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4-3 Ethical Reasoning Applied to the Law 65
Ronald M. Dworkin 67
CRITICAL THINKING TABLE 4.1 Marriage as a
Human Right 68
Case Study: Educating Children 69

Readings
Plato, The Symposium 71
Justice Anthony Kennedy, Lawrence v. Texas
(majority opinion) and Justice Antonin Scalia
(dissenting opinion) (2003) 74
elkor/Photos.com
5. PERSONAL FREEDOMS 78
Overview 79
5-1 Personal Freedoms 80
3-2 “Personhood” and Evolving Medical
5-2 Philosophical Methods 80
Technologies 43
5-2a The Harm Principle 81
3-3 Applying Kantian and Utilitarian 5-2b Paternalism 81
Reasoning 44 5-2c Legal Moralism 82
3-3a Kantian Reasoning 44 5-2d General Considerations 82
3-3b Utilitarian Reasoning 45
5-3 Applying Philosophical Approaches 82
CRITICAL THINKING TABLE 3.1 Stem Cell John Stuart Mill 84
research’s Destructiveness 45
CRITICAL THINKING TABLE 5.1 Marriage as a
3-4 Ethical Reasoning Applied to the Law 47 Human Right 85
Judith Jarvis Thomson 50 Case Study: Legalizing Marijuana 87
Case Study: The End of Life 50 Readings
Readings John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (1859) 88
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica Bertrand Russell, Proposed Roads
(1265–1274) 52 to Freedom (1918) 93
David Human, Essay on Suicide
(c. 1755?) 54 THINKING IT THROUGH 2 96
THINKING IT THROUGH 1 58 6. FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION 98

Overview 99
4. MARRIAGE, THE FAMILY, AND SEXUALITY 60
6-1 Freedom of Expression Examples 100
Overview 61
6-2 Major Philosophical Approaches 100
4-1 Family Life and Privacy and Liberty 62
6-2a The Harm Principle 101
4-2 Reasoning Tools and Privacy and Liberty 6-2b Paternalism 102
in Families 63 6-2c Legal Moralism 102
4-2a Marriage 63
6-3 Applying Philosophical Approaches 102
4-2b Children in the Family 64
4-2c Education of Children 64 6-4 Exceptions to the Right of Freedom
of Expression 103
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Joel Feinberg 104 8-2 Philosophical Approaches for Analyzing
CRITICAL THINKING TABLE 6.1 Protection Discrimination 135
From Hate Speech 105 8-3 Applications to Contemporary Issues 135
Case Study: Free Speech for CRITICAL THINKING TABLE 8.1 Race, Gender,
neo-Nazis? 106 and Opportunity 137
Readings Bernard Boxill 138
Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, Case Study: Reparations for Groups Held
The Spirit of Laws (1748) 107 in Slavery 139
John Milton, Aeropagitica: For the Liberty Readings
of Unlicenc’d Printing (1644) 109 Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication
of the Rights of Woman (1792) 140
7. RELIGIOUS FREEDOM 112
Frederick Douglass, Reconstruction
Overview 114 (1866) 142
7-1 Religious Freedoms Today 114
7-1a Legal Protection and Intolerance 114 9. HEALTH CARE 144
7-1b Religious Belief and Practice 114 Overview 145
7-1c Freedom of Religion and Separation
of Church and State 115 9-1 Current Issues in Health Care 146
9-1a Health Care: A Right or a Commodity 146
7-2 Major Philosophical Approaches 115 9-1b Stem Cell Research 147
7-3 Applying Philosophical 9-1c Genetic Engineering 148
Approaches 116 9-1d Testing 148
9-1e Transplants 148
7-4 Exceptions to the Right of Religious
Freedom 117 9-2 Philosophical Approaches for Analyzing
Health Care Issues 149
CRITICAL THINKING TABLE 7.1 Religious
Freedom in Speech and Action 118
William James 119

