WALNUT PRODUCTION ANO ORCHARD MANAGEMENT IN CALIFORNIA

Bruce D. Lampinen

lntegrated Orchard Management

Walnut and Almond Specialist
Dept. of Pomology
One Shields Avenue
University of California
Davis, CA 95616 USA

Brief history of walnut production in California

The cultivation of walnuts has a long history in California. The Spanish

Míssionaries probably made the first English walnut plantings in California in the
1770's. However. extensive commercial plantings did not occur until after the
time of the California gold rush in the 1850's. By the early 1900's, the English
walnut industry was firmly establíshed with the majoríty of walnut productíon in
Southern California. After the 1940's the emphasis of walnut production shifted to
the Sacramento and San Joaquín Valleys as competition from citrus production
and urbanization combíned with inadequate chilling in many years, made walnuts
less profitable in Southern California.

Hectares planted to walnuts was fairly constant from 1990 to 1996 and since
then has been increasing ata slow, but steady pace (Figure 1). In 2003, the San
Joaquin,
 2

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Figure 1.- Bearing hectares of walnut in California 1990-2003 (California

Agricultura! Statistics Service. 2004)

Sacramento and Coastal Valleys accounted for 53, 44 and 3 percent,

respectively of the total production in California. There were almost no walnut
plantings left in Southern California by 2003. The statewide total production goes
through a fairly pronounced alternate bearing cycle and this trend has intensified
over the last eight years (Figure 2). At the current rate of increase, production is
doubling about every 30 years (Figure 2).
 240000 --~-------

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1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Year

Figure 2.- Annual production far California walnut (California Agricultura!

Statistics Service, 2004).

In 2003, walnuts ranked among California's top 1O export crops and about 40%
of California's walnut production was exported. Although historically exports were
mostly in-shell walnuts, presently shelled walnuts have a greater export value
than in-shell walnuts. Top export destinations for California shelled walnuts
starting with the largest market are Japan, Canada, Israel, Germany, Spain and
South Korea. Top export destinations for in-shell walnuts include Spain, ltaly,
Germany, Netherlands, Belgium and Ganada.

The variety composition of California walnuts has shifted gradually with the
introduction of newer cultivars with desireable characteristics. From 1993 to 2003
total hectares of walnut planted increased about 15% from 70,755 to 81, 198
hectares (Fig. 1). During the same period. there was a decrease in total land
devoted to the Payne (-49%), Franquette (-47%), Ashley (-31 %), Hartley (-18%),
and Serr (-10%) varieties (Fig. 3). Varieties with increases in total area planted
over the same ten year period include Tulare (none 1O years ago to 2554
hectares in 2003), Howard (+1485%), Chandler (+524%), and Vina (+27%).
Currently, the largest area is planted to Chandler followed by Hartley, Serr and
Vina (Fig. 3). During the last ten years, there has been an increase in shelling
percentage and quality, mainly dueto the higher quality Chandler replacing lower
quality varieties in the marketplace.
 4

25000
Chandler
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í5000
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Figure 3.- California wainut bew1ng res by variety foí 1990-2003 period.

Orchard Management

Walnut SHe Requírements- V\/alnut~ ;:vr:: :::dapteci i'.! 3 vvarrn temperate climate.
They tend to do best on relativelv d2ep. non tifo:;d loamy soils without
hardpans or other drainage ímpedíments /\!rhoL;gf: ·:1:'1! roots can be found as
deep as 3-4 meters. the majority of rocts are generally in the í-2 meter range
under most conditions in California.

Rootstocks- Walnuts in Caiiforr, 3 are usu;::¡\iy piantecl on Paradox (Northern

California Black female flowers ferti!ized with pollen of English walnut). Northern
California Black (Juglans h1ndsil) or English (Jug!ans regia) rootstocks. The
majority of new plantings in California are on Paradox rootstock due to its
vigorous growth habit, relative resistance to crovvn and root rot. and the fact that
it is least sensitive to poor aeration. Northern California Black rnotstock is mainly
used where crown gall or root knot nematode are problen:s since it is the most
resistant to both of these. English rootstock ís rarely used since it tends to be
non-vigorous, is sensitive to wet conditions and susceptible to root and crown
rots. English is primarily used in areas vvhere blackline (caused by cherry leaf roll
virus) is a problem since it is not hypersensitive as are Northern California Black
and Paradox rootstocks.

