Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CONTEMPORARY
THIRD
CANADIAN
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ISBN-13: 978-0-17-669657-3
ISBN-10: 0-17-669657-1
9 780176 696573
BURKHARDT N AT H A N I E L W A LT O N
Contents vii
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Confidentiality 304
Summary 307
Chapter Highlights 307
Discussion Questions and Activities 308
References 309
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Health Policy 362
The Health Policy Process 365
Nursing as a Political Force 367
Ethics in Policymaking 369
Research and Policy 370
Nursing, Policy, and Politics 371
Why Should Nurses Be Involved in Politics? 372
Nursing’s Political Strengths 372
Nursing’s Political Weaknesses 373
Policy Goals for Nursing 373
Lobbying 374
Methods of Lobbying 375
Preparing for Political Action of Any Kind 376
Political Campaigns 378
Summary 378
Chapter Highlights 379
Discussion Questions and Activities 379
References 380
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Appendix 508
Glossary 509
Index 521
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NEL xiii
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solutions to the more abstract exploration of principles, and from the perspective
of a specific case to a more general or even a global perspective. Complex ethical
problems can rarely be resolved by only considering one viewpoint, perspective,
theory, or possibility. Rather, problems can begin to be resolved by recognizing the
interrelatedness and importance of a diversity of factors, perspectives, rationales, and
viewpoints. A key element of engaging in ethical problem solving is to recognize and
acknowledge conflicting perspectives—especially those that are markedly different
from your own. Part I, Guides for Principled Behaviour, presents ethical theories,
models, and principles that can serve as guides for ethical action.
In Part II, Developing Principled Behaviour, we discuss in more depth the rela-
tionship between the personal and the professional, and explore values clarification,
moral development, and ethical decision making. Part III, Principled Behaviour in the
Professional Domain, presents an overview of professional and legal aspects of con-
temporary nursing. This section includes discussions about autonomy, accountability
and integrity, scholarship issues, codes of ethics, and the use of technology. In Part
IV, Nursing in Today’s World: Challenges and Opportunities, we address health care
challenges and changes that are imperative to consider in the contemporary health
care system in which nurses practise. Considerations related to political, economic,
social, gender, and transcultural issues are discussed in the context of nursing roles
and professional practice. We address nursing in a variety of settings in this section
and, in keeping with the goal of describing nursing and health care issues across
many contexts, have updated our newest chapter (introduced in the second Canadian
edition) on rural and Indigenous nursing. To end the final section of the text, we
focus on the nurse as an empowered advocate and ethical leader who can act with
both sensitivity and courage to challenge social injustices across many different set-
tings and contexts.
From a uniquely Canadian perspective, the text offers content and cases that reflect
the diversity of nursing practice and patient populations from across our country,
from both rural and urban settings, as well as a range of practice environments, from
the bedside to the administrative office to the classroom. Landmark Canadian legal
and ethical cases have been included, as well as important literature from Canadian
ethicists and nurse scholars. As before, we continue to include even more real-life
cases that reflect modern Canadian health care issues and challenges, as well as the
realities of nursing across Canada.
For our third Canadian edition, we have revised the text in a number of truly
exciting ways in response to the changing landscape of nursing and thoughtful
reviews from outstanding scholars, educators, and colleagues with expertise in the
content areas. The entire text has been updated, reflecting the most recent version
of the Canadian Nurses Association’s Code of Ethics for Registered Nurses, which has
been better integrated throughout the text and in discussions and cases. Discussion
of the recent legalization of medical assistance in dying in Canada (2016), along with
subsequent proposed amendments to related acts and professional guidelines, has
been added throughout the text, in particular in Chapter 10, where we emphasize
the role of the nurse in providing care to dying patients and families. Acknowledging
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that, as Canadians, we live in a globalized world, we have added content in this edi-
tion related to global events, such as Ebola virus disease and Zika outbreaks and
the migrant refugee crisis, each of which have both local and global health effects.
Finally, we have also tried to reflect the kinds of unique questions and challenges that
today’s nurse will face; for example, what are some best practices related to the use
of social media? What kinds of challenges do nursing students and new graduates
face in today’s diverse health care settings? How do we keep up with such a fast rate
of legislative, institutional, and professional change?
