their own advocates by helping them develop skills in leadership. She
provides differentiated instruction to ensure that the individual needs of each student in
her classroom are met.1
Second-grade math and science teacher and Floyd County Schools Georgia Teacher
• NEW INTERACTIVE FIGURES. Fostering active engagement with the content,
of the Year Tabatha Tierce prides herself on her commitment to extend what her stu-
dents learn into the life of their local community. A study of plants in a science activity,
key figures are now interactive in REVEL. You can click or tap on select figures to
for example, led to the creation of a school vegetable garden and farmers’ market visited
reveal additional content, steps in a process, or critical events in a timeline.
by families. This school-based project eventually expanded to become a community
venture when Tabatha approached the town council with the idea of moving the farm-
• LEARNING AND STUDY TOOLS. Highlighting, note taking, and a glossary per-
ers’ market to the town square and inviting local farmers to participate. Each farmer
who sells merchandise at the market pays a booth fee to the school. Initiatives such as
sonalize the learning experience. Instructors can add notes for students, too, includ-
this, Tabatha explains, shows students how the knowledge they gain to class can benefit
their local community—and also how their local community can support them!2
ing reminders or study tips.
Third-grade teacher and 2016 Elementary Science Teacher of the Year Sherri Hane
believes that teachers must be passionate about the work they do each and every day
Features contributed by early childhood educators demonstrate

to promote learning in the classroom. After all, an important part of a teacher’s role is
to motivate, engage, and inspire students, so teaching must ignite excitement in them
authentic developmentally appropriate practices from around

too! It is vital for teachers to design lessons that nurture curiosity in students. When
students’ interests are engaged, Sherri explains, they are more likely to learn.3
the country.
• VOICE FROM THE FIELD. Teachers’ authentic voices play a major role in illustrating
authentic practices. Voice from the Field features enable practicing teachers to explain

care centers. For example, KIDCO Child Care Centers in Miami, Florida, operate as a
nonprofit corporation out of four renovated warehouses and a former public school.
KIDCO Child Care is a year-round early care and education agency that operates from
7:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m., for 261 days of the year. The centers provide care for 450 children,
from birth to age five, who are from primarily moderate and low-income families. The
majority of the children come from single-parent families with primarily women who
need to work to raise their children.30
Because each state has its own definition of a center-based program, you should
research your state’s definitions and regulations regarding child care, center care, and
other kinds of care. In addition, learn about your state’s child care licensing and child-
to-staff ratio requirements.
The Voice from the Field feature, “A Spanish Immersion Program,” illustrates a
multicultural high-quality child care program, where staff and administrators strive to Text Features xi
provide children and families with quality, affordable, and accessible child care, while
immersing them in English and Spanish.
to you their philosophies, beliefs, and program practices.

These teachers mentor you as they relate how they prac- Voice from the Field
Competency Builder
tice early childhood education. Among the contributors A Spanish Immersion Program
are professionals who are Teachers of the Year, have Bright Years Child Learning Center, in League City, Texas, is
designed to provide children with bilingual and biliteral compe-
through the program. As
they become more famil-
received prestigious awards, and have national board tencies in English and Spanish in a fun, stimulating environ- iar and comfortable hear-
Source: Andres Rodriguez/Fotolia

ment so that they will become world citizens. Our curriculum ing, understanding, and
focuses on Spanish Language Immersion, along with age- responding in Spanish, it
certification. appropriate educational growth that will develop emotionally, becomes a natural part
socially, physically, and academically well-balanced children. of their thought process
• VOICE FROM THE FIELD: COMPETENCY Our goal is to prepare our students for their continued educa-
tion and provide them with the advantages of bilingualism in a
and, eventually, their
speaking process.
global society. To reap the full ben-
BUILDER. The Voice from the Field features that are The Spanish Immersion Program is designed for children
ages two to twelve years old who have limited or no prior
efits of a Spanish Immer-
sion Program, students
labeled as Competency Builders are designed to build knowledge of Spanish. Children go through their daily sched-
ule of structured learning activities hearing Spanish. In this
Technology integration is an
excellent instructional process
need a variety of instruc-
tional supports to stimu-
to support children’s learning of
setting, Spanish is the medium of instruction, and not the late various learning
your competence and confidence in performing essen- subject of instruction, therefore allowing the children to
another language.
styles. Visual aids, body
acquire a new language as it is used in context. Through daily language and expres-
tial teaching tasks, step-by-step. exposure, children incorporate core information and are able
to process it and comprehend it. The children’s ability to
sion, diverse instructional approaches, and learning opportu-
nities in real-life situations are all important factors in
accept and understand Spanish comes as they progress reinforcing the learning.
• LESSON AND ACTIVITY PLANS. Planning for
teaching and learning constitutes an important dimen- Kindergarten Education 341
sion of your role as a professional. This is especially

Lesson Plans:
true today, with the emphasis on ensuring that chil- A Literacy 5E Lesson
dren learn what is mandated by state standards. The Lesson Title: Pumpkin Venn Diagram
Source: Curtsinger Elementary School

Time Frame for Lesson: Two days in October
plans enable you to look over the shoulder of experi- Day 1—Read story and complete Venn diagram
Day 2—Journal-writing activity
enced teachers and observe how they plan for instruc- Standards: Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS):
(English Language Arts—Reading/Comprehension of
tion. These award-winning teachers share with you Literary Text/Theme and Genre)
• K.6A Identify elements of a story including setting,
plans to ensure that their children learn important character, and key events.
• K.8A Retell a main event from a story read aloud.
knowledge and skills. • K.8B Describe characters in a story and the reasons
for their actions.
• K.10B Retell important facts in a text, heard or read.
Features that show you real children and (Writing/Writing Process)

• K.13A Plan a first draft by generating ideas for writ-
early childhood settings in action. ing through class discussion (with adult assistance).
• K.13E Share writing with others (with adult
assistance).
• NEWLY INTEGRATED VIDEO EXAMPLES. In each • K.14A Dictate or write sentences to tell a story and
put the sentences in chronological sequence.
chapter at least two videos are included that illustrate Materials: Copy of the book, The Biggest Pumpkin Ever by
Infants and Toddlers 245
Steven Kroll and illustrated by Jeni Bassett; a large piece
text concepts and provide a window into the real of butcher paper; markers; student journals or writing
paper; pencils; and crayons.
world of teaching young children. Now integrated Portraits of Venn
Targeted Vocabulary: Infants and Toddlers
diagram, fertilizer/fertilized,
manure, enormous, and admire.
within the narrative in REVEL, the video examples Aspen
Kuzmina/Fotolia
Source: Oksana
General Description
Lesson Procedure
allow you to view a brief example of section concepts Nine

Stepmonths old, Caucasian
1—Engage: female;
Introduce livesin
children with
thehertext.
mother and grandmother; expresses her feelings easily
Read
and openly;
Theloves to Pumpkin
Biggest eat Ever by Steven Kroll.
without breaking the stride of your reading, keeping Step 2—Explore: Have children raise their
Social-Emotional hands to do an
Cognitive/Language Motor Adaptive (Daily Living)
you focused and on task. open retell of the story. •(An

• Begin to demonstrate separation
opportunity for students
and stranger anxiety. Aspen cries to take
open retell is an
Object permanence skills
increase. By telling
turns 8 monthsthe
of age,
• Sit, at first wobbly, then well,
freeing hands to manipulate
• Begin to eat solid food when fed
by adult. Aspen opens her
when her mother
events ofleaves the room
the story.) or
Have beginstry
them to look for observed
to sequence objects. By 8 months of age, mouth as her mother approaches
• PORTRAITS OF CHILDREN. In a text about chil- when a stranger approaches.

the events of the story as each
• Develop trust in primary caregivers if
objects that are placed or
student raises his/
moved out of sight. When
Aspen sits and hardly ever
topples over.
with a spoon full of soft cereal.
She “tells” her mom that she
her
they are hand toAspen
responsive. volunteer
crawls a response.
mom put the Ask,
toy “What
behind her • Learn to move in a variety of doesn’t want any more by

dren, it is sometimes easy to think about them in the happened first?
to her grandmother
• Use social
for comfort. back, Aspen
What did Desmond do tocrawled around
care for
her to retrieve the toy.
ways. Aspen crept on her
tummy at 7 months, crawled on
turning her head, putting her lips
together, or arching back.
the referencing
pumpkin?and strong
What happened next?”
• Repeat actions that have an hands and knees by 8 months, • Begin to pick up food such as
abstract. The Portraits of Children found in Chapters attachments to primary caregivers
to feel secure. Aspen scans her
Step 3—Explain: The learner will compare and contrast
teacher’s face to see if a noisy toy is
effect. Aspen pulled the tail of
the toy dinosaur to hear a
and pulls to stand on sturdy
objects (such as a coffee table)
Cheerios with fingers. At 9
months, Aspen seems to
the two main characters in the story, Desmond
9 through 12 are designed to ensure that you consider safe. song. by 10 months. delight in picking up Cheerios
and Clayton, using a Venn diagram. Explain that • Can begin to learn sign lan- • First use raking grasp (using all one by one.
• Express a variety of emotions such
today we are going to make a Venn diagram and
as anger, sadness, grief, and happi- guage at approximately 8 fingers), then scissors grasp
children as individuals as we discuss how to teach ness. Aspen frowns when her
that a Venn diagram is an illustration of how two
mother says goodbye and gives him
months. They learn to say the
words in their language for
(using thumb and fingers), and
then pincer grasp (using thumb
things are alike and how they are different.
a joyous smile when he returns. their primary caregivers. Aspen and first finger) to pick up
them. The features present authentic portraits of real • Infants can begin to self-regulate,
but need adults to help them when
exclaimed “Mama” when her
mother entered the room.
objects. Nine-month-old Aspen
uses a pincer grasp to pick up a
Cheerio.
children from birth through third grade from all cul-
they are tired or distressed. When
Aspen is tired she sucks her thumb. • Purposely uses hands together
Grandma then picks her up and to explore objects. Aspen bangs
two objects together.
tures and backgrounds, enrolled in real child care, pre- rocks her.
Lakota
school, and primary-grade programs across the United
pannatto/Fotolia
Source: cantor
General Description
States. Each portrait includes developmental information across
Fifteen monthsfour
old, Nativedomains:
American male; lives with his father; attends child care 8 hours a day; is cautious
around strangers; loves to be close to family members
social-emotional, cognitive, motor, and adaptive (daily living). Accompanying
Social-Emotional Cognitive/Language Motor Adaptive (Daily Living)
questions challenge you to think and reflect about how you would provide for these • Securely attached children explore • Often imitate adults and peers • Many children walk—Lakota • Use a spoon, sometimes
away from primary caregivers, but to accomplish goals. Lakota toddles across the room. Each awkwardly, as wrist strength
children’s educational and social needs if they were in your classroom. often return for comfort and atten-
tion. Lakota plays with books, and
tries to get up on the couch
after his dad sits down.
day he adjusts his walking to
different surfaces. Lakota slows
grows. Lakota scooped up his
yogurt with his spoon and licked
then he brings one to his teacher. down as he walks in the mud. off the yogurt.
• Continue to experience separation • Pretend with objects aimed at • Enjoy crawling and walking up • Use pincer grasp (thumb and
Interactive activities that help you assess and apply your

