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8.3 The Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Reflexes 270 PART 4
Career Spotlight: Occupational Therapist 281
Circulation and Defense
Study Guide 282

Chapter 9
The Nervous System II: The Brain, Cranial Nerves, and
Autonomic Nervous System 285
9.1 Overview of the Brain 286
9.2 Principal Divisions of the Brain 293
9.3 Multiregional Brain Functions 300
9.4 The Cranial Nerves 307
9.5 The Autonomic Nervous System 309
Perspectives on Health 317
Aging of the Nervous System 318
Career Spotlight: Electroneurodiagnostic Technologist 319
Connective Issues 320
© Dr. Yorgos Nikas/Science Source
Study Guide 321

Chapter 10
The Sense Organs 324 Chapter 12
The Circulatory System I: Blood 388
10.1 Receptors and Sensations 325
10.2 The General Senses 328 12.1 Introduction 389
10.3 The Chemical Senses—Taste and Smell 331 12.2 Erythrocytes 393
10.4 The Ear—Equilibrium and Hearing 335 12.3 Leukocytes 399
10.5 The Eye and Vision 344 Perspectives on Health 403
Perspectives on Health 355 12.4 Platelets 405
Aging of the Sense Organs 356 Career Spotlight: Phlebotomist 409
Career Spotlight: Optician 356 Connective Issues 410
Study Guide 357 Study Guide 411

Chapter 11
The Endocrine System 360
Chapter 13
The Circulatory System II: The Heart and
11.1 Overview of the Endocrine System 361 Blood Vessels 414
11.2 Endocrine Physiology 364
13.1 Overview of the Cardiovascular System 415
11.3 The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 367
13.2 Gross Anatomy of the Heart 418
11.4 Other Endocrine Glands and Tissues 373
Perspectives on Health 424
Perspectives on Health 381
13.3 Physiology of the Heart 425
11.5 Stress Physiology 382
13.4 General Anatomy of Blood Vessels 433
Aging of the Endocrine System 383
13.5 Physiology of Circulation 438
Career Spotlight: Diabetes Educator 383
13.6 Circulatory Routes and Blood Vessels 444
Connective Issues 384
Aging of the Circulatory System 460
Study Guide 385
Career Spotlight: Electrocardiographic Technician 461
Connective Issues 462
Study Guide 463

vii
Chapter 14 Chapter 16
The Lymphatic System and Immunity 466 The Urinary System 525
14.1 The Lymphatic System 467 16.1 Functions of the Urinary System 526
14.2 Innate Immunity 476 16.2 Anatomy of the Kidney 528
14.3 Features of Adaptive Immunity 482 16.3 Glomerular Filtration 534
14.4 Cellular and Humoral Immunity 487 16.4 Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion 539
Perspectives on Health 493 16.5 Water Conservation 541
Aging of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems 494 Perspectives on Health 543
Career Spotlight: Public Health Nurse 494 16.6 Urine Storage and Elimination 544
Connective Issues 495 16.7 Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid–Base Balance 548
Study Guide 496 Aging of the Urinary System 553
Career Spotlight: Dialysis Technician 553
Connective Issues 554
PART 5 Study Guide 555
Intake and Output
Chapter 17
The Digestive System 558
17.1 Overview of the Digestive System 559
17.2 The Mouth Through Esophagus 563
17.3 The Stomach 567
Perspectives on Health 574
17.4 The Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas 574
17.5 The Small Intestine 579
17.6 Chemical Digestion and Absorption 583
17.7 The Large Intestine 587
Aging of the Digestive System 591
Career Spotlight: Dental Hygienist 591
Connective Issues 592
Study Guide 593
© Susumu Nishinaga/Science Source