Case Study: Polygamy and Religious
Freedom 119
Readings
John Locke, A Letter Concerning
Toleration (1689) 121
Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in
America (1835) 123
THINKING IT THROUGH 3 127
8. DISCRIMINATION 130
Overview 131
8-1 The Nature of
apply pictures / Alamy Limited
Discrimination 132
8-1a Education 132
8-1b Employment 133
8-1c Housing and Credit 134
9-3 Applications to Contemporary Issues 149 10-2c Prevention 170
9-3a Health Care 149 10-2d Rehabilitation 170
9-3b Stem Cell Research 149 10-2e Protection of Society 170
9-3c Genetic Engineering 150 10-3 From Theory to Justification 171
9-3d Testing 151 10-3a Retribution 171
9-3e Transplants 151 10-3b Deterrence 171
CRITICAL THINKING TABLE 9.1 Medical 10-3c Prevention 171
Research’s Conflict with Life 152 10-3d Rehabilitation 171
Frances Kamm 153 10-4 DNA Testing’s Impact 172

Case Study: Research on Human Subject: 10-5 Juveniles and the Mentally
The Guatemala Experiments 154 Impaired 173
Readings 10-6 Capital Punishment and Fairness 173
Arthur L. Caplan, Testimony on Synthetic
Biology (2010) 155 10-7 Capital Punishment for Other
Crimes 174
Karen Rothenberg, Protecting Workers from
Genetic Discrimination (2007) 159 CRITICAL THINKING TABLE 10.1 Punishment
for Murder 175
THINKING IT THROUGH 4 163
10-8 Legal and Ethical Reasoning
10. CAPITAL PUNISHMENT 166 Comparison 177
Overview 167 Hugo Adam Bedau 178
10-1 The Nature of Punishment 168 Case Study: Capital Punishment 179
10-2 Theories of Punishment 168 Readings
10-2a Retribution 169
John Stuart Mill, “In Support of Capital
10-2b Deterrence 170
Punishment” (1868) 180
Justice Thurgood Marshall, Gregg v.
Georgia, 428 U.S. 153, dissenting opinion
(1976) 184
11. COMPUTER ETHICS 188

Overview 190
11-1 Major Ethical Issues 190
11-1a Privacy 190
11-1b Harassment 191
11-1c Free Speech 191
11-1d The Technological “Divide” 191
11-1e Intellectual Property 192
11-2 Applying Philosophical
Approaches 192
11-3 Applications to Contemporary
GerritdeHeus/ANP/age fotostock
Issues 193
11-3a Privacy 193
11-3b Harassment 193
11-3c Free Speech 194
11-3d Technological “Divide” 195
11-3e Intellectual Property 196
CRITICAL THINKING TABLE 11.1 Fee or Free 13-3 Application to Ethical Issues 232
to Own? 197 13-3a Jus ad bellum 232
13-3b Jus in bello 234
Alan Turing 198
CRITICAL THINKING TABLE 13.1 A Justification
Case Study: Cyberstalking 199
for War 236
Readings
Gregory Crane, “Reading in the Age Michael Walzer 237
of Google” (2005) 200 Case Study: Racial Profiling in the Age
Samuel Butler, Erewhon, “The Book of Terrorism 238
of the Machines” (1872) 204 Readings
Saint Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica
THINKING IT THROUGH 5 209 (1265–1274) 239
12. ANIMALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT 212 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1651) 241
Overview 214 THINKING IT THROUGH 6 244

12-1a Animal Ethics 214
12-1b Environmental Issues 215 PART III: ETHICS IN THE
12-2 Applying Philosophical Approaches 215 PROFESSIONS
12-3 Applications to Contemporary Issues 217
12-3a Animal Ethics 217 BRIEFING 1: BUSINESS ETHICS 247
12-3b Environmental Ethics 217 B1-1 Chapters of Special Interest 248
Peter Singer 218 B1-1a Freedom of Expression (Chapter 6) 248
CRITICAL THINKING TABLE 12.1 Equal Rights B1-1b Discrimination (Chapter 8) 249
for Animals 219 B1-1c Computer Ethics (Chapter 11) 249
B1-2 Professional Ethics in Business 249
Case Study: Gulf Oil Spills: Job, the
Environment, and Animals 220 BRIEFING 2: HEALTH CARE ETHICS 250
Readings
B2-1 Chapters of Special Interest 251
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “The
B2-1a Human Life: Beginnings and Endings
Birth of EPA” (1985) 221
(Chapter 3) 251
Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to
the Principles of Morals and Legislation
(1781) 226
13. WAR AND THE WORLD 228