and stranger anxiety. Lakota them. Lakota pretends to drink steps—placing one foot up and first finger together) well to pick
appears cautious when a stranger from a toy cup. then placing the other foot on up small objects and hold a cup
enters the room or when dad • Say approximately 10 words that step. Lakota went up and with a lid on it. Lakota picks up
understanding.
leaves. and/or use sign language, but down his grandparent’s steps, his sippy cup with both hands
• Begin to demonstrate autonomy. still communicate primarily with walking up and then crawling and brings it up to his mouth.
Lakota protests when his teacher body cues and gestures. backward down the steps. • Remove own hat and socks (if
tries to put a bib on him. Lakota and his teacher Margo • Turn cardboard pages of books loose fitting). Lakota takes his
• Use strategies to calm himself (self- enjoy a moment as he points at alone or when read to by an adult. socks off continually throughout
• REFLECT AND APPLY EXERCISES. In REVEL, these exercises present you with regulation). Lakota reaches for his
dad or his bunny when he is tired.
the butterfly. She says, “Beauti-
ful butterfly,” and he tries to
Lakota enjoys sitting in the book
area at his school and turning the
the day.
• Communicate with and imitates repeat it. Margo knows how pages of a book by himself.
challenging situations and ask you to apply text content to propose a solution. peers. Lakota smiles, vocalizes,
frowns, and waves at peers.
important it is to talk to
children.
• Enjoy putting objects into con-
tainers and dumping them as
• Friendships and prosocial behav- • Understand many more words/ they explore the concept of
Feedback is provided so that you can compare your response with that of an expe- iors develop as early as 1 year of
age—Lakota, greets his friend
phrases than they can say.
Lakota toddles to his shoes
space. Lakota puts large domi-
noes in a slot in the lid of a plastic
Olivia. when his father says, “Get your container and later vigorously
rienced teacher. shoes” without pointing. dumps them out.

xii Text Features
• OBSERVE AND ANALYZE EXERCISES. In REVEL, these exercises present you

with a video illustrating child growth and development, teaching, and/or learning
in action. An open-ended question asks you to examine the video critically and
respond using evidence from the video and your understanding of chapter con-
cepts. Feedback is provided for support or to compare your answer with that of an
experienced teacher. Examples include meeting the needs of English learners and
supporting early literacy.
Chapter-ending Activities for Professional Development.

• ETHICAL DILEMMAS. As an early childhood professional you will face diffi-
cult choices in your career that require you to have a solid understanding of
ethical responsibility and best practices. To that end,
67 each chapter includes an ethical dilemma based on
Current Issues: Implications for Teaching and Learning
Activities for Professional Development facts, current issues, and real-life situations faced by
early childhood professionals today. They present
Ethical Dilemma
difficult decisions early childhood professionals
“I Don’t Want my Child to Get Autism!”
have to make. These ethical dilemmas help you
Sophia Cho, the director of Applegate Early Learning Center, is
build a better understanding of what it means to
theory discredited by scientific research. Some states allow
at her wits end. Many of the parents in the center have decided exemptions from the vaccinations for religious or medical rea-
to “opt out” of getting their children immunized. Sophia noticed think like a professional and to respond appropri-
sons. However, other states also allow personal reasons for opt-
that a few of the parents who had made this decision have been ing out.
talking with each other. She overheard one parent telling the other
parents that her nephew had autism because he had received
ately in complicated and potentially compromising
There is an outbreak of measles in the next state, and
Sophia is afraid that the measles could reach her center.
situations.
the MMR vaccine (measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine) when So what do you think Sophia should do? Should she kick
he was 18 months old. Another parent added that she had heard the children out of the center who have not been immunized? Is
that children could actually get the measles from the she allowed to do this? Should she contact someone from the
vaccination.
There is a growing antivaccination movement across the
Health Department? Should she talk with the parents spreading
the false information? Or should she have a meeting with all of • ACTIVITIES TO APPLY WHAT YOU HAVE
United States that is fueled by parents’ fears that vaccines are not the parents? What would you do?
safe for children. Like the parents at Applegate Early Learning
Center, some worry that the MMR vaccine causes autism—a
Refer to the Code of Ethical Conduct from the NAEYC
website.
LEARNED. Here we revisit the chapter-opening
learning outcomes and provide one activity per
Activities to Apply what you Learned learning outcome to help you assess your content
1. ✔ Key Assessment: Academic achievement
gaps between poor children and their middle- and
4. Conduct an Internet search of school-based bully
prevention programs, and identify the best features.
knowledge and/or apply your understanding of
upper-income classmates is a serious issue in early
childhood education today. Think about and
From these best features develop a PowerPoint
presentation titled “Best Practices for Bully that content. For each set of questions, one has been
identify three things you can do to help close Prevention in Early Childhood Programs.” Ask your
achievement gaps in your classroom. Log on to
your classroom bulletin board and share with your
teacher if you can make a presentation to your class. labeled a “Key Assessment,” meaning that it is
5. Contact your local school district, or go online, to
classmates by creating a thread on academic
achievement gaps. Ask for their ideas for how they
find the demographics of the families attending the
schools in your area. Find out how the schools take
designed around a critical concept in the chapter.
would close the gaps. Take a look at the number of
people that have viewed your group, and read
into consideration the family’s language and culture
when planning for learning and communication. For these assessments, a rubric is provided to help
their comments. What do their comments tell you? Share your findings in a class discussion on the
2.
Use the rubric provided to guide your work.
Many young children live in diverse families.
importance of cultural competency for teachers and
make a list of the examples you and your classmates
guide your work (and to help your instructor
Conduct online research about the challenges of
providing for different types of families. Think about 6.
learned while conducting your research.
How can you create and modify classrooms to
evaluate it).
diverse families, the challenges families face, and accommodate diverse learners? Go online and find
what you can do as an early childhood professional
to support contemporary families. Log on to Twitter
ways teachers in inclusive classrooms accommodate
their diverse learners. Next, discuss your findings
• LINKING TO LEARNING. At the end of each chap-
ter, examples of agencies and programs are listed that
and share with a small group of classmates your with classmates in a chat room or on a classroom
findings through Twitter’s online website. discussion board. Finally, develop a list of ways you
3. Choose one of the issues of wellness and healthy will support students with disabilities in your
living discussed in the chapter. Design a brochure classroom. you can easily locate online. These resources provide
or write a section that could be included in a 7. Think about the hot topics discussed in this text.
newsletter for families describing how families can
address this issue at home. Exchange your
Which hot topic do you think is the most
important? Why? Log on to Facebook and share
additional information so you can expand your
brochures or newsletter sections with others in your
class online discussion board.
your ideas by posting a note. Tag your classmates to
get their feedback. understanding of the topics after reading the
material.