Chapter 18
Chapter 15 Nutrition and Metabolism 596
The Respiratory System 499 18.1 Nutrition 597
15.1 Functions and Anatomy of the Respiratory System 500 Perspectives on Health 605
15.2 Pulmonary Ventilation 510 18.2 Carbohydrate Metabolism 606
Perspectives on Health 515 18.3 Lipid and Protein Metabolism 610
15.3 Gas Exchange and Transport 516 18.4 Metabolic States and Metabolic Rate 614
Aging of the Respiratory System 520 18.5 Energy Balance and Appetite Regulation 617
Career Spotlight: Respiratory Therapist 520 18.6 Body Heat and Thermoregulation 620
Connective Issues 521 Career Spotlight: Dietitian 624
Study Guide 522 Study Guide 625

viii
PART 6 Chapter 20
Human Life Cycle Human Development and Aging 672
20.1 Fertilization and Preembryonic Development 673
20.2 The Embryonic and Fetal Stages 680
Perspectives on Health 690
20.3 The Neonate 691
20.4 Aging, Senescence, and Death 696
Career Spotlight: Genetic Counselor 700
Study Guide 701

Appendix A: Answer Keys A-1

Appendix B: Health Science Careers A-8
Appendix C: Symbols, Weights, and Measures A-11
Appendix D: Biomedical Word Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes A-13
Appendix E: Periodic Table of the Elements A-17
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
© David M. Phillips/Science Source

Chapter 19
The Reproductive System 628
19.1 Essentials of Sexual Reproduction 629
19.2 The Male Reproductive System 630
19.3 The Female Reproductive System 638
19.4 The Production and Union of Sex Cells 646
Perspectives on Health 660
19.5 Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Lactation 661
Aging of the Reproductive System 667
Career Spotlight: Midwife 667
Connective Issues 668
Study Guide 669

ix
Taking Anatomy & Physiology
to New Heights
Audience
Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology, second edition, is intended
for students in associate degree, certification, and career-training
programs; students in high-school advanced placement classes;
students who are seeking a general education science class; and
those who may not have set foot in a college classroom for many
years. The prose and vocabulary in Essentials of Anatomy &
Physiology are appropriate to serve this broad spectrum of readers.
Keeping in mind that many students are interested in e­ xploring
medical professions, a “Career Spotlight” feature has been included
in every chapter, and references to further career information are
found in appendix B.
What’s New in the Second
Edition?
The new edition of Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology by
Saladin and McFarland has been significantly updated. A hall-
mark of the first edition, according to both students and review-
ers, is the exceptionally clear writing. In this new edition, the
authors have analyzed explanations to ensure accessibility for
readers who do not have an extensive scientific background. In
addition, numerous scientific updates, new photographs and
illustrations, and enhanced pedagogical features are included.
Updated Science
The second edition presents the following updated or new scien-
tific information:
∙ New guidelines on trans fats (chapter 2)
∙ Expanded roles for vitamin D (chapter 5)
∙ Expanded role of astrocytes, including their vasomotor role
(chapter 8)
∙ Spinal cord injuries and paralysis (chapter 8)
∙ Oxidative stress and Alzheimer disease (chapter 8)
x
∙ Water and oleogustus as primary taste sensations (­chapter 10)
∙ Replacement of nonspecific resistance with innate immunity
(chapter 14)
∙ Meanings of immunity and immune system (chapter 14)
∙ Expanded discussions of cellular and humoral immunity
(chapter 14)
∙ Updates on polio and HIV (chapter 14)
∙ Updated view of female urinary sphincter (chapter 16)
∙ Hepcidin and iron metabolism (chapter 17)
∙ Gut microbiota (chapter 17)
∙ Updates on papillomavirus, genital warts, and cervical cancer
(chapter 19)
Keeping pace with changing terminology, the new edition
has updated terms to agree with the latest Gray’s Anatomy and
the Terminologia Anatomica and to delete little-used synonyms
and obsolete eponyms.
Enhanced Content
This new edition updates and enhances anatomical and physiological
concepts:
∙ Pseudopods as a cell surface feature (chapter 3)
∙ Proteasomes (chapter 3)
∙ Vitamin D synthesis and functions (chapter 5)
∙ Steps of muscle excitation, contraction, and relaxation
(­chapter 7)
∙ New terminology of muscle attachments (chapter 7)
∙ Action potential steps (chapter 8)
∙ Congestive heart failure (chapter 13)
∙ Benefits of exercise on the aging cardiovascular system
(chapter 13)
∙ Cellular and humoral immunity (chapter 14)
∙ Pressure changes during inspiration and expiration (­chapter 15)
∙ Structure and function of the male prepuce (chapter 19)
New Photographs
∙ Figure 1.1: new brain scans
∙ Figure 3.12: fluorescent micrograph of cytoskeleton
∙ Figure 4.12: squamous cells from the mucosa of the vagina
∙ Figure 6.3: bone marrow histology
∙ Figure 10.20: SEM of human rods and cones
∙ Figure 11.13: histology of ovarian follicle
∙ Figure 12.3: TEM of erythrocytes in a capillary
∙ Figure 12.8: color TEM of an eosinophil
∙ Figure 13.5: polymer cast of coronary circulation
∙ Figure 14.8: cadaver abdomen showing position of spleen
∙ Figure 19.2: electron micrograph of seminiferous tubule
∙ Figure 19.8: malignant Pap smear
∙ Figure 20.7: embryonic and fetal developmental stages
New and Enhanced Art
∙ Figure 1.4: negative feedback in response to drop in
blood pressure
∙ Figure 3.6: pseudopods
∙ Figure 3.9: mechanism of osmosis
∙ Figure 6.25: surface anatomy of the clavicle
∙ Figure 7.5: organization and size principle of motor units
∙ Figure 9.7: functions of the five cerebral lobes
∙ Figure 10.7: pediatric versus adult auditory tubes
∙ Figure 13.4: cross-sectional shapes and relationships of
heart ventricles
∙ Figure 14.17: stages of cellular immunity
∙ Figure 18.6: environmental temperatures versus core and
shell body temperatures