Overview 229
13-1a Jus ad bellum 230
13-1b Jus in bello 230
13-2 Philosophical Approaches 231
Lisa F. Young/Shutterstock.com
13-2a Utilitarianism 231

13-2b Kantianism 231
13-2c Just War Theory, Realism,
and Pacifism 232
B2-1b Personal Freedoms (Chapter 5) 251 BRIEFING 6: LEGAL ETHICS 258
B2-1c Health Care (Chapter 9) 251
B2-2 Professional Ethics in Health Care 251 B6-1a Personal Freedoms (Chapter 5) 258
B6-1b Freedom of Expression (Chapter 6) 258
BRIEFING 3: EDUCATION ETHICS 252 B6-1c Computer Ethics (Chapter 11) 259
B3-1 Chapters of Special Interest 252 B6-2 Professional Ethics in Legal Careers 259
B3-1a Marriage, Family, and Sexuality
(Chapter 4) 252 BRIEFING 7: CRIMINAL JUSTICE ETHICS 260
B3-1b Religious Freedom (Chapter 7) 253
B3-1c Discrimination (Chapter 8) 253
B7-1a Personal Freedoms (Chapter 5) 260
B3-2 Professional Ethics in Education 253 B7-1b Capital Punishment (Chapter 10) 261
B7-1c Computer Ethics (Chapter 11) 261
BRIEFING 4: JOURNALISM ETHICS 254
B7-2 Professional Ethics in Criminal
B4-1 Chapters of Special Interest 254 Justice 261
B4-1a Freedom of Expression (Chapter 6) 254
B4-1b Computer Ethics (Chapter 11) 254
B4-1c War and the World (Chapter 13) 254
B4-2 Professional Ethics in Journalism 255
BRIEFING 5: RELIGIOUS ETHICS 256

B5-1a Marriage, Family, and Sexuality
(Chapter 4) 256
B5-1b Religious Freedom (Chapter 7) 257
B5-1c Capital Punishment (Chapter 10) 257
B5-2 Professional Ethics in Religion 257
PART I THEORIES AND REASONING
1
CHAPTER
What Is Ethics?
How Do We Develop an
2399/Shutterstock
Understanding of Ethics?
At the descriptive level, certainly, you would expect different
cultures to develop different sorts of ethics and obviously they
have; that doesn’t mean that you can’t think of overarching
ethical principles you would want people to follow in all kinds
of places.
Peter Singer, Ira W. DeCamp
Professor of Bioethics, University Center for Human Values, Princeton University
The problem is that no ethical system has ever achieved

consensus. Ethical systems are completely unlike mathematics
or science. This is a source of concern.
Daniel C. Dennett, Austin B. Fletcher
Professor of Philosophy, Tufts University
2
L E A R N I N G O U T C O M E S
After you complete this unit, you should be able to:
1-1 Explain what philosophy and

ethics are, and how ethics fits into
philosophical thinking.
1-2 State a working definition of what