Supplements To The Text
The supplements for the fourteenth edition are revised, Acknowledgments
upgraded, and available for instructors to download on www.
In the course of my teaching, service, consulting, and writing,
pearsonhighered.com/educators. Instructors enter George S.
I meet and talk with many early childhood professionals from
Morrison or Early Childhood Education Today, 14th edition,
all around the country who are deeply dedicated to doing
and then click on the “Resources” tab to log in and download
their best for young children and their families. I am always
textbook supplements.
touched, heartened, and encouraged by the openness, honesty,
Instructor’s RESOURCE MANUAL (0-13-448833-4) and unselfish sharing of ideas that characterize my profes-
This manual contains chapter overviews and activity ideas sional colleagues. I thank all the individuals who contributed
to enhance chapter concepts. to the Voice from the Field features and other program descrip-
TEST BANK (0-13-448832-6) The Test Bank includes a vari- tions. They are all credited for sharing their personal accounts
ety of test items, including multiple-choice, true/false, and of their lives, their children’s lives, and their programs.
short-answer items. I am blessed to work with my colleagues at Pearson. My
editor, Julie Peters, is bright, savvy, and always relentless in
TESTGEN COMPUTERIZED TEST BANK (0-13-448834-2) her efforts to make Early Childhood Education Today the best.
TestGen is a powerful assessment generation program avail- Julie continues to be a constant source of creative and excit-
able exclusively from Pearson that helps instructors easily ing ideas. Development Editor Christie Robb is a pleasure to
create quizzes and exams. You install TestGen on your per- work with and provides helpful feedback and suggestions
sonal computer (Windows or Macintosh) and create your for content and meaning. Project Managers Megan Moffo
own exams for print or online use. It contains a set of test and Michelle Gardner are very attentive to detail and make
items organized by chapter, based on this textbook’s con- sure every part of the production process is done right and
tents. The items are the same as those in the Test Bank. The that we meet all production deadlines.
tests can be downloaded in a variety of learning manage- Finally, I want to thank the reviewers: Linda Benz
ment system formats. schawel, Madison Area Technical College; Jennifer Briffa,
POWERPOINT SLIDES (0-13-448831-8) PowerPoint slides Merritt College; Robin Howell, Edinboro University;
highlight key concepts and strategies in each chapter and Charaine Lucas, Pacific Union College; Sandra Potter, Uni-
enhance lectures and discussions. versity of Mount Olive; and Sonia Pruneda-Hernandez,
Montgomery College-Rockville.
xiii

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Brief contents
PART 1 | EARLY CHILDHOOD PART 4 | TEACHING TODAY’S YOUNG
EDUCATION AND PROFESSIONAL CHILDREN: LINKING DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
9 Infants and Toddlers 243
1 You and Early Childhood Education 1
10 The Preschool Years 281
2 Current Issues: Implications for
Teaching and Learning 37 11 Kindergarten Education 319
3 Observation and Assessment for 12 The Primary Grades 350
Teaching and Learning 69
13 Technology and Young Children 387
PART 2 | FOUNDATIONS: HISTORY AND
THEORIES PART 5 | MEETING THE SPECIAL
NEEDS OF YOUNG CHILDREN
4 The Past and the Present 109
14 Guiding Children 413
5 Theories Applied to Teaching and
Learning 139 15 Understanding Children’s Culture 439
PART 3 | PROGRAMS AND SERVICES 16 Children with Diverse Needs 461
FOR CHILDREN AND FAMILIES
17 Parents, Families,
6 Early Childhood Programs 169 and the Community 499
7 Child Care 195
8 Federal and State Governments 217
xv

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Contents
About the Authors v Write and Share 33
Prefacevii Evaluate 33
Accommodating Diverse Learners 34
PART 1 Early Childhood Education Activities for Professional Development 35
and Professional Development Linking to Learning 36
1 You and Early Childhood Education:

2 Current Issues: Implications
What Does It Mean to Be
for Teaching and Learning:
a Professional? 1
Contemporary Influences
The Profession of Early Childhood 2 on Children and Families 37
Who is an Early Childhood Professional? 3
Contemporary Issues: Equity, Equality,
Changes in the Early Childhood Profession 3 and Achievement 38
Supporting Children’s Development and Learning 4 Children of the Great Recession: The Gaps 39
Standard 1: Promoting Child Development
Achievement Gaps 39
and Learning 5
Family Challenges 43
Standard 2: Building Family and Community
Relationships 9 Benefits of Family-Centered Programs 44
Standard 3: Observing, Documenting, and Assessing Changing Family Units 44
to Support Young Children and Families 10 Issues of Wellness and Healthy Living 47
Developmentally Effective Approaches and the Early Illnesses 48
Childhood Profession 11 Dental Caries 48
Standard 4: Using Developmentally Effective Asthma 48
Approaches to Connect with Children and Families 12 Lead Poisoning 49
Standard 5: Using Content Knowledge to Build
Diabetes 50
Meaningful Curriculum 12
Obesity 51
Standard 6: Becoming a Professional 15
Preventing Violence, Bullying, Racism, and Abuse 54
Professional Dispositions 17
Violence 54
How to Create your Professional Portfolio 18
Bullying 55
Developmentally and Culturally Appropriate Practice,
Combating Racism 58
and You, the Early Childhood Education Professional 19
Childhood Abuse and Neglect 59
Developmentally Appropriate Practice 19
Providing for Cultural Diversity 59
Culturally Appropriate Practice 21
Changing Demographics 60
Pathways to Professional Development 23
Thinking and Acting in a Culturally Competent Way 60
Ready, Set, Teach 23
Cultural Awareness 61
The CDA Program 23
Associate Degree Programs 25
Hot Topics in Early Childhood Education 65
Baccalaureate Degree Programs 25
Activities for Professional Development 67
Alternative Certification Programs 25
Linking to Learning 68
Master’s and Doctoral Degree Programs 25
New Roles for Early Childhood Professionals 26
I Am a Teacher 30
3 Observation and Assessment
Developing a Philosophy of Education 30
for Teaching and Learning:
Read 32
Effective Teaching Through
Reflect 32
Appropriate Evaluation 69
Value 33 Assessment and Purposes 71
Discuss 33 Purposes of Assessment 71
xvii

xviii Contents
Developmentally Appropriate Classroom Assessment 72 Activities for Professional Development 137

Formative and Summative Assessment 72 Linking to Learning 138
Informal-Authentic Assessment 73
Using Assessment to Support Teaching and Learning 82
Observation 83
5 Theories Applied to Teaching
The Power of Observation 93
and Learning: Foundations
Purposes of Observation 93
for Practice 139
Advantages of Intentional, Systematic Observation 94 Piaget and Constructivist Learning Theory 141
Steps for Conducting Classroom Observations 96 Active Learning 142
Assessment for School Readiness 98 Adaptation 142
Screening 98 Piaget’s Stages of Intellectual Development 144
Critical Issues of Assessment 101 Piaget and Developmentally Appropriate Practice 148
Assessment and Accountability 101 Vygotsky and Sociocultural Theory 148
Assessment of Children with Disabilities 102 Zone of Proximal Development 148
How Young is Too Young? 103 Social Interactions 150
Accommodating Diverse Learners 105 Scaffolding 150
Activities for Professional Development 107 Different Levels of Support 150
Linking to Learning 108 Implications for Teaching 151
Gardner and Multiple Intelligences Theory 152
Characteristics of Multiple Intelligences 153
PART 2 Foundations: History Behaviorism and Behavioral Theories 154

Behaviorist Foundations 155
and Theories
Skinner and Operant Conditioning 155
4 The Past and the Present: Bandura and Social Learning Theory 156
Prologue to the Future 109 Accommodating Diverse Learners 157
Why is the Past Important? 110 Erikson and Psychosocial Development 158
Rebirth of Ideas 110 Implications for Teaching 159
Building the Dream—Again 112 Maslow and Self-Actualization Theory 160
Implementing Current Practice 112 Life Essentials 161
Empowering Professionals 114 Safety and Security 162
Inspiring Professionals 114 Belonging and Love 162
History and Historical Figures from 1400–1850 115 Achievement and Prestige 163
1500–1700: The Foundations 115 Aesthetic Needs 163
1700–1850: From Naturalism to the Kindergarten 116 Bronfenbrenner and Ecological Theory 165
History and Historical Figures from 1850–Present 121 Activities for Professional Development 167
1850–1950: From a Garden of Children Linking to Learning 168
to the Children’s House 121
1950–1962: From Politics to Education Superiority 123
1962–2000: From Civil Rights To The Rights PART 3 Programs and Services
of Children 124 for Children and Families
2001–To the Present: Leaving No Child Behind
to Every Child Succeeds 126 6 Early Childhood Programs:
Views of Children Through The Ages 128 Applying Theories to Practice 169
Miniature Adults 128 Demand for Quality Early Childhood Programs 170
Sinful Children 128 Model Programs and You 172
Blank Tablets 129 The Montessori Method 173
Growing Plants 129 Respect for the Child 173
Property 129 The Absorbent Mind 174
Investments in the Future 130 Sensitive Periods 174
Accommodating Diverse Learners 135 Prepared Environment 174
Implications for Teaching 136 Auto-Education 176

Contents xix
The Teacher’s Role 177 Activities for Professional Development 215

Montessori and Contemporary Practices 177 Linking to Learning 216
Providing for Diversity and Disability 179
Montessori at the Apple Store 179 8 Federal and State Governments:
Further Thoughts 180 Supporting Children’s Success 217
HighScope: A Constructivist Curriculum 180
Federal Programs and Early Childhood 218
Basic Principles and Goals of the HighScope
The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 218
Curriculum 180
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) 219
Five Elements of the HighScope Curriculum 181
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) 219
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) 219
The Reggio Emilia Approach 183
National Nutrition Programs 220
Beliefs About Children and How They Learn 184
Title I Early Childhood Programs 221
Adults’ Roles 184
Head Start Programs 221
The Environment 185
Head Start Performance Standards: Education
Program Practices 186
and Child Development 223
Head Start Child Development and Early Learning
The Project Approach 189 Framework 225
Accommodating Diverse Learners 191 Program Options 225
Creating a Learning Environment that Supports
Eligibility for Head Start Services 226
Diversity 191
Early Head Start and Other Head Start Programs 229
Migrant and Seasonal Head Start Program 229
American Indian/Alaska Native Head Start Programs 230
Head Start Research 230
7 Child Care: Meeting the Needs Early Head Start Research 232
of Children and Families 195 Head Start Fade-Out Effect 232
Federal and State Learning Standards 234
The World of Child Care 196
Foundations of The Standards Movement 234
The Popularity of Child Care 197
Common Core State Standards (CCSS) 235
Placement in Child Care Programs 198
What are Common Core State Standards? 235
Types of Child Care Programs 199
Closing The Achievement Gap with Standards 236
Child Care by Relatives and Friends 199
Standards are Changing Teaching and Learning 237
Family Child Care 200
Intergenerational Child Care 200
Inclusion and Collaboration 240
Center-Based Child Care 201
Employer-Sponsored Child Care 203
Department of Defense Child Care 204
Before- and After-School Care 205
Proprietary Child Care 206 PART 4 Teaching Today’s Young
What Constitutes Quality Care and Education? 206 Children: Linking Development
Program Accreditation 207 and Learning
Healthy Child Care Environments
Safe Environments
207
210
9 Infants and Toddlers:
Foundation Years for Learning 243
Respectful Environments 210
Supportive Environments 211 What are Infants and Toddlers Like? 244
Challenging Environments 211 Understanding Child Development 247
Caregiver-to-Child Ratio 212 Culture and Child Development 247
Professional Staff Development 213 Research and Infant/Toddler Education 250
Accommodating Diverse Learners in Child Care Neural Shearing 250
and Other Early Childhood Programs 213 Synaptogenesis 251
Children of Diverse Cultures 213 Age-Appropriate Experiences 251
Children with Special Needs 214 Nature and Nurture 252