New Pegagogy
In each chapter “Study Guide,” students are asked to analyze 10
false statements and to correct them, in contrast to the first
­edition, where they were prompted to distinguish between 5 true
and 5 false statements.
Many of the “Apply What You Know” questions have been
revised to further elicit critical thinking.

xi
Making Anatomy & Physiology
Intriguing and Inspiring
Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology crafts the facts of A&P into
art and prose in a way that makes the book exciting and reward- Muscle
fiber
ing to read. Nucleus

Captivating Art and

A band

I band

Photography Mitochondria
Z disc

Openings into
transverse tubules

A&P is a highly visual subject; beautiful illustrations pique Sarcoplasmic

reticulum

the curiosity and desire to learn. Essentials of Anatomy &

Physiology’s illustrations set a new standard in the A&P Terminal cisterns
Transverse tubule

Essentials market, where many students regard themselves Sarcolemma

Myofibrils

as visual learners.
Sarcoplasm

Cognitive Skill Building

Myofilaments

Essentials of Anatomy &

Physiology asks questions that
not only test memory, but also Nerve fiber and
myelin sheath

exercise and expand the Rootlets

student’s thinking skills at Posterior root

Posterior root
Perineurium

Epineurium
ganglion

multiple levels of Bloom’s Anterior

root

Taxonomy of Learning Spinal

nerve
Blood
vessel

Outcomes. Within Connect™ Fascicle

there is also the opportunity (a)

to assess student
Blood
understanding of the Learning vessels (b)

Outcomes by leveraging Fascicle Epineurium

question filters that allow

Perineurium

Unmyelinated nerve fibers

the curation of custom Myelinated nerve fibers

Endoneurium

assignments and efficient Myelin

reporting for administrative

assessment purposes.

xii
Expected Learning
Outcomes
This book provides a ready-made course
outline of course objectives and means of
assessment with its “Expected Learning
Outcomes” presented at the start of each
chapter section.