ethics is in everyday life.
1-3 Summarize different meanings of what

people consider ethics to be.
1-4 Identify ethical issues that are currently

most important to you.
1-5 State goals you would like to

accomplish this term to develop an
understanding of ethics based on
personal exploration.
S
hould we stop to help a stranger who seems to be in decide which actions are right or wrong? In this chap-
trouble? Should we tell the clerk at the grocery store ter, we will start by considering what philosophy itself
that she has given us more change than we deserve? is, especially because it is rarely studied in high school
Should we submit a paper in a college course that a friend and is thus a new subject for almost all college students.
wrote for us? Should we donate some of our hard-earned We will then explore various ways of understanding
money to charity to help those worse off than we are? We all ethics that we will refer to in the balance of this book.
face ethical choices every day of our lives. Ethics examines the We will look at various approaches to ethics that have
various ways in which we can work to answer those questions
in our own lives. Our goal here will not be to provide
a simple checklist of rules that will answer all of our
questions but to develop ways of reasoning through
the myriad ethical challenges each of us faces. What do you think?
Ethics is an attainable, objective set of reasoning tools for
Overview deciding how to act in life.
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that studies Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
value in human behavior. What does it mean 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
to be a good or bad person? How should we
3
4 PA RT I THEORIES AND REASONING
been promoted in the history

KEY TERMS
metaphysics: the study of western philosophy. There
1-1 WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
of reality, what exists
is no one “right” way to pursue WHAT IS ETHICS?
epistemology: theory of ethical inquiry and consider-
knowledge ing different approaches will 1-1a M aj or Br anches
value theory: the study help us better understand the of P hi l os ophy
of values, such as value ways in which we can address
in human behavior (ethics) Traditionally, philosophy pursues timeless questions stud-
contemporary issues most
and value in art (aesthet- ied for thousands of years that fall into three major cate-
effectively.
ics); sometimes called gories. First is metaphysics, or the study of reality, which
axiology
We will ask you to exam-
asks what is real? What exists? Is physical existence the
ine what you already know
only reality? Are there also nonphysical realities? Ideas
or might believe about ethics
or concepts that exist independently of concrete things?
as you begin the course, and whether
Souls? Minds? In contemporary life, for
you might follow specific ethical rules
example, metaphysical issues arise when
and how you arrived at them. We will
also ask you to identify those ethical
Philosophers we ask how “virtual reality” is different
from “reality.”
issues that are most important to you study classic texts Second is epistemology, or the the-
at this stage of your life. We will then
ory of knowledge, which asks what we
ask you to select a particular issue that … because these know and how we know it. These ques-
you might be willing to discuss with
your class as we work through the works … give us tions are broader and more wide-ranging
than you might encounter in a course in
course and how it might be addressed
with the reasoning tools we will learn valuable ideas and psychology or education. Do we acquire
knowledge only from our sense percep-
about in this book. Finally, we will ask
you to consider what goals you would
insights for how tions? Are we born with innate ideas?
How do we explain knowledge about
most like to reach in developing a solid
understanding of ethics and how it
to develop our human-created disciplines, such as logic
and mathematics?
can help you deal with issues you face own views. Third, value theory (sometimes called
personally. The chapter will end with
axiology) studies value and the distinc-
excerpts from The Meno, a famous
tion between value and fact. One branch
dialogue by Plato, on the subject of whether virtue can
of this discipline includes the study of values in human
be taught.
behavior, or ethics (defined more extensively further in
the chapter). Another includes the exploration of values in
the realm of art. What makes a work of art good or bad?
Are aesthetic judgments objective or are
they hopelessly subjective?
1-1b P hi l os ophy a s
a M ethod of I n q u i r y
Philosophy is traditionally taught as
intellectual history, which studies the
writings of many great philosophers
who have addressed these classic
questions, and this remains a legiti-
mate approach to studying philoso-
phy. Philosophers study classic texts,
corepics/Shutterstock
not because they necessarily have the