In our discussions of nursing as a regulated profession in Canada, we have not
only addressed the roles of the provincial regulatory bodies, but we also continue
to acknowledge the diversity of nursing practice across our country and in the pre-
sentations of our cases and thought exercises. This was reflected in our addition of
Chapter 18, Rural, Remote, and Indigenous Nursing in Canada, to the Second Edi-
tion. With increased attention to the importance of social determinants of health, the
health of Canadians in rural and remote areas, and a recognition of the inequities in
access to care between those living in rural and urban areas, nurses can be leaders in
advocating for the fair allocation of appropriate health and social resources to com-
munities in which they work. The needs of those living in busy urban centres such as
Toronto, Montreal, or Vancouver are markedly different from those of people living in
small towns, remote rural areas, or bedroom communities. You will find nurses pro-
viding needs-driven community and individual care in all of these areas—and nurses
play a valuable role in addressing and rectifying health and social injustice across
these diverse settings. In Chapter 18, we not only address the unique role of the
rural nurse and the nurse working with Indigenous communities, but we also hope
to highlight inequities and vulnerabilities across contexts and communities. When
we look at the social determinants of health of Indigenous groups and communities
across Canada, we see that there are historical, socioeconomic, and political legacies
that have had a lasting impact on the health and well-being of communities, as well
as individual men, women, and children living in those communities, who are bearing
an additional burden of health-related problems resulting from these legacies. In this
update, we have added some discussion of the findings and recommendations of the
Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, released in 2015. Much work is still
to be done to work toward reconciliation, and nurses will undoubtedly play key roles
in advocating for individuals, families, and communities as that country-wide work
begins and progresses.
Throughout the text, we hope to emphasize the nature of the iterative development
of skills related to values clarification and ethical decision making on the journey to
becoming an ethically responsible professional, an ethical leader, and an advocate for
social justice and empowerment. We acknowledge that, as moral agents, we are all a
work-in-progress and that the journey is often far more important than any perceived
end point. As Florence Nightingale stated, “Were there none who were discontented
with what they have, the world would never reach anything better.”
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INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCES
• The NETA Test Bank is available in a new, cloud-based platform. Nelson Testing
Powered by Cognero® is a secure online testing system that allows instructors to
author, edit, and manage test bank content from anywhere Internet access is avail-
able. No special installations or downloads are needed, and the desktop-inspired
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instructor chooses. Nelson Testing Powered by Cognero for Ethics and Issues in
Contemporary Nursing, Third Canadian Edition, can be accessed through www.
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• NETA PowerPoint Microsoft® PowerPoint® lecture slides for every chapter have
been created by Carrie Mines, Niagara College. These lecture slides include key
figures, tables, and photographs from Ethics and Issues in Contemporary Nursing,
Third Canadian Edition. NETA principles of clear design and engaging content
have been incorporated throughout, making it simple for instructors to customize
the deck for their courses.
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• Image Library This resource consists of digital copies of figures, short tables,
and photographs used in the book. Instructors may use these jpegs to customize
the NETA PowerPoint or create their own PowerPoint presentations. An Image
Library Key describes the images and lists the codes under which the jpegs are
saved. Codes normally reflect the chapter number (e.g., C01 for Chapter 1), the
figure or photo number (e.g., F15 for Figure 15), and the page in the textbook.
C01-F15-pg26 corresponds to Chapter 1, Figure 1-15 on page 26.
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CHAPTER 1
SOCIAL, PHILOSOPHICAL, AND OTHER
HISTORICAL FORCES INFLUENCING THE
DEVELOPMENT OF NURSING
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, the reader should be able to:
1. Discuss the relationship between social need and the origin of the profession
of nursing.
2. Briefly discuss the relationship between moral reasoning and the origin of nursing.
3. Describe the mutually beneficial relationship between the broader society and
its professions.
4. Explain the effect of a culture’s prevailing belief system on the practice of nursing.
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5. Identify how issues such as gender, spiritual beliefs, and religious practices have
influenced the evolution of nursing.
6. Discuss how the historical background of the status of women in various
cultures is related to the practice of nursing.
7. Make plausible inferences relating the evolution of the practice of nursing to
the current state of the profession.
INTRODUCTION
Although the development of the profession is difficult to trace, moral action is the his-
torical basis for the creation, evolution, and practice of nursing. Nursing is considered to
be “a moral endeavour” (Liaschenko & Peter, 2004, p. 491). The spirit and substance of
nursing are based on social and individual moral codes, and often, in discussions of nurs-
ing and morality, social and individual moral codes are highly intertwined. Nursing has
been called a “morally central health care profession” (Jameton, 1984, p. xvi). Florence
Nightingale, a central moral figure in nursing and a deeply spiritual person, stated that
the only way to become a good nurse was to first be a good woman (Cromwell, 2013;
Nelson & Rafferty, 2012). In this chapter, we look at three historical influences on nurs-
ing as a moral discipline: social need, spirituality and religion, and the role of women.
Morals and ethics affect nursing on more than one level. As nurses, our motivation
to care for others is underpinned by moral reasoning. Collectively, moral beliefs of
groups of people produce rules of action, or ethics. These culturally accepted rules are
an integral part of both the experience and the profession of nursing. Expressions of
ideals, discussions of moral issues, statements of moral principles, and codes of ethics
are found throughout the history of nursing. In his seminal work, Jameton (1984) states
that nursing is morally worthy work because “caring for and treating the sick, and
comforting and protecting the suffering, are basic benefits of human culture” (p. 1).