Assess Your Learning

Outcomes
The parallel “Assess Your Learning
Outcomes” at the end of each chapter
imparts a comprehensive overview of the
key points in the chapter, and requires
the student to reexamine the text to get
information, rather than simply handing it
to them.

Before You Go On/

Apply What You Know
Intermediate aids such as “Before You Go
On” and “Apply What You Know” provide
an easy means for meeting the requirements
of an outcome-driven curriculum and also
work to encourage active learning over
passive reading.

xiii
Making Anatomy & Physiology
Intriguing and Inspiring
Stimulating Prose
Far more than “just the facts,” Essentials of
Anatomy & Physiology’s narrative style weaves
the facts into an engaging story of human form
and function. Vivid analogies that captivate the
imagination make complex concepts easy to
understand.

Figure Legend Questions

Thought questions in many figure legends encourage students to think
analytically about the art, not merely view it. These questions are also
great for in-class discussion.
Building Vocabulary
The plethora of medical terms in A&P is one of
a student’s most daunting challenges. Chapter 1
teaches core principles of how to break words
down into familiar roots, prefixes, and suffixes,
making medical terminology less intimidating
while teaching the importance of precision in
spelling (ilium/ileum, malleus/malleolus).
∙ An end-of-book “Glossary” provides clear
definitions of the most important or frequent-
ly used terms, and “Appendix D: Biomedical
Word Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes” defines
nearly 400 Greek and Latin roots, which
make up about 90% of today’s medical terms.
∙ Footnoted word origins show how new terms
are composed of familiar word roots.

∙ Pronunciation guides that appear throughout chapters make

it easier to pronounce key terms, and make these words more
likely to be remembered and understood.
xiv
Study Guide
The “Study Guide” at the end of each chapter
provides an overview of key points, as well as
a variety of self-testing question formats, for
students who wish to have a study guide for
their next exam. A student who masters these
study guides should do well on an exam.

Multiple Question Types

∙ “Testing Your Recall” questions check for
simple memory of terms and facts.
∙ The false assertions in “What’s Wrong
with These Statements?” require students
to analyze the validity of ideas and to ex-
plain or rephrase each false statement.
∙ “Testing Your Comprehension” questions
necessitate insight and application to clini-
cal and other scenarios.

xv
Making Anatomy & Physiology
Intriguing and Inspiring
Tying It All Together
Base Camp
∙ “Base Camp” lists key concepts from e­ arlier
chapters that a student should know before
embarking on the new one, and effectively
ties all chapters together into an integrated
whole.

Connective Issues
∙ No organ system functions in isolation. The
“Connective Issues” tool shows how every organ
system affects all other body systems, and gen-
erates a more holistic understanding of human
function.

xvi
 Career Spotlight
∙ “Career Spotlight” features provide a relevant career idea
in every chapter with basic information on ­educational
requirements and entry into a career, and expand student
awareness of opportunities in ­allied health professions.
“Appendix B” refers students to ­online sources of further
information about 20 career fields and a list of 83 more
health-care career ideas.

Clinical Application
∙ “Clinical Application” essays apply
basic science to interesting issues of
health and disease.

Perspectives on Health
∙ “Perspectives on Health” essays make basic science
­relevant to the student’s interest in health and disease.

Aging of Body Systems

∙ “Aging of [Body Systems]” is a section within each
systems chapter that describes how each organ system
changes over time, especially in old age. This discussion
expands anatomical and physiological understanding be-
yond the prime of life, and is highly relevant to patient
treatment, since older patients constitute most of the
health-care market.

xvii
 Required=Results
Required=Results
©Getty
©GettyImages/iStockphoto
Images/iStockphoto

McGraw-Hill Connect®®
McGraw-HillConnect
Learn
LearnWithout
WithoutLimits
Limits
Connect
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teachingand
andlearning
learningplatform
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that
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studentsandandinstructors.
instructors.
Connect
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empowersstudents
studentsbybycontinually
continually
adapting
adaptingtotodeliver
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preciselywhatwhatthey
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Analytics
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Connect Insight®®
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Adaptive
THE ADAPTIVE
READING EXPERIENCE
DESIGNED TO TRANSFORM
THE WAY STUDENTS READ
©Getty Images/iStockphoto

More students earn A’s and

B’s when they use McGraw-Hill
Education Adaptive products.