xx Contents
Motor Development 253 Kinds of Play 296

Basic Principles of Motor Development 254 Teachers’ Roles in Promoting Play 299
Toilet Training 255 The New Preschool: Curriculum, Guidelines,
The Case for Outdoor Play 255 and Goals 302
Cognitive and Intellectual Development 256 Accommodating Diverse Learners 302
Assimilation, Accommodation, and Adaptation Preschool Goals 303
at Work 256 Literacy in the Preschool 306
Stages of Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor The Daily Schedule 309
Intelligence 256 Helping Preschoolers Make Successful Transitions 314
Language Development 259 The Future of Preschool 315
Theories of Language Acquisition 260 Universal Preschool 316
Sequence of Language Development 261 Rigorous Academic Standards 316
Implications for Teaching 264 High-Quality Teachers 316
Psychosocial and Emotional Development 266 Increased Use of Technology 316
Social Behaviors 266 Pre-K–3 Continuum 317
Attachment and Relationships 266 Increased Funding for High-Quality Preschool
Temperament and Personality Development 268 Programs 317
Infant, Toddler, and Early Childhood Mental Activities for Professional Development 317
Health 269 Linking to Learning 318
Quality Infant and Toddler Programs and Environments 272
Developmentally Appropriate Programs 272
Curricula for Infants and Toddlers 272 11 Kindergarten Education:
Preparing Environments to Support Infant Learning all you Need
and Toddler Development 273 to Know 319
The Kindergarten Today 320
The Changing Kindergarten 320
Who Attends Kindergarten? 322
Kindergarten Programs 323
10 The Preschool Years: Environments for Kindergartners 326

The Healthy Environment 327
Readiness for School and Life 281
The Respectful Environment 328
Why are Preschools so Popular? 282 The Supportive Environment 328
Broad-Based Public Support 282 The Challenging Environment 329
Working Parents 282 The Physical Environment 330
Highly Educated Workforce 283 What are Kindergarten Children Like? 331
Equal Opportunity 283 Physical Development 331
Research Based and Cost Effective 283 Social-Emotional Development 331
Eager to Learn 284 Cognitive and Language Development 334
Early Intervention 284 The Kindergarten Curriculum: Literacy and
What are Preschoolers Like? 285 Reading 334
Physical and Motor Development 286 Literacy, Reading, and Kindergarten Children 334
Social-Emotional Development 286 The Kindergarten Curriculum: Math, Science,
Cognitive Development 288 Social Studies, and the Arts 343
Language Development 289 Math in the Kindergarten 343
School Readiness and Young Children 289 Science in the Kindergarten 343
School Readiness 290 Social Studies in the Kindergarten 344
Readiness for Learning 290 Arts in the Kindergarten 345
Dimensions of Readiness 293 Developmentally Appropriate Practice 345
Play and Preschool Children 295 Accommodating Diverse Learners 346
Purposes of Play 295 Activities for Professional Development 348
Value of Play: Literacy 295 Linking to Learning 349

Contents xxi
12 The Primary Grades: iPADS in the Early Childhood Classroom 390

Coding in the Early Childhood Classroom 392
Preparation for Lifelong Success 350
Developmentally Appropriate Technology Use
Teaching in Grades One to Three 351 for Young Children 393
The Primary Grades and Contemporary Schooling 351 Technology and Special Childhood Populations 393
Learning Contexts 352 Uses of Assistive Technology 394
What are Children in Grades One to Three Like? 354 Benefits of Assistive Technology 395
Physical Development 354 Accommodating for Social Interaction 396
Social Development 356 Integrating Technology in Early Childhood Programs 396
Emotional Development 356 Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics 396
Cognitive Development 359 Integrating Technology in Your Program 397
Moral Development 359 Using Smart Boards in the Classroom 402
Environments that Support Learning in the Primary Using Twitter to Teach and Learn 404
Grades 361 Blogging in the Classroom 405
The Physical Environment 361 Technology and Assessment 405
Social Environment 362 Using Technology to Implement Learning Theories 406
Environments that Support Pro-Social and Conflict Parents and Technology 407
Resolution Education 362 Technology and Parent Participation 407
Teaching and Learning in Grades One to Three 363 Supervision of Children’s Internet Use 408
Does Class Size Make a Difference? 363 Accommodating Diverse Learners 409
Common Core State Standards 364 Phase 1: How to Communicate 409
Differentiated Instruction in the Primary Grades 368 Phase 2: Distance and Persistence 409
Curriculum in the Primary Grades: Reading and Phase 3: Picture Discrimination 409
Language Arts 369
Phase 4: Sentence Structure 410
Curriculum in the Primary Grades: Math, Science,
Phase 5: Answering Questions 410
Social Studies and the Arts 373
Phase 6: Commenting 410
Math in the Primary Grades 373
Science in the Primary Grades 375
Social Studies in the Primary Grades 377
Arts in the Primary Grades 379
Contemporary Topics in the Primary Grades
Curriculum 381 PART 5 eeting the Special Needs
M
Financial Literacy 381 of Young Children
Bullying Education
Twenty-First-Century Skills
381
382
14 Guiding Children:
Helping Children Become
Environmental Education 383
Responsible 413
The Maker Movement 384
Accommodating Diverse Learners 384 What is Guiding Behavior? 414
Activities for Professional Development 385 The Importance of Guiding Children’s Behavior 415
Linking to Learning 386 Guiding Behavior in a Community of Learners 415
The Community of Learners 416
A Social Constructivist Approach to Guiding
13 Technology and Young Children: Children 418
Education for the Information Guiding Behavior in The Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) 418
Age 387
Ten Steps for Guiding Behavior: Steps One Through Five 421
Children of the Net Generation 388 Step One: Arrange and Modify the Environment 421
Technology: A Definition 388 Step Two: Establish Appropriate Expectations 423
Technological Integration in Educational Settings 389 Step Three: Model Appropriate Behavior 424
Digital Literacy 389 Step Four: Guide the Whole Child 428
Technology and Social Collaboration 389 Step Five: Know and Use Developmentally
Supporting Children’s Technology Use 390 Appropriate Practice 429

xxii Contents
Ten Steps for Guiding Behavior: Steps Six

Through Ten 429
16 Children with Diverse Needs:
Appropriate Education for All 461
Step Six: Meet Children’s Needs 429
Step Seven: Help Children Build New Behaviors 431 Children with Disabilities 462
Step Eight: Empower Children 432 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) 463
Step Nine: Use Praise and Encouragement 433 The Seven Principles of IDEA 464
Step Ten: Develop A Partnership with Parents, Instructional Strategies for Teaching Children with
Families, and Others 434 Disabilities 467
Physical Punishment and Children’s Inclusive Education 467
Development 435 Consultation and Collaboration 470
Accommodating Diverse Learners 436 Universal Design 472
Tangible Reinforcement 436 Response to Intervention/Response to Instruction
Activity-Based Reinforcement 436 (RTI) 472
Token Reinforcement 436 Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) 475
Social Reinforcement 436 Hi-Tech or Lo-Tech? Both! 479
Natural Reinforcement 436 Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 481
Activities for Professional Development 437 Children Who are Gifted and Talented 486
Linking to Learning 438 Characteristics of Gifted and Talented Childen 486
Providing for and Accommodating Gifted and
Talented Children 486
15 Understanding Children’s Culture: Children Who Are Abused and Neglected 488
Living and Learning in a Diverse Children as Property 488
Society 439 Definition of Abuse 488
America the Multicultural 440 Reporting Child Abuse 490
The Cultures of Our Children 440 Homeless Children 491
Developing Your Cultural Competence 441 Child Outcomes of Being Homeless 492
“Rules of Engagement” for being a Culturally Combating Homelessness 492
Responsive Teacher 441 Accommodating Diverse Learners 494
Welcome Parent and Community Involvement 442 Activities for Professional Development 497
Multicultural Awareness 443 Linking to Learning 498
Multicultural Infusion 444
Foster Cultural Awareness 444
Teaching in a Multicultural Classroom 446
17 Parents, Families, and the Community:
Multicultural Literature 446
Building Partnerships for Student
Multicultural Science, Technology, Engineering,
Success 499
Arts, and Math (STEAM) 447
Thematic Teaching 448 New Views of Parent/Family Partnerships 500
Teach Your Local, State, and Common Core State Parent Education–Parent Universities 500
Standards (CCSS) 449 Accountability, Reform, and Investment 501
Use Conflict-Resolution Strategies and Promote Changing Families: Changing Involvement 502
Peaceful Living 451
Single-Parent Families 502
Teaching English Learners 453
Fathers 502
Teaching English Learners in Action 454
Multigenerational Families 503
ELs: The Challenge of Educating All 454
Teenage Parents 504
Supporting English Learners 455 Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT)
Educational Models for Instructing EL Students 457 Families 505
Accommodating Diverse Learners 458 Military Families 506
Activities for Professional Development 459 Prison/Incarcerated Families 507
Linking to Learning 460 Implications of Changing Family Patterns 507

