chapter 2

cooling and Solidification

Transformation of molten metal back into solid

state Solidification differs depending on whether
the metal is
1- pure element or
2- An alloy

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 Cooling and Solidification ‫اﻟﺘﺒﺮﯾﺪ واﻟﺘﺠﻤﺪ‬
Solidification occurs
 By the nucleation of very small crystals.
 Which grow under the thermal and crystallographic conditions existing during
solidification.
 Grain growth stops when complete melt has been solidified
A metal in molten states possess high energy. As the melt cools, it loses energy to
form crystals
 Since heat loss is more rapid near mold walls than any other place, first
submicroscopic metal crystallites called nuclei form here.

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 Cooling Curve of pure metal
A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its freezing
point (same as melting point)

Pure metal
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 Cooling Curve of alloys
Most alloys freeze over a temperature range
Phase diagram for a copper-nickel alloy system and cooling curve for a
50%Ni-50%Cu composition

TST

Alloy
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Processes 2014 ٤
 Chvorinov's Rule
The amount of heat that must be removed from a casting to cause it to solidify is

directly proportional to the amount of super heating and the amount of metal in

the casting, or the casting volume. Conversely, the ability to remove heat from a

casting is directly related to the amount of exposed surface area through which

the heat can be extracted and the insulating value of the mould. These

observations are reflected in Chvorinov's rule, which states that TST, the total

solidification time, can be computed by:

n
V 
TST  B  
 A
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 n
TST = total solidification time; V 
TST  B  
 A
V = volume of the casting; A=surface area of casting; n =

exponent usually taken to have a value = 1.5 to 2; and B is

mold constant

B depends on mold material, thermal properties of casting metal,

and pouring temperature relative to melting point

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 Riser Design
 Riser is waste metal that is separated from the casting
and remelted to make more castings

 To minimize waste in the unit operation, it is desirable

for the volume of metal in the riser to be a minimum

 Since the geometry of the riser is normally selected to

maximize the V/A ratio, this allows reduction of riser
volume as much as possible

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Chapter.3 cooling 2019 ٨
 Why Riser?
 The shrinkage occurs in three stages,
1. When temperature of liquid metal drops from pouring to
zero temperature
2. When the metal changes from liquid to solid state, and
3. When the temperature of solid phase drops from freezing
to room temperature
 The shrinkage for stage 3 is compensated by providing
shrinkage allowance on pattern, while the shrinkage during
stages 1 and 2 are compensated by providing risers.
 The riser should solidify in the last otherwise liquid metal
will start flowing from casting to riser. It should promote
directional solidification. The shape, size and location of the
risers are important considerations in casting design

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Chapter.3 cooling 2019 ١٠
Three pieces being cast have the same volume but different shapes.
One is a sphere, one a cube, and the other a cylinder with a height
equal to its diameter. Which piece will solidify the fastest and which
one the slowest?
Solution:
The volume is unity, so we have from
, equation:
n
V 
, TST  B  
 A
2 .
1
TST  B   TST  1 2
 A
The respective surface areas are:
A
Sphere:
1
4  3  3 A  4 r 2 = 4.84
V    r3 r  
3  4 Chapter.3
 cooling 2019 ١١
 ,
Cube: V  a 3 A  6a 2 =6
a=1,
1
3
2 3  1 
Cylinder: V  . r .h  2 r r   , and
 2 
1
3
2 2  1 
, A  2 r  2 rh  6 r  6    5.54
 2 

Thus the respective solidification times t are

TSTsphere=0.043B, TSTcube=0.028B, TSTcylinder=0.033B.

Hence the cube shaped casting will solidify the fastest and the sphere shaped
casting will solidify the slowest.