SmartBook®
Proven to help students improve grades and
study more efficiently, SmartBook contains
the same content within the print book, but
actively tailors that content to the needs of the
individual. SmartBook’s adaptive technology
provides precise, personalized instruction on
what the student should do next, guiding the
student to master and remember key concepts,
targeting gaps in knowledge and offering
customized feedback, and driving the student
toward comprehension and retention of the
subject matter. Available on smartphones and
tablets, SmartBook puts learning at the student’s
fingertips—anywhere, anytime.

Over 5.7 billion questions have

been answered, making McGraw-Hill
Education products more intelligent,
reliable, and precise.

www.mheducation.com
 50% of the country’s students
are not ready for A&P

LearnSmart® Prep can help!

Improve preparation for the course

and increase student success with
the only adaptive Prep tool available
for students today. Areas of
individual weaknesses are identified
in order to help students improve Prep for A&P
their understanding of core course
areas needed to succeed.

Students seek lab time that

REVEALED 3.2, our Virtual
Virtual dissection
fits their busy schedules.
Anatomy & Physiology
Dissection tool, allows
them practice anytime,
anywhere. Now featuring
enhanced physiology
with Concept Overview
Interactives and 3D
animations!

Bringing to life complex processes

is a challenge. Ph.I.L.S. 4.0 is
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Overview Interactives, Ph.I.L.S., supplements
and world-class animations make it
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Since 2009, our adaptive programs in A&P have hosted 900,000 unique users who have answered
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from their first college-level course to program readiness.
Acknowledgments
I gratefully acknowledge the team at McGraw-Hill who have pro-
vided excellent ideas and unfailing encouragement t.hroughout this
project. I am immensely grateful to my coauthor Ken Saladin for a
rewarding collaboration and firm friendship. I appreciate my col-
leagues in the biology department at Cabrillo College who inspire
me every day with their dedication to student success. Finally, I
wish to thank my husband Jeff and my children Reid and
Madeleine for their support and patience.
Robin McFarland
My heartfelt appreciation goes to our team at McGraw-Hill who
have provided such friendship, collegiality, and support over my
20-year history in textbooks; to Robin for adding this new dimen-
sion and stimulating collaboration to my writing career; to my
colleagues at Georgia College for an atmosphere that supports
and rewards such work; and to Diane for her steadfast love and
encouragement.
Ken Saladin

In this edition, we are very pleased to have been able to incorporate real student data points and input, derived from thousands of our
LearnSmart users, to help guide our revision. LearnSmart “heat maps” provided a quick visual snapshot of usage of portions of the text
and the relative difficulty students experienced in mastering the content. With these data points, we were able to hone not only our text
content but also the LearnSmart probes.
∙ If the data indicated that the subject covered was more difficult than other parts of the book, as evidenced by a high proportion of stu-
dents responding incorrectly, we substantively revised or reorganized the content to be as clear and illustrative as possible.
∙ In some sections, the data showed that a smaller percentage of the students had difficulty learning the material. In those cases, we
revised the text to provide a clearer presentation by rewriting the section, providing additional examples to strengthen student problem-
solving skills, designing new text art or figures to assist visual learners, and so on.
∙ In other cases, one or more of the LearnSmart probes for a section was not as clear as it might be or did not appropriately reflect the
content. In these cases, the probe— rather than the text—was edited.