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which Alcuin made. Of the kings, he writes of Edwin, Oswald, Oswy,
Ecgfrith, and Aldfrith, omitting mention of the sub-kings, several of
whom were connected with constitutional difficulties. Of the bishops,
he writes of Paulinus, Wilfrith, Cuthbert, Bosa, and John, mentioning
Aidan only incidentally, but with the epithet “most holy”. He avoids all
controversial topics in writing of Wilfrith. There is just one word of
reference to Wilfrith’s many disturbances, in connexion with the only
mention Alcuin makes here of Rome: Wilfrith, he says, was
journeying to Rome, compulsus, being driven to go there. It is worthy
of remark that of the hundred and sixty-eight lines which Alcuin gives
to his account of Wilfrith, he devotes nine to Wilfrith’s vision, in which
the name of the Blessed Virgin played so large a part. It was
Wilfrith’s chaplain, Eddi, who recorded this, not Bede, who is very
reticent about Wilfrith. Michael appeared to Wilfrith at a crisis in a
serious illness, and announced that he was sent by the Almighty to
inform him that he would recover. The message went on to explain
that this was due to the merits and prayers of the holy mother Mary,
who from the celestial throne had heard with open ears the groans,
the tears (sic)[87], and the vows of the companions of Wilfrith, and
had begged for him life and health. Stephen Eddi gives a highly
characteristic ending to the message, which Alcuin omits.
“Remember,” the archangel said, “that in honour of St. Peter and St.
Andrew thou hast built churches; but to the holy Mary, ever Virgin,
who intercedes for thee, thou hast reared none. This thou must
amend, by dedicating a church to her honour.” The church which he
had built for St. Peter was at Ripon, that for St. Andrew was at
Hexham; we have still in each case the confessio, or crypt for relics,
which he built under those churches. In obedience to the vision,
Wilfrith now built a church of St. Mary by the side of the church of St.
Andrew at Hexham. This present generation has seen a noble
restoration and completion of the abbey church of Hexham.[88]
It is scarcely necessary to remark upon this grouping together of
churches dedicated to various saints. At Malmesbury, under St.
Aldhelm, there were six churches on the hill in one group, St.
Andrew, St. Laurence, St. Mary, St. Michael, St. Peter and St. Paul,
and the little Irish basilica of Maildulf.
Alcuin mentions also the missionary zeal of the Northumbrian
church, beginning with the early Ecgbert, who on the expulsion of
Wilfrith left Ripon, and lived for the rest of his life in Ireland as a
trainer of missionaries. Besides him, Alcuin names as English
missionaries Wibert, Wilbrord, the two Hewalds, Suidbert, and Wira.
So far Alcuin copied Bede and Eddi. In the last 442 lines of his
poem he gives us information which we do not find elsewhere,
dealing in some detail with Bishop Wilfrith II and Archbishops
Ecgbert, Albert, and Eanbald, of York. Wilfrith II resigned the
bishopric of York in the year of Alcuin’s birth, after holding it for
fourteen years. A delightful account of him had been handed down to
Alcuin’s time. He was to all acceptable, venerable, honourable,
lovable. He took great pains in improving and beautifying the
ornaments of his church, covering altar and crosses with silver
plates, gilded. Other churches in the city he beautified in like manner.
He was zealous in multiplying the congregations; following the
precepts of the Lord; careful in doctrine; bright in example. Liberal
with hand and mouth, he fed the minds of the studious and the
bodies of the needy. In the end he retired and spent his latest years
in contemplation.
Of Ecgbert, the succeeding bishop, Alcuin writes in terms of the
highest praise. He was evidently more of a ruler than the second
Wilfrith had been, and could be very severe with evil men. He had a
love for beautiful things, and added much to the treasures of the
church, special mention being made of silk hangings with foreign
patterns woven in. It was to him that Bede wrote the striking letter
which we have analysed above. He was of the royal house of
Northumbria, and one of his brothers succeeded to the throne while
Ecgbert was archbishop. The bishop had taken Bede’s advice, had
sought and obtained from Rome the pallium, as the sign of
metropolitical position. Curiously enough, Alcuin makes no reference
to this, the most important ecclesiastical step of the time, another
silence on his part which may have hid feelings he did not wish to
express. He does mention the pall, but only as a matter of course, in
comparing the two brothers, the prelate and the king; the one, he
says, bore on his shoulder the palls sent by the Apostolic, the other
on his head the diadems of his ancestors. He draws a charming
picture of the two brothers working together for the country’s good,
each in his own sphere,
The times were happy then for this our race,

When king and prelate in lawful concord wielded
The one the church’s laws, the other the nation’s affairs.
We have seen how slight a reference Alcuin makes to the fact of