Planting layout- Using an appropriate planting configuration and density for the
given conditions is essential to long term success in walnut growing. The optimal
 5

tree density can vary depending on rootstock, variety, soil conditions, fertilization
program, as well as irrigation method and amount. lf plantíng density is too wide
for the soil and management system, productivity can be limited due to unused
sunlight falling to the orchard floor. lf planting density 1s too close, long term
management can be complicated and expensive.

During the 1990's, there was a tendency towards higher planting densities with
sorne orchards planted as close as 4m x 6m. As expected, the closely planted
orchards produced good early yields and were economical to maintain dueto the
labor savings realized with mechanical hedging. However, these high density
orchards had the disadvantage of higher upfrcnt costs and as the orchards
matured and reached 1O year or so of age, growers frequently had problems with
excessive dieback in lower branches due to shading, difficulty in getting
adequate spray coverage up to the tops of the high trees, etc. In addition, once a
mechanical hedgíng regime was imposed, the yields in the hedged rows
decreased and often, vigorous vegetative growth was stimulated the following
season. Because of these problems, over the last 5 years or so. there has been
a tendency to plant orchards at somewhat wider spacings again (not as wide as
old, traditional plantings).

There is little data to suggest that more than minirnal pruning is beneficia! in
mature orchards that are pianted at an appropriate spacing for conditions and
management system. The data suggest that pruning generally leads to
decreased yields, with the only benefits being an occasional increase in nut size
or quality. The best pruníng scheme is generally the one that makes the smallest
cuts on the least frequent schedule possible while meeting the growers needs to
provide adequate access through the orchard as well as good spray coverage.
The most efficient mechanical hedging regímes (if hedging is needed due to too
dense of a planting scheme) are those that cut as infrequently as possible (i.e.
every third or fourth row each year).

Water management

In California, a number of dífferent irrigation methods are used for walnuts

including microsprinklers. solid set sprinklers. flood, and rarely. drip irrigation
systems. New plantings generally use micro or so!id set sprínklers. As mentioned
above, walnuts tend to do best on deep well-drained soils. When soil conditions
are less than ideal, water management becomes increasingly important to
maintaining long term orchard health. lf confining layers are present, careful
irrigation management 1s needed to avoid problems associated with water tables.

Proper irrigation management ís probably the most important factor in developing

and maintaining a healthy, productive walnut orchard. In order to have a healthy
orchard where the trees quickly achieve their desired size, good water
management is essential. In addition to direct effects on growth, a number of
11

diseases are intimately related to water management. Phytopthora root and

crown rot and deep bark canker can all be exacerbated by poor water
management. Because of the importance of water management to walnut
production in California. a large portian of this paper will focus on this aspect of
production management.

Soíl based measurements- In order to manage early season soil moisture

effectively, it is essential to be aware of soil moisture conditions in the top 1.5
meters or so where the majority of roots are found. In addition, a knowledge of
moisture conditions at the : .5 to 3 meter depth is also needed. lf the soil at the
1.5 to 3 meter depth is too dry, it can be difficult to provide adequate water to the
walnut orchard as the season progresses, particularly if water penetration
problems are present. On the other hand, if the soíl at the 1 .5 to 3 meter depth is
too wet for root growth and function, the rooting depth can be limited. lf the lower
soil is either too wet or too dry for prolonged periods, roots will not persist there
over time. There are severa! methods to keep track of lower soil moisture
including augering, tensiometers, granular rnatrix soil moisture sensors, soil
capacitance sensors. etc. The author prefers the use of granular matrix soil
moisture sensors monitored with either a hand meter or a datalogger
(www.irrometer.com).