In today’s world, nurses are faced with ethical tensions in a health care system that
requires moral decision making yet sometimes restricts us from legitimate decision-
making roles. It is important to examine the history of nursing in order to better under-
stand the position of the profession within the contemporary health care system and
the evolution of nursing as a moral profession. In a position statement addressing the
value of nursing history, the Canadian Nurses Association (2007) states the following:
The practice of nursing takes place within larger cultural, economic, and
political contexts that have helped shape the discipline. Nurses need to
centre their research and development of professional practice within
a knowledge and understanding of trends and patterns in the past. It
is essential for nurse clinicians, educators, administrators, researchers,
and policymakers to understand the challenges and opportunities of the
past in order to prepare direction for the future. Therefore, a historical
perspective is important to the quality of care in all domains of nursing.*
* Copyright © 2017 Canadian Nurses Association, 50 Driveway, Ottawa, Ontario, K2P 1E2 CANADA, 2010–2011
all rights reserved. See more at https://cna-aiic.ca/en/terms-and-conditions-of-use#Copyright.
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One of the purposes in writing this text is to present nursing in a manner that will
encourage critical thinking about nursing and ethics alongside empowered, informed
decision making. To understand the current state of the profession of nursing, it is
imperative that we not only look at who nurses are, what they do, and where they
practise, but also consider historical and sociopolitical events, dominant discourses
and gender roles, oppressive forces, and opportunities for empowerment and eman-
cipation—all of which have had an impact on what we know today as “nursing.”
Understanding ourselves and the conditions in which we work today means stepping
back to view our history and the influences and forces that have helped shape our
profession. The careful and analytical evaluation of historical and social forces and
influences on the profession is an absolute necessity in nursing education. As Mooney
and Nolan (2006) note, “… social phenomena must be understood in terms of their
context and history. From a critical social theory perspective, fruitful nursing education
will only be possible if the history and structure of nursing are clearly understood by
those involved in the educational process” (p. 240).
Insights gained from the study of nursing history enable us to see these conditions
we face today for what they are and find ways of interpreting and coping with them
in order to move forward and enact change where needed. To this end, we present,
briefly, some selected historical and social forces that have shaped our profession.
It is difficult to establish a clear and linear picture of the development of the pro-
fession of nursing through history. Both medicine and nursing emerged from a long
history of healers. It is not possible for us to know the exact origin of either profes-
sion since the earliest stages of each are so closely interwoven (Donahue, 2011). Even
so, we know that the history of nursing is one in which people—usually women—
attempted to relieve suffering. Selanders (2010) writes, “Nursing’s history is one of
people, both ancient and modern. It has not evolved solely because of one individual
or one event or with directed purpose. Rather, nursing’s current status represents a
collective picture of societal evolution in a health care framework” (p. 70). From the
beginning, the motivation of nurses to care for others came from practical, moral, or
spiritual influences. Our history is also the story of a profession inescapably linked to
the status of women and changing notions of gender and power. The history of heal-
ers, and subsequently that of nurses, has gone through many phases and has been an
important part of social movements. Ours is a narrative of a professional group whose
status has always been affected by the prevailing standards of society (Donahue, 2011).
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Asunto 10 guldenia
Aamiainen — oi, mimmoinen aamiainen!
Viikunakahvia ja vedelläsekoitettua maitoa 5 »
Illallinen, nimittäin lasillinen olutta ja
makkara- tai juustopalanen 6 »
Pesu ja valo 5 »
Palvelija 1 »
Erinäisiä pukutarpeita 10 »
Yhteensä 37 guldenia.
Hannan toimi ei ollut raskas hoitaa, mutta päivä päivältä se tuli yhä
vastenmielisemmäksi. Elävänä nukkena olo, jolloin hänen oma
olemuksensa ei ollut minkään arvoinen hänen ylleen pantujen
vaatekappaleiden rinnalla, tuntui hänestä perin alentavalta, sillä
hänhän oli tottunut olemaan seurapiirin keskipisteenä. »Oikealle,
neiti… olkaa hyvä ja kävelkää hiukan, että näemme tuon poimun
vaikutuksen… Ei, tämä on liian raskasta, koettakaa vielä kerran
tuota toista… miltä näyttää tuo vyö takaapäin? Kääntykää… Kas
niin… entä paljonko se maksaa?… Ei, se on liian kallista; näyttäkää
vielä kerran tuota toista…» Tuossa seisoo ostaja silmälasit nenällä ja
tarkastaa vain vaatteita.
»En ole ylpeä, eikä minulla ole syytäkään olla», vastasi Hanna.
»Mutta minulla on suruni, enkä siksi halua käydä tanssiaisissa.»
»Neiti Anna, tulkaa tänne», huusi johtaja. — Hanna oli pitänyt Anna
Meyerin nimen. —
»Mitä käskette?»
»En tiedä missä se on, mutta palvelija voi kai näyttää tien.»
»Mene hänen luokseen ja kysy, eikö hän sitten tahtoisi tulla tänne
katselemaan näitä.» Kamarineitsyt totteli. Hanna aikoi jatkaa
vaatekappaleiden näyttämistä.