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Chapter.3 cooling 2019 ١٣
2- In casting experiments performed using a certain alloy and type of sand mold;
it took 155 sec for a cube-shaped casting to solidify. The cube was 50 mm on a
side. (a) Determine the value B of the mold constant in Chvorinov's Rule.
(b) If the same alloy and mold type were used, find the total solidification time T
TST for a cylindrical casting in which the radius r = 15 mm and length h = 50
mm.

Chapter.3 cooling 2019 ١٤

B

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 Cast structure of pure metal
In case of pure metals fine equi-axed grains (chill zone) are formed near the wall of

the mold and columnar grain growth takes place up to the centre of the ingot.

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 Cast structure of alloys casting
In typical alloy, the columnar grains do not extend up to the center of casting but
are interrupted by an inner zone of equi axed grains.

Chapter.3 cooling 2019 ١٧

Vacuum-Permanent Mold Casting Process
This process is also called counter-gravity casting. It is basically the
same process as investment casting, except for the step of filling the
mold (step (e) above). In this case, the material is sucked upwards into
the mould by a vacuum pump. The figure 9 below shows the basic
idea – notice how the mold appears in an inverted position from the
usual casting process, and is lowered into the flask with the molten
metal. One advantage of vacuum casting is that by releasing the
pressure a short time after the mold is filled, we can release the un-
solidified metal back into the flask. This allows us to create hollow
castings.
Similar to investment casting, except: fill mold by reverse gravity
Chapter.1 cooling
Chapter.3 Casting 2019
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 ‫‪Vacuum Casting Process‬‬
‫ﻓﻰ ھﺬا اﻻﺳﻠﻮب ﻳﺘﻢ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﺳﻠﻮب اﻟﺘﻔﺮﻳﻎ ﻟﺴﺤﺐ اﻟﻤﻌﺪن اﻟﻤﻨﺼﮫﺮ ﻟﻤﻞء ﻓﺮاغ اﻟﻘﺎﻟﺐ وﻓﯿﺔ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺴﺤﺐ ﺗﺘﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻤﻖ اﻟﻤﺼﮫﻮر واﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻟﺐ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻘﺎع‬

‫‪Similar to investment casting, except: fill mold by reverse gravity‬‬

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Chapter.3 cooling 2019 ٢٠
 Applications

1-Easier to make hollow casting: early pour out,

2-Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and certain castings

for aircraft and missiles

3-Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium, copper-base alloys,

and cast iron

Chapter.1 cooling
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 Advantages and disadvantage of vacuum casting

Advantages

1-Good dimensional accuracy,

2-High production rate

Disadvantages

1-High mould cost,

2-Suitable for high volume
3-Suaitble for casting of simple shape
Chapter.1 cooling
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 Permanent Casting Processes

 Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a

new mold is required for every casting
 In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times
 The processes include:
 Basic permanent mold casting

 Die casting

 Centrifugal casting

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23 ٢٣
 Permanent Mold

Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed for easy,

precise opening and closing

 Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are commonly

made of steel or cast iron

 Molds used for casting steel must be made of refractory

material, due to the very high pouring temperatures

Chapter.1 cooling
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Figure 11.10 - Steps in permanent mold casting:
(1) mold is preheated and coated

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25 ٢٥
Figure 11.10 - Steps in permanent mold casting:
(2) cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed

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26 ٢٦
Figure 11.10 - Steps in permanent mold casting:
(3) molten metal is poured into the mold

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27 ٢٧
 Advantages and Limitations of
Permanent Mold Casting

 Advantages:
 Good dimensional control and surface finish

 More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold results

in a finer grain structure, so stronger castings are produced

 Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting point

 Simple part geometries compared to sand casting because of the

need to open the mold
 High cost of mold

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28 ٢٨
 Advantages and disadvantage of Die casting

Advantages
1-Excellent dimensional accuracy,
2-High production rate
Disadvantages
1-Costly dies,
2-Small parts,
3-Non-ferrous metals
Applications
1-Precision gears
2- Camera bodies,
3-Car wheels
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Chapter.3 cooling 2019 ٣٠