Following is an example of one of the heat maps from chapter 8 that was particularly useful in guiding our revisions. The highlighted
sections indicate the various levels of difficulty students experienced in learning the material. This evidence informed all of the revisions
described in the “What’s New in the Second Edition?” section of this preface.

xxi
Our grateful thanks are extended to these reviewers, who read early drafts of these chapters and provided instructive comments to help
shape the content within these pages.
Smruti A. Desai, Lone Star College–CyFair Jeanine L. Page, Lock Haven University
Maria Florez, Lone Star College–CyFair Krista Rompolski, Drexel University
Leontine M. Lowery, Delaware Technical Community College–Dover Melvin F. Simoyi, Heritage University
Elizabeth A. May, Illinois Central College

xxii
 PART 1 Organization of the Body Chapter

The Study of 1
Anatomy and Chapter Outline
1.1 Anatomy—The Structural Basis of Human

Physiology
­Function
• The Anatomical Sciences
• Examination of the Body
• Techniques of Medical Imaging
• Anatomical Variation
1.2 Physiology—Dynamic Processes in the
­Living Body
• The Physiological Sciences
• Essential Life Functions
• Homeostasis and Feedback
• Physiological Variation
1.3 The Human Body Plan
• Levels of Human Structure
• Anatomical Position
• Anatomical Planes
• Major Body Regions
• Body Cavities and Membranes
• Organ Systems
1.4 The Language of Medicine
• Analyzing Medical Terms
• Singular and Plural Forms
• Directional Terminology

Clinical Applications/Perspectives on Health

• Clinical Application 1.1: Men in the Oven
• Clinical Application 1.2: Peritonitis
• Perspectives on Health

End of Chapter
• Career Spotlight: Radiologic Technologist
• Study Guide

A full-body image
made by magnetic
resonance imaging
(MRI). MRI is one
of several ways of
viewing the interior
of the body without
surgery.
© Science Photo Library/
Getty Images Module 1: Body Orientation
1
2 PART 1 Organization of the Body

N o branch of science hits as close to home as the science of our

own bodies. We’re grateful for the dependability of our hearts,
we’re awed by the capabilities of joints and muscles displayed by
­Olympic athletes, and we ponder with philosophers the ancient mysteries
of mind and emotion. We want to know how our body works, and when
it malfunctions, we want to know what’s happening and what we can do
about it. In recent decades, scientists have revealed a wealth of informa-
tion about our bodies, but fascination with the science of the body is
nothing new. Ancient texts and medical illustrations attest to humanity’s
timeless drive to know and heal the body and mind.
This book introduces the essentials of human structure and function.
It will give you a deeper understanding of the healthy body, as well as
accurate, up-to-date insights into disease processes. The disciplines of
anatomy and physiology are fundamental to health-care professionals,
as well as to those who study human performance, fitness, and nutrition.
Beyond that, however, the study of anatomy and physiology provides a
deeply satisfying sense of self-understanding.
In this chapter, we introduce the disciplines of anatomy and ­physiology.
We discuss criteria that define life and consider a core concept called
homeostasis, a vital process necessary for maintaining life. We look at the
body’s general structural plan and levels of organization. Finally, because
one of the greatest challenges to beginning students is to master vocabu-
lary associated with anatomy and physiology, we end the chapter with
tools to help you effectively learn and use the language of the body.