Soil moisture measurements can provide useful information and help to prevent
potential problems. Dueto inconsistent and unknown rooting depths and difficulty
in interpreting impact of soil moisture readings on tree water status. it is not easy
to schedule irrigation and assure adequate but not excessive irrigation by the use
of soil moisture measurements alone. However. by monitoring deeper soil
moisture, it is obvious when the lower profile is drying down and potential stress
problems can be anticipated/avoided. Soil moisture can be monitored by severa!
means including a soil auger. tensiometers. gypsum blocks, granular matrix
sensors, neutron probe etc. lrrometer (www.irrometer.com) produces a granular
matrix sensor known as the Watermark that is relatively grower friendly. By
installing Watermark sensors at 3 depths (depending on rooting depth but 60,
120 and 180 cm may work), changes in soil moisture can be observed as the
season progresses. lf the lowest sensor gets wetter than 20 cbars or so after an
irrigation. you probably are irrigating too much. lf the lower sensor continually
dries as the season progresses, you may need to increase irrigations slightly.
Generally. a Watermark reading of O to 20 cbars suggests that the soil is too wet.
lrrigation is usually called for when the soil moisture in the root zone reaches
about 40 to 70 cbars depending on soil texture. Reading of 100 to 200 cbars
suggests the soil is too dry for tree roots to access moisture.

In California, limited root development at lower depths is often seen on soils wíth
a confining !ayer due to excessively wet soil in early springtime due to perched
water. lt is not uncommon to fínd roots limited to the top 0.5 meter or so of soil
under these conditions. With such a shallow root system, water management in
 7

the later part of the season becomes very difficult since the soil reservoir of
stored moisture that is accessible to the roots is so limited.

Plant based measurements- Plant pressure chamber- As mentioned earlier, it

can be difficult to assess tree water status using soil based measurements a lo ne.
The plant pressure chamber is a device that allows measurement of the water
potential wíthin the walnut tree. In this way, we are able to assess the impact of
the integrated soíl moisture over the entire rootzone on the plant water status.
Water in a plant is under tension. By baggíng a leaf low on the tree at least 1O
minutes before sampling. it will equilibrate with th2 water potential in the stem.
Then, by cutting the leaf off at midday and placing it in a pressure chamber with
the petiole protruding and pressurizíng, a poínt will be reached where the water
will just begin coming out of the cut surface. At this point, a reading of the dial
gauge will give the midday stem water potential (MSWP). Since the MSWP is
measuring a tension, the value is normally expressed as a negative value with a
fully watered walnut tree being sornewhere near --3 to -5 bars (-0.3 to -0.5 MPa)
depending on environmental conditions. A mildly stressed walnut tree might have
a MSWP of -6 to -8 bars (-0.6 to -0.8 MPa). Walnuts with readings more
negative than -11 bars (-1.1 MPa) will generally show signs of water stress such
as leaf yellowing and drop. For detailed information on techniques for measuring
MSWP see http://fruitsandnuts.ucdavls.edu/crops/prune-pressure.shtml.
However, be sure not to use the baseline values for prunes presented at the
website referenced since walnuts are very different than prunes. Fully watered
values for prune and almond can be halved for walnut, that is. a fully watered
prune or almond might range from -7 to -1 O bars under normal condítions while a
walnut will range from
-3.5 to -5. Expected MSWP numbers for a fully watered walnut are shown
below.

Midday Air Relativa Humidity (RH, %)

Midday
Temperature 1o i 20 : 30 ! 40 1 50 ¡ 60 70
('='C) Midday stem water potential in bars (divide by 10 for MPa)
·---+-- · - - - - - . , . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , - - · - - : - - - - - , - -

15 -3.2 i -3.2 i -2.7

1
-3.1 -3.0 i
1
-2.9 ! -2.8 i
-~----+-- '
20 -3.4 ' -3.1
1 -3.5 '
1 -3.3 -3.2 1 .-3.0 1 -2.9
r---------·- _ ___¡__ ' -+- ----------~--
-3.7 i -3.6 i -3.5
1

25
- - - - - - - - - ¡i
-3.8 1
1 1 -3 .4 !' -3.3 ! -3.2
---r----t- ··----·-;--·
30 -4.4 1 -4.2 -4.0 ~
1 -3.8 ! -3.6 i -3.5 i -3.4
35
1
t
¡ -4.8
t ~
1
t
-4.6 ! -4.3 ! -4.1
i
-3.9
' 1 1
.. -i- - -3.5
-3.1
-4:~t. -4.6 !
1