the pall from Rome. He appears to have held a very moderate view
of its importance to the end of his life. His letter to the Pope, Leo III,
in the year 797, conveying a request that the pall might be granted to
the newly-consecrated Archbishop of York, Eanbald II, is an
important document. After referring to his letter of the previous year,
congratulating Leo on his accession, he proceeds as follows,
curiously enough not mentioning by name the archbishop or his city
or diocese. He is writing from his home in France.
“And now as regards these messengers—who Ep. 82.
have come from my own fatherland and my own
city, to solicit the dignity of the sacred pall, in canonical manner and
in accordance with the apostolic precept of the blessed Gregory who
brought us to Christ—I humbly pray your pious excellency that you
receive benignantly the requests of ecclesiastical necessity. For in
those parts the authority of the sacred pall is very necessary, to keep
down the perversity of wicked men and to preserve the authority of
holy church.”
That is a remarkably limited statement of the need for the pall,
when we remember the tremendous claims made for it in later times.
And it is the more remarkable because Alcuin is evidently making the
most persuasive appeal he could construct; he would certainly state
the case in its strongest terms when addressing the one man with
whom it finally rested to say yes or no. He seems to say clearly that
to have the pall was bonum et utile for the archbishop, for the
purposes which he names; he says nothing, because apparently he
knows nothing, of its affecting, one way or another, the archbishop’s
plenary right, in virtue of his election and consecration, to consecrate
bishops, ordain priests, and rule his province and his diocese.
Alcuin digresses from the series of archbishops to deal with the
saints of the Church of York, of times near to and coinciding with his
own. Of the former, he naturally takes Bede, and he takes no other.
To Bede he gives only thirty-one lines, but he does not stint his
praise. Six of the thirty-one lines are devoted to Bede’s abbat,
Ceolfrith, who took from Wearmouth as a present to the Pope the
famous Codex Amiatinus, now at Florence,[89] and died and was
buried at Langres. From Alcuin’s poem we learn that Ceolfrith’s body
was eventually brought back to Northumbria, and this enables us to
accept William of Malmesbury’s statement that King Edmund, on an
expedition to the north, obtained the relics of Ceolfrith among many
others, and had them safely buried at Glastonbury.
Of the saints who lived on to the time of Alcuin’s own manhood he
takes two, and we are rather surprised at his selection. The one is
Balther, the occupant of the Bass Rock, known later as Baldred of
the Bass; the other is the anchorite Eata. Both, indeed, were
anchorites, the one at Tyningham and on the Bass, the other at Cric,
which is said to be Crayke in the East Riding of Yorkshire. Baldred
died in 756, and Eata in 767. At Thornhill, in the West Riding of
Yorkshire, there is a sepulchral monument, one of three with
inscriptions in early Anglian runes, in memory of one Eata, who is
described as Inne, which some have guessed to mean a hermit.[90]
On the strength of this guess they have claimed that Thornhill was
the place of burial of Alcuin’s Eata. To Balther Alcuin gives more than
twice as many lines as to Bede; to us this seems a remarkably
disproportionate treatment. There is a considerable amount of
uncertainty about Balther, and Alcuin’s lines leave the uncertainty
without solution. The events which he connects with the anchorite
Balther, as one of the saints of the Northumbrian Church, are really
connected with an earlier Balther, of the time of St. Kentigern, a saint
of the ancient British Church of Cumbria. The death of this Balther is
placed in 608; and in any case he was before the first formation of
the Christian Church among the Northumbrian Angles. Simeon of
Durham puts the death of Balther in 756, and this fits in well with
Alcuin’s statements; but we may most probably suppose that there
was an earlier Balther and a later, and that the legendary events of
the life of the earlier have been transferred to the life of the later.
Alcuin certainly understood that his Balther was Balther of the Bass.
It is when Alcuin comes to Archbishop Albert that he really lets
himself go. Ecgbert had in fact established the eminence of the great
School of York, and had himself acted as its chief governor and its
religious teacher. But Alcuin does not even refer to that in his
account of Ecgbert. The praise of the school goes all to the credit of
Ecgbert’s cousin, his successor in the mastership and eventually in
the archbishopric, Albert. Eight lines of laudatory epithets Alcuin
bestows upon Albert, before proceeding to detail; his laudation fitly
culminates in what all ages have regarded as high praise, non ore
loquax sed strenuus actu—not a great talker, but a strenuous doer.
In 766 Albert became archbishop. Like his immediate
predecessors, he did much to beautify churches in the city. In this
work Alcuin was one of his two right-hand men; and yet each detail
which Alcuin gives is puzzling. He tells us that at the spot where the
great warrior Edwin the king received the water of baptism, the
prelate constructed a grand altar, which he covered with silver,
precious stones, and gold, and dedicated under the name of St.
Paul, the teacher of the world, whom the learned archbishop
specially loved. There is a difficulty here. While it is certain that the
church of stone of larger dimensions which Edwin and Paulinus
began, to include the wooden oratory of St. Peter the place of
Edwin’s baptism, was the church which Oswald completed and the
first Wilfrith restored, as the Cathedral Church of York, there was no
altar of St. Paul in the Cathedral Church in the middle ages. We
should naturally have supposed that an altar so splendid as that
which Albert constructed, at a spot so uniquely remarkable in the
Christian history of Northumbria, would have been sedulously
retained throughout all changes. The explanation may well be that
not the size only but the level of the surface of the site has been
greatly increased in the course of 1200 years. The herring-bone
work of the walls of the early Anglian Church of York was found deep
down below the surface when excavations were made after the fire
of 1829, and at a later period in connexion with the hydraulic
apparatus for the organ. Probably the altar of St. Paul, and the place
of baptism, were down at that level, and were buried in the ruins of
one fire after another, many feet below the present surface of the
Minster Yard. My old friend Canon Raine, who edited the three
volumes of the Historians of the Church of York, writing of the
present crypt in his introduction to the first volume,[91] says, “In
another peculiar place is the actual site, if I mistake not, of the font in
which Edwin became a Christian.” Canon Raine was secretive in
connexion with antiquarian discoveries, and from inquiries which I
have made it is to be feared that the secret of this site died with him.
All we can say is, that where that site was, there was this splendid
altar[92] of St. Paul, mundi doctoris.
A more doubtful point is raised by Alcuin’s description of the
building of a new and marvellous basilica, begun, completed, and
consecrated, by Albert. Two of his pupils, Eanbald and Alcuin, were
his ministers in the building, which was consecrated only ten days
before his death. It was very lofty, supported on solid columns, with
curved arches; the roofs and windows were fine; it was surrounded
by many porches, porticoes, which were in fact side chapels; it
contained many chambers under various roofs, in which were thirty
altars with sundry kinds of ornament. Alcuin describes this
immediately after describing the construction of the altar of St. Paul
in what must have been the old Cathedral Church; but he does not
say that the new church was on the old site, or that it replaced the
Cathedral Church. Still, a church of that magnitude can only have
been the chief church of the city. Simeon of Durham throws light
upon the point by stating as the reason for building this new basilica,
that the monasterium of York—that is, the Minster, as it has always
been called[93]—was burned[94] on Monday, May 23, 741; and the
Saxon Chronicle has the entry[95], “This year York was burned.” The
balance of argument on this disputed point is that Albert did really
build a new Cathedral Church in place of one that was burned while
Alcuin was a boy. The investigations which have taken place show
that in Anglo-Saxon times a basilica of really important dimensions
was in existence, much larger than Edwin’s little oratory or Oswald’s
stone building, and all points to its being the “marvellous basilica”
which Eanbald and Alcuin built by order of Albert.
Alcuin makes several statements about church-building in York. In
lines 195-198, he tells us that King Edwin caused a small building to
be hurriedly erected, in which he and his could receive the sacred
water of baptism. We should naturally suppose that it was by the
side of water. In lines 219-222 he tells us that Paulinus built ample
churches in his cities. Among them he names that of York, supported
on solid columns; it remains, he says, noble and beautiful, on the
spot where Edwin was laved in the sacred wave. In lines 1221-1228
he tells us first that Wilfrith II greatly adorned “the church”, evidently
meaning his cathedral church, and then that he adorned with great
gifts other churches in the city of York. In lines 1487-1505 he tells us
that Albert took great care in the ornamentation of churches, and
especially that at the spot of Edwin’s baptism he made a grand altar,
which he covered with silver and gems and gold, and dedicated it
under the name of Saint Paul whom he greatly loved. He made also,
still it would seem at the same spot, another altar, covered with pure
silver and precious stones, and dedicated it to the Martyrs and the
Cross. As we have seen, there was no altar dedicated to St. Paul in
the mediaeval Minster of York; but there was not an altar only but a
small church—which remained as a parish church till very recent
years—dedicated to Saint Crux. The parish of St. Crux is now
absorbed in All Saints. Lastly, in lines 1506-1519 he describes the
building of the great new basilica which Eanbald and himself built
under the orders of Archbishop Albert. The conclusion appears to be
that the new basilica—which probably became the cathedral church
—did not stand on the site of Paulinus’s church, but was erected
close by that specially sacred spot; and that both Paulinus’s stone
oratory, beautified by Wilfrith II, with its added altars to St. Paul and
St. Crux, and also the new and great basilica of Albert, are now
absorbed in the vast area of the Minster of York.
Eanbald succeeded Albert in the archbishopric, and Alcuin
succeeded Albert in the mastership of the School of York and in the
ownership of the great library which for three generations had been
got together at York. Alcuin tells us that it contained all Latin
literature, all that Greece had handed on to the Romans, all that the
Hebrew people had received from on high, all that Africa with clear-
flowing light had given. Passing from the general to the particular,
Alcuin names the authors whose works the library of York
possessed. What we would give for even five or six of those
priceless manuscripts! Of the Christian Fathers, he records a rather
mixed list. They had Jerome, Hilary, Ambrose, Augustine,
Athanasius, Orosius, Gregory the Great, Pope Leo, Basil,
Fulgentius, Cassiodorus, and John Chrysostom. They had the works
of the learned men of the English Church, our own Aldhelm of
Malmesbury, and Bede; with them he names Victorinus and
Boethius, and the old historians, Pompeius and Pliny, the acute
Aristotle and the great rhetorician Tully. They had the poets, too,
Sedulius, Juvencus, Alcimus[96], Clemens, Prosper, Paulinus, Arator,
Fortunatus, Lactantius. They had also Virgil, Statius, and Lucan.
They were rich in grammarians: Probus, Focas, Donatus, Priscian,
Servius, Euticius, Pompeius, Comminianus. You will find, he says, in
the library very many more masters, famous in study, art, and
language, who have written very many volumes, but whose names it
would be too long to recite in a poem. It may perhaps be a fair guess
that he had used up all the names which he could conveniently get
into dactyls and spondees for hexameter verse.
Two years after handing over to Alcuin the possession of this great
library, and to Eanbald the archbishopric itself, Albert died. We may
here remind ourselves of outstanding facts and dates. Alcuin, born in
735, had as a young man held the office of teacher in the School of
York for some years. In 766 he had been promoted to a position
which so far as teaching was concerned was practically that of Head
Master. In 778 he became in the fullest sense the master of the
school. In 780 he inherited the great collection of books which had
been brought together by successive archbishops. In 782 he was
called away to become the teacher of the School of the Palace of
Karl, and director of the studies of the empire, still continuing to hold
the office of master in name. In 792 he left England for the last time,
and his official connexion with the school of York came to an end. He
gave twenty years of his older life to the service of the Franks, and
died in 804.
CHAPTER V
The affairs of Mercia.—Tripartite division of England.—The creation of a third
archbishopric, at Lichfield.—Offa and Karl.—Alcuin’s letter to Athelhard of
Canterbury; to Beornwin of Mercia.—Karl’s letter to Offa, a commercial treaty.—
Alcuin’s letter to Offa.—Offa’s death.
Although Alcuin was a Northumbrian, and his interests were