1.1 Anatomy—The Structural Basis of



­Human Function

Expected Learning Outcomes

When you have completed this section, you should be able to
a. define anatomy and physiology;
b. describe some of the subfields of human anatomy;
c. explain the importance of dissection;
d. describe some methods of examining a living patient;
e. discuss the principles and applications of some medical imaging
methods; and
f. discuss the significance of variations in human anatomy.
Another random document with
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advertising, it rested entirely upon its reputation.” “Our
correspondence,” he added, “is enormous, employing six
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seven years, has now been compelled by their increased
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Three or four years ago I was spending a few days at the Mohonk
Lake Mountain House, Mr. Albert K. Smiley’s famous summer resort,
and one day strolled into the power house, where were three
dynamos, each driven by a Ball & Wood engine, the latter making, I
think, something over 200 revolutions per minute.
I fell into conversation with the engineer, rather an old man and
quite communicative. He told me he had been in Mr. Smiley’s
employ for seventeen years, and was voluble in his praises; said he
was a wonderful man, repeating “wonderful” with emphasis, but he
added “he don’t know nothin about machinery, nothin, no more’n you
do.” My attention was attracted by the dynamos, which were new to
me and the framing of which I thought presented a remarkably well
studied design.
I mentioned this to the old man, who replied impatiently: “O, that
aint nothin, the engine is the wonder, that’s the wonder; why, when I
was a young man we did not suppose an engine could be run more’n
about fifty or sixty turns a minute, nobody never thought o’ such a
thing; now we can run ’em any speed we like, no poundin, no shakin,
no heatin, it’s just wonderful.” I did not respond or show any interest,
and the old man did not waste any more enthusiasm on me. Did not
say a word when I left directly after, but I fancied him saying to
himself: “Another o’ them stuck ups, that don’t know nothin’.”
 Transcriber’s Notes
The text of this document follows that of the source;
inconsistent spelling and hyphenation have been
retained, except as mentioned below.
Depending on the hard- and software used to read
this text, and on their settings, not all elements
may display as intended. The scales as provided
in the indicator diagrams are, of course, not
necessarily correct.
Page 93: ... H laid on its side, thus ⌶: the symbol is
used to represent the shape of the rotated letter
H, not an I or an I-beam.
Page 137, bill for American belt: there are some
errors in the calculations, these have not been
corrected.
Page 147, paragraph starting The day after the
opening ...: the single and double quote marks do
not match.
Page 155, ... exposition of the action of the
reciprocating parts was given Mr. Edwin Reynolds
...: should possibly read ... exposition of the action
of the reciprocating parts was given by Mr. Edwin
Reynolds ....
Page 202, ... half the distance to the mid-stroke or to
E, Fig. 32, ...: presumably this refers to the figure
on page 201; there is no figure 32 in the book.
Page 217, If I went, that I would be the end of the
business: the second I should probably be
deleted.
Page 293: Presumably the references in the text to
Figure 1 and Figure 2 are to the top and bottom
 illustration respectively; the source document
does not provide figure numbers.
Page 328-330: The use of quote marks in these
letters differs from that in other correspondence;
this has not been standardised.
Changes made
Illustrations and tables were moved out of text
paragraphs.
Texts in a
dashed box
is not present as text in the source document, but
has been transcribed from the accompanying
illustration. The transcribed texts provide an
approximate indication of the positions of the
elements relative to each other.
Some obvious minor typographical and punctuation
errors have been corrected silently.
Dimensions m×n and m × n have been standardised
to m×n, multiplications x×y and x × y to x × y;
cross-head and crosshead were standardised to
cross-head.
Page xii: illustration numbers have been added;
Diagrams from English Locomotive ... has been
changed to Diagrams from English Locomotives
... as in the illustration caption.
Page 40: a closing single quote mark was inserted
after ... do not require any governor,
Page 79: pièce de resistance changed to pièce de
résistance.
Page 91, illustration caption: English Locomtlvoes
changed to English Locomotives.
Page 175: ... told me had had supplied all the
money ... changed to ... told me he had supplied
all the money ....
Page 287: ... this they had been keen kept in
ignorance of ... changed to ... this they had been
kept in ignorance of ....
Page 294: b′ and c′ in the text changed to b¹ and c¹
as in the illustration.
Page 303: ... to very the speed ... changed to ... to
vary the speed ....
Page 331: ... before I left planning a smaller engine
... changed to ... before I left, planning a smaller
engine ....
Page 333: closing quote mark inserted after ...
employing six typewriters.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGINEERING
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