=t
1 1
1

40 -5.6 1 -5.2 1 -4.3 ! -4.0 1 -3.8

45 1
-6.1 1
-5.8
1

1
-5.4 1
i
-5.0 (
-4.7 1
-4.3 i -4.0
1 1

Table 1.- Expected midday (1 pm to 3pm) stem water potential for fully
watered walnut tree ata range of temperatures and relative humidities.
 8

lrrigation strategies to minimize chances of negative impacts on yield and

nut quality

lt is important to start the season with a fully charged profile. This gives you a set
reference point for your irrigation scheduling from that point onwards. lf winter
rainfall is inadequate, provide irrigation in a gradual manner to fill the profile.
Monitor soil moisture over the winter (using Watermark sensors, tensiometers, or
a soil auger). This is particularly important if a water table is present. lf deficient,
start applying a few inches ata time in late Jan. and every few weeks thereafter,
unless rainfall occurs. lf a water table is present, monitor the water leve! over the
season and avoid bringing water level near root zone. As the season progresses,
schedule irrigation based on evapotranspiration data. To confirrn how deep
irrigation is wetting the pro file. monitor with Waterrnark sensors, tensiometers, or
a soil auger. This is particularly important in soils with water tables and/or water
penetration problems. lf possible, use MSWP, as described earlier, to assure that
you are not over or under-irrigating.

Targets for midday stem water potential

Mature trees (have filled in allotted space)-_By keeping the MSWP values near
the fully watered baseline (-3 to -5 bars), you can assure that you do not get into
deficit conditions. However, it is usuaily advantageous to allow the MSWP to fall
2 to 3 bars below the baseline (-6 to -8 bars) before beginning irrigation to assure
that you are not over-irrigating. which can be a problem in walnuts, especially
where water tables and/or confining layers are present. A mild level of deficit may
prevent excessive vegetative growth and minimize pruning requirements.
However. at a midday stem water potential of about -9 bars, a walnut will cease
vegetative growth. lt can be difficult to get walnuts growing again once they stop.
lrrigate enough to bring MSWP back near baseline and/or soil moisture to near
field capacity. Monitor deep soil moisture with an auger, tensiometers. granular
matrix sensors, etc.

Young trees (have not yet filled in allotted space)- for young walnut trees,
where maximum vegetative growth may be desirable to fill in the canopy rapidly,
the average value of MSWP should be close to the baseline. lf the average is
more negative than the baseline value at the temperature and relative humidity
conditions when the measurements are made, then the trees are under water
stress and vegetative growth may be compromised. lf trees remain more
negative than the baseline, and the soil is wet, then there may be a problem with
root health and/or the soil may be too wet. Do not initiate irrigation in spring until
MSWP falls below baseline. lrrigate when MSWP falls approximately 1 to 2 bars
below the fully watered baseline (to - -5 to 7 bars). lrrigate enough to bring
MSWP back near baseline (- - 4 to 5 bars) and/or soil moisture to near field
 9

capacity. Monitor deep soil moisture with an auger, Watermark soil moisture
blocks, etc.

Overall summary

Walnut plantings are continuing to increase at a slow, but steady pace in

California. Variety composition is shifting fairly rapidly with new plantings
consisting almost totally of the Chandler. Tulare and Howard varieties. There has
been a consistent shift away from selling walnut in-shell with more product going
into the processed products.

A typical orchard planted in California today might bt; Chandler or Tulare planted
on Paradox rootstock with microsprínklers irrigation and a tree spacíng about 6m
x 7m. Howard is generally planted in a slightly tighter configuration down the tree
row (about 5m x 7m) The data suggests that pruning programs that are as
infrequent as possible tend to give the highest yields without sacrificing quality or
size substantially. lrrigation management is one of the biggest challenges that
walnut growers face. lt is recommended that soil moisture monitoring be
combined with plant based measurements for optima! water management in
walnut.

Additional reading

Ramos, O.E. (Ed.). 1997. Walnut Production Manual University of California,

Division of Agrículture and Natural Resources, Oakiand, CA, Publication 3373.
328 pages.