naturally with that kingdom, he was at one time of his life more
intimately concerned with the affairs of Mercia. It seems, on the
whole, best to deal first with that part, as it can be to a certain extent
isolated from his correspondence with Northumbria, and from his life
and work among the Franks. The special events in Mercian history
with which he was concerned are in themselves of great interest.
They are—(1) the personal and official dealings between Karl and
the Mercian king, and (2) the creation and the extinction of a third
metropolitical province in England, the archbishopric of Lichfield.
We have to accustom ourselves to the fact that the Heptarchy, that
is, the division of England into seven independent kingdoms with
seven independent kings, no longer existed in Alcuin’s time. The
land was divided into three kingdoms, Northumbria, Mercia, and
Wessex. The rivers Thames and Humber were, roughly speaking,
the lines dividing the whole land into three. Kent, to which we
probably attach too much importance by reason of its being the first
Christian kingdom, and of its having in its Archbishop the chief
ecclesiastic of the whole land, was a conquered kingdom, the
property at one time of Wessex, at another of Mercia. The South
Saxons, our Sussex, had kings and dukes fitfully, and the territory
was included in Wessex. The East Saxons, our Essex, had kings
nominally, but belonged usually to Mercia. East Anglia was in a
somewhat similar position, but held out for independence with much
pertinacity and success till long after Alcuin’s time. The year 828, a
quarter of a century after Alcuin’s death, saw the final defeat of
Mercia by Ecgbert of Wessex, who had spent fifteen years in exile at
the Court of Charlemagne in Alcuin’s time, from 787 to 802, when he
succeeded to the vacant throne of Wessex by a very remote claim,
as great-great-grand-nephew of the famous king Ina. No doubt he
learned in those strenuous years, under the tutelage of Karl, the
lessons of war which brought him into dominance here, another link
between Karl and England which passes almost entirely
unrecognized. The year 829 saw the peaceful submission of the
great men of Northumbria to Ecgbert, at Dore, in Derbyshire, and
their recognition of him as their overlord. The mistake of supposing
that Ecgbert thus became sole king of England as a single kingdom
is now exploded; but he was, roughly speaking, master of the whole,
and as time went on the petty kings and kinglets disappeared. The
time which this process occupied was not short. The thirty-first king
of Northumbria was reigning in Ecgbert’s time, when his thegns
made submission to Ecgbert; but fifteen more kings reigned in
Northumbria, till Eadred expelled the last of them in 954. In like
manner, we have the coins of some kings of East Anglia, and
mention of other kings, as late as 905.
That is a digression into times a hundred and a hundred and fifty
years after Alcuin. In his time, as has been said, the Heptarchy had
for practical purposes been consolidated into three main kingdoms,
Wessex, Mercia, and Northumbria.
This tri-partite arrangement of the seven kingdoms led to one of
the most curious episodes of Alcuin’s time, and, indeed, of English
history.
Offa, the ambitious king of Mercia, who reigned from 757 to 796,
saw that there were two archbishoprics in England, one of which,
Canterbury, was centred in a conquered kingdom; while the other,
York, had only been created some twenty years before he began to
reign. Bede had advised that the bishopric of York should be raised
to an archbishopric, with Northumbria as its province, and on
application made to the Pope the thing had been done. Each of the
two archbishops, as Offa saw, received special recognition from the
Pope in the grant of the pallium; a costly luxury, no doubt, but a
luxury of honour and dignity, worth a good deal of money—which it
certainly cost. There was no Emperor of the West in those days,
some fourteen years before the elevation of Karl to an imperial
throne; and the Pope was, by the mystery of his ecclesiastical
position, and in the glamour of pagan Rome, the greatest personage
in the then chaotic world of Western Europe.
Quite apart from the possession of the pallium, the constitutional
position of an English archbishop was very great. In our days it is
sometimes asked about a wealthy man, how much is he worth. In
Anglo-Saxon times that question had a direct meaning and a direct
answer. Men of all the higher grades at least had their money value,
a very considerable value, which any one who put an end to any of
them must pay. While the luxury of killing a bishop was as costly as
killing an ealdorman, that is, an earl, an archbishop was as dear as a
prince of the blood. The bishop or earl was worth 8000 thrimsas, the
thrimsa being probably threepence, say five shillings of our money,
or £2000 in all; that was what had to be paid for the luxury of killing a
bishop; the archbishop or royal prince rose to 15000 thrimsas, nearly
twice as much, say £3750 of our money; it does not sound quite
enough to our modern ears. The king was put at £7500. For drawing
a weapon in the presence of a bishop or an ealdorman, the fine was
100 shillings, say £100 of our money; in the case of an archbishop it
was 150 shillings, half as much again. In the laws of Ina, for violence
done to the dwelling and seat of jurisdiction of a bishop, the fine was
80 shillings, in the case of an archbishop 120, the same as in the
case of the king. This was not the only point in which the archbishop
was on the same level as the king; his mere word, without oath, was
—as the king’s—incontrovertible. A bishop’s oath was equivalent to
the oaths of 240 ordinary tax payers. In the case of the archbishop of
Canterbury at the times of which we are speaking, there was added
the fact that the royal family of Kent had retired to Reculver and left
the archbishop supreme in the capital city, as the bishops of Rome
had been left in Rome by the departure of the emperors to
Constantinople. In Archbishop Jaenbert’s time the royal family of
Kent practically came to an end, as a regnant family, at the battle of
Otford, near Sevenoaks, in the year 774, when Mercia conquered
Kent. Archbishop Jaenbert of Canterbury is said to have proposed
that he should become the temporal sovereign of Kent, as well as its
ecclesiastical ruler, after the then recent fashion of the bishop of
Rome, and to have offered to do homage to Karl, king of the Franks,
for the kingdom. If that was so, we can well understand the
determination of the conquering and powerful Offa to abate the
archbishop’s position and his pride.
Kent was but an outside annex of the Mercian kingdom proper. It
had been subject to other kingdoms; it might be so subject again.
The Lichfield bishopric was the real ecclesiastical centre of Offa’s
kingdom, and he determined to have an archbishop of Lichfield, and
to have him duly recognized by the Pope. A visit of two legates of the
Pope, accompanied by a representative of the King of the Franks, in
the year 785, gave the opportunity.[97] Offa had already punished
Jaenbert by taking away all manors belonging to the See of
Canterbury in Mercian territories; and he now proposed that the
jurisdiction of Canterbury should be limited to Kent, Sussex, and
Wessex, and that all the land of England between the Thames and
the Humber should become a third metropolitical province, under the
archiepiscopal rule of the bishop of Lichfield. The synod at which this
proposal was made is described in the Saxon Chronicle as
geflitfullic, quarrelsome-like; but in the end, Offa’s proposal was
accepted. Pope Adrian gave his sanction and the pall. William of
Malmesbury, with his usual skill and his wide experience, gives the
explanation of this papal acquiescence in so violent a revolution in
ecclesiastical matters: Offa, he says, obtained the papal licence by
the gift of endless money, pecunia infinita, to the Apostolic See;
which See, he adds, never fails one who gives money. That was the
judgement of a historian after 250 years’ additional experience of the
secret of Roman sanction. The Pope of the time, it should be said,
was a man of much distinction, Adrian or Hadrian I, a friend of Offa
and of Karl. We shall have a good deal to say about the grants of
Karl, and of Pepin his father, to the papacy, in another lecture.
There is a letter extant[98] from Pope Adrian I to Karl, written
before the creation of the Mercian archbishopric, in which the Pope
says he has heard from Karl of a report that Offa had proposed to
persuade him to eject Adrian from the Papacy, and put in his place
some one of the Frankish race. The Pope professes to feel that this
is absolutely false; and yet he says so much about it that it is quite
clear he was anxious. Karl had told him that Offa had not made any
such proposal to him, and had not had any thought in his mind
except that he hoped Adrian would continue to govern the Church all
through his time. The Pope adds that neither had he until that time
heard of anything of the kind; and he does not believe that even a
pagan would think of such a thing. Having said all this, in Latin much
more cumbrous than Alcuin’s charmingly clear style, he enters upon
a long declaration of his personal courage and confidence whatever
happened. “If God be with us, who shall be against us.”
We must, I think, take it that there had been some hitch in
negotiations between Offa and Adrian, and that Offa, with the
outspoken vigour of a Mercian Angle, had in fact gone far beyond
Henry VIII’s greatest threats, and had declared to his counsellors
that if Adrian was not more pliable, he and Karl would make some
one Pope who would have first regard to the wishes of the Angles
and the Franks.
Now it was Alcuin who had brought together Karl Ep. 43. 787-796.
and Offa in the first instance, and had brought
about their alliance. And on a later occasion when they quarrelled he
made them friends again. We do not know what active part, if any,
Alcuin took in the matter decided at the quarrelsome-like synod. But
we have plenty of evidence that he highly approved of the reversal of
Hadrian’s act by his successor Leo III, with the assent, and indeed
on the request, of Offa’s successor Kenulf. He corresponded with
Offa in a very friendly manner, as indeed Offa’s general conduct well
deserved. Here is a letter from him, in response to a request from
the king that he would send him a teacher. “Always desirous faithfully
to do what you wish, I have sent to you this my best loved pupil, as
you have requested. I pray you have him in honour until if God will I
come to you. Do not let him wander about idle, do not let him take to
drink. Provide him with pupils, and let your preceptors see that he
teaches diligently. I know that he has learned well. I hope he will do
well, for the success of my pupils is my reward with God.
“I am greatly pleased that you are so intent upon encouraging
study, that the light of wisdom, in many places now extinct, may
shine in your kingdom. You are the glory of Britain, the trumpet of
defiance, the sword against hostile forces, the shield against the
enemies.”
It is only fair to Offa to say that this was not mere flattery. It is clear
that in the eyes of Karl and Alcuin, Offa was the one leading man in
the whole of England, the most powerful Englishman of his time, and
of all the kings and princes the most worthy.
To Athelhard, the archbishop of Canterbury,[99] who succeeded
Jaenbert, Lichfield still being the chief archbishopric, Alcuin wrote a
remarkable letter, considering the humiliation of the archbishopric:—
“Be a preacher; not a flatterer. It is better to fear Ep. 28. a.d. 793.
God than man, to please God than to fawn upon
men. What is a flatterer but a fawning enemy? He destroys both,—
himself and his hearer.
“You have received the pastoral rod and the staff of fraternal
consolation; the one to rule, the other to console; that those who
mourn may find in you consolation, those who resist may feel
correction. The judge’s power is to kill; thine, to make alive....
“Remember that the bishop[100] is the messenger of God most
high, and the holy law is to be sought at his mouth, as we read in the
prophet Malachi.[101] A watchman[102] is set at the highest place;
whence the name episcopus, he being the chief watchman,[103] who
ought by prudent counsel to foresee for the whole army of Christ
what must be avoided and what must be done. These, that is the
bishops[104], are the lights of the holy church of God, the leaders of
the flock of Christ. It is their duty actively to raise the standard of the
holy cross in the front rank, and to stand intrepid against every attack
of the hostile force. These are they who have received the talents,
our King the God Christ having gone with triumph of glory to His
Father’s abode; and when He comes again in the great day of
judgement they shall render an account....
“Admonish most diligently your fellow-bishops[105] to labour
instantly in the word of life, that they may appear before the judge
eternal, glorious with multifold gain. Be of one mind in piety, constant
in equity. Let no terror of human dignity separate you, no
blandishments of flattery divide you; but join together in unity in firm
ranks of the fortress of God. Thus will your concord strike terror into
those who seek to speak against the Truth; as Solomon says,[106]
‘When brother is helped by brother, the city is secure.’
“Ye are the light of all Britain, the salt of the earth, a city set on a
hill, a candle high on a candlestick....
“Our ancestors, though pagans, first as pagans possessed this
land by their valour in war, by the dispensation of God. How great,
then, is the reproach, if we, Christians, lose what they, pagans,
acquired. I say this on account of the blow which has lately fallen
upon a part of our island, a land which has for nearly 350 years been
inhabited by our forefathers. It is read in the book of Gildas[107], the
wisest of the Britons, that those same Britons, because of the rapine
and avarice of the princes, the iniquity and injustice of the judges,
the sloth and laxity of the bishops, and the wicked habits of the
people, lost their fatherland. Let us take care that those vices do not
become the custom with us in these times of ours.... Do you, who
along with the Apostles have received from Christ the key of the
kingdom of heaven, the power of binding and loosing, open with
assiduous prayer the gates of heaven to the people of God. Be not
silent, lest the sins of the people be imputed to you: for of you will
God require the souls which you have received to rule. Let your
reward be multiplied by the salvation of those in your charge.
Comfort those who are cast down, strengthen the humble, bring
back to the way of truth those who wander, instruct the ignorant,
exhort the learned, and confirm all by the good examples of your
own life. Chastise with the pastoral rod those who are contumacious
and resist the truth; support the others with the staff of consolation.
And, if you are unanimous, who will be able to stand against you?”
Alcuin could be exceedingly outspoken in his Ep. 14. a.d. 790.
letters, as we have seen. But he could also be very
cautious, even—perhaps we should say especially—in a matter on
which he felt deeply. In a letter to the Irish teacher Colcu he remarks
that he did not know what he might have to do next. The reason was
that something of a dissension, diabolically inflamed, had arisen
between Karl and Offa, the Mercian king, and had gone so far that
each forbade entry to the other’s merchants. “Some tell me,” he
says, “that I am to be sent to those parts to make peace.”
The reason for the quarrel was a curious one. Karl had proposed
that his son Charles should marry one of Offa’s daughters. Offa had
made a supplementary proposal that his son Ecgfrith should marry
Karl’s daughter Bertha. This is said to have been considered
presumptuous by Karl, and he showed his annoyance by breaking
off the friendly relations which had existed between them.
It would appear that Alcuin’s attitude was suspected by the
Mercian king to be unfavourable to the English view of the quarrel,
and the presbyter Beornwin, to whom Alcuin had written a letter not
known to have survived, was set to write to him a fishing letter, in
which it would seem that he suggested unfriendliness on Alcuin’s
part. Alcuin’s reply is a non-committal document.
“I have received the sweet letters of your love... Ep. 15. a.d. 790.
“Would that I were worthy to preach peace, not to
sow discord; to carry the standard of Christ, not the arms of the devil.
I should never have written to you if I had been unwilling to be at
peace with you and to remain firm as we began in Christ.
“Of a truth I have never been unfaithful to King Offa, or to the
Anglian nation. As to the utmost of my power I shall faithfully keep
the friends whom God has given me in France, so I shall those
whom I have left in my own country....
“As time or opportunity affords, my very dear brother, urge ever
the will of God upon all persons: on the king, persuasively; on the
bishops, with due honour; on the chief men, with confidence; on all,
with truth. It is ours to sow; it is God’s to fructify.
“And let no suspicion of any dissension between us remain. Let us
not be of those of whom it is said: I am not come to send peace but a
sword. Let us be of those to whom it is said: My peace I give unto
you, My peace I leave with you.
“I have written a very short letter, for a few words to a wise man
suffice.”
The dissension was rather one-sided, for it appears that Offa
continued to write friendly letters to Karl. In the end, Karl replied in a
more than friendly letter, which is on many accounts well worth
reproducing entire. It is the earliest extant commercial treaty with an
English kingdom. The date is 796, four years before he became
emperor.
“Charles, by the grace of God King of the Franks Ep. 57. a.d. 796.
and Lombards and Patricius of the Romans, to his
dearest brother the venerated Offa, King of the Mercians, wishes
present prosperity and eternal beatitude in Christ. To keep with
inmost affection of heart the concord of holy love and the laws of
friendship and peace federated in unity, among royal dignities and
the great personages of the world, is wont to be profitable to many.
And if we are bidden by our Lord’s precept to loose the tangles of
enmity, how much more ought we to be careful to bind the chains of
love. We therefore, my most loved brother, mindful of the ancient
pact between us, have addressed to your reverence these letters,
that our treaty, fixed firm in the root of faith, may flourish in the fruit of
love. We have read over the epistles of your brotherliness, which at
various times have been brought to us by the hands of your
messengers, and we desire to answer adequately the several
suggestions of your authority.” It is clear that there were a good
many of Offa’s letters unanswered.
“First, we give thanks to Almighty God for the sincerity of catholic
faith which we find laudably expressed in your pages; recognizing
that you are not only very strong in protection of your fatherland, but
also most devoted in defence of the holy faith.
“With regard to pilgrims, who for the love of God and the health of
their souls desire to visit the thresholds of the blessed Apostles, as
has been customary”—here again we see the reason of the
reputation of Rome—“we give leave for them to go on their way
peaceably without any disturbance, carrying with them such things
as are necessary. But we have ascertained that traders seeking
gain, not serving religion, have fraudulently joined themselves to
bands of pilgrims. If such are found among the pilgrims, they must
pay at the proper places the fixed toll; the rest will go in peace, free
from toll.
“You have written to us also about merchants. We will and
command that they have protection and patronage in our realm,
lawfully, according to the ancient custom of trading. And if in any
place they suffer from unjust oppression, they may appeal to us or
our judges, and we will see that pious justice is done. And so for our
merchants; if they suffer any injustice in your realm, let them appeal
to the judgement of your equity. Thus no disturbance can arise
among our merchants.”
Karl evidently felt that the next point was the most difficult of all to
handle successfully. He had given shelter and countenance to
Mercians who had fled from Offa, and sought protection at his court.
Ecgbert, who afterwards conquered Mercia, was among the exiles
from Wessex.
“With regard to the presbyter Odberht, who on his return from
Rome desires to live abroad for the love of God, not coming to us to
accuse you, we make known to your love that we have sent him to
Rome along with other exiles who in fear of death have fled to the
wings of our protection. We have done this in order that in the
presence of the lord apostolic and of your illustrious archbishop—in
accordance, as your notes make known to us, with their vow—their
cause may be heard and judged, so that equitable judgement may
effect what pious intercession could not do. What could be safer for
us than that the investigation of apostolic authority should
discriminate in a case where the opinion of others differs?”
This is a typical example of the use made of a pope when
monarchs disagreed.
“With regard to the black stones which your reverence earnestly
solicited to have sent to you, let a messenger come and point out
what kind they are that your mind desires. Wherever they may be
found, we will gladly order them to be given, and their conveyance to
be aided.” [108]
Then comes in very skilfully a complaint that the Mercians have
been exporting to France cloaks of inadequate length.
“But, as you have intimated your desire as to the length of the
stones, our people make demand about the length of cloaks, that
you will order them to be made to the pattern of those which in
former times used to come to us.
“Further, we make known to your love that we have forwarded to
each of the episcopal sees in your kingdom, and that of king
Æthelred [of Northumbria, again no mention of Wessex], a gift from
our collection of dalmatics and palls, in alms for the lord apostolic
Adrian[109], our father, your loving friend, praying you to order
intercession for his soul, not in doubt that his blessed soul is at rest,
but to show faith and love towards a friend to us most dear. So the
blessed Augustine has taught that pious intercessions of the church
should be made for all, asserting that to intercede for a good man is
profitable to him that intercedes.” That is a remarkable way of putting
it.
“From the treasure of secular things which the Lord Jesus of
gratuitous pity has granted to us, we have sent something to each of
the metropolitan cities. To thy love, for joy and giving of thanks to
Almighty God, we have sent a Hunnish belt and sword and two silk
palls, that everywhere among a Christian people the divine clemency
may be preached, and the name of our Lord Jesus Christ may be for
ever glorified.”
The Hunnish belt and sword and silk robes were part of the great
spoil which Karl took in the year 795 when he conquered the Huns,
destroyed their army, and put their prince to flight. The spoil included
fifteen wagons loaded with gold and silver, and palls of white silk,
each wagon drawn by four oxen. Karl divided the plunder between
the churches and the poor.[110]
The gifts of Karl to the king and bishops of Northumbria were
withdrawn under sad conditions, to which we must return in the next
lecture. This is what Alcuin wrote to Offa, immediately after Karl’s
letter was written:—

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Education Today 14th Edition

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Contributing Authors Practice in Emergent Literacy, and Best Practice in

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Features contributed by early childhood educators ­demonstrate

authentic developmentally appropriate practices from around

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to you their philosophies, beliefs, and program practices.

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sion of your role as a professional. This is especially

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Features that show you real children and (Writing/Writing Process)

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allow you to view a brief example of section concepts Nine

you focused and on task. open retell of the story. •(An

• PORTRAITS OF CHILDREN. In a text about chil- when a stranger approaches.

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Interactive activities that help you assess and apply your

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• OBSERVE AND ANALYZE EXERCISES. In REVEL, these exercises present you

Chapter-ending Activities for Professional Development.

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8 Federal and State Governments  217

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1 You and Early Childhood Education:

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Developmentally Appropriate Classroom Assessment  72 Activities for Professional Development  137

PART 2 Foundations: History Behaviorism and Behavioral Theories  154

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The Teacher’s Role  177 Activities for Professional Development  215

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Motor Development  253 Kinds of Play  296

10 The Preschool Years: Environments for Kindergartners  326

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12 The Primary Grades: iPADS in the Early Childhood Classroom  390

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Ten Steps for Guiding Behavior: Steps Six

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The times were happy then for this our race,

We have seen how slight a reference Alcuin makes to the fact of

Although Alcuin was a Northumbrian, and his interests were

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8 Federal and State Governments 217

Developmentally Appropriate Classroom Assessment 72 Activities for Professional Development 137

PART 2 Foundations: History Behaviorism and Behavioral Theories 154

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Motor Development 253 Kinds of Play 296

10 The Preschool Years: Environments for Kindergartners 326

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