“right answers,” but because these
works have proposed ways of analyzing
issues that give us valuable ideas and
insights for how to develop our own
Should we stop to help a stranger who seems to be in trouble? views.
CHAPTER 1 What Is Ethics? 5
ries in testing out different

solutions to ethical dilemmas.
Ethics instruction avoids
Should we preaching, propaganda, or
tell the clerk dogmatic assertion of just one
at the gro- viewpoint. It steers clear of
cery store simplistic rules for conduct in
that he has life. It shuns the idea that there
given us are easy “right answers,” espe-
cially to challenging ethical
more change
dilemmas. Although professors
than we
Hemera Technologies
of ethics courses understand-

deserve? ably have personal views on the
issues considered, they typi-
cally try to play devil’s advocate
to encourage students to look
Increasingly in recent decades, philosophers have refo- at all sides of an issue and not assume they must agree
cused their understanding and teaching of philosophy to with the professor to get a good grade in the course.
emphasize methods over content. Philosophers step back Philosophers sometimes like to joke, when asked in the
and ask the “big picture” questions. They look for broad career-oriented educational world, what can you do with
perspectives and connections. What does science have philosophy? What, they answer, can you do without it? If
in common with art? With religion? And philosophers philosophy today is centrally concerned with good reason-
remain especially focused on good reasoning, or critical ing and independent thinking, they surely have a point!
thinking. They closely examine key terms and concepts; far
beyond just looking something up in a dictionary, philoso- In CourseMate, watch a video and take the quiz.
phers like to peel back the layers of such complex terms
as beauty, goodness, truth, or justice and explore in great
detail the many nuances of these important concepts. With 1-2 WHAT IS ETHICS IN
this emphasis on good reasoning, philosophers explore
just about any possible subject matter. Thus, we have EVERYDAY LIFE?
witnessed the emergence of such areas of investigation as
philosophy of sport, philosophy of religion, philosophy of Every time we confront a choice that impacts the life of
science, philosophy of art, and so on. In all of these areas, a person, we are facing an ethical choice. This might be a
philosophy emphasizes good reasoning. decision family members have to make when a loved one
has been in a serious accident and is on life support equip-
ment. Is it ethical to “pull the plug” and cause that life to
1 - 1 c Wha t Philosophy
end? If our family member has never given us any instruc-
A c complishes tion, is it okay to agree to have their organs donated?
Although any philosophy course hopes to impart some We sometimes have to make decisions that impact
factual knowledge, terminology, and context of the disci- persons we have never met and probably never will. If
pline, its more important purpose is to help acquire the we pollute the environment, we might impact the health
skills of philosophical inquiry and analysis, good reason- of persons living in our town now or in the future. Do we
ing, and critical thinking. These skills are helpful in pursu- have an ethical obligation to them?
ing any other subject in college and beyond. Philosophy Some would argue that our ethical obligations extend to
courses also show how to consider all sides of an issue, nonhumans, including animals. Is it ethical to eat meat if that
emphasize independent reasoning over dogmatic solu- requires the termination of the life of a nonhuman animal?
tions, and thus open minds to unknown horizons. And our ethical decisions can also arise in making
In ethics courses, students should expect to become choices that seem to impact only our own lives. If we
skilled at identifying ethical problems and framing smoke or drink or use illegal drugs or attempt suicide,
them in ways that facilitate helpful analysis and dis- are we harming only ourselves in violation of some ethical
cussion. Students should be able to see alternative duty to ourselves? Are these actions truly “victimless
solutions and understand the reasoning in support crimes” that hurt only one self?
of different approaches to those ethical problems. The most difficult ethical challenges often involve a
Students should learn to apply competing ethical theo- clash of principles we hold dear. We might believe strongly
1-3 VARIOUS MEANINGS

OF ETHICS
Most philosophers consider moral philosophy to be
synonymous with ethics. But you will likely encounter
some who use the word morality to mean very specifically
an ethical question involving sexual behavior. As with much
of our language, different words can be used in different
ways and there is no single “right” way to use these terms.
The important thing is to look carefully at the context to see
how someone is using a term and get clear on that usage to
avoid unnecessary detours away from the substance of, and
irrelevant disagreements in, a discussion.
You have likely met some people who consider ethics
to be the concern only of fools. “Every man for himself,”
Michael Newman/PhotoEdit
they say, and who cares about anybody else. But this misun-
derstands what ethics is as a field of study. Ethical theories
encompass a wide range of often inconsistent views on
what is ethical. Egoism is the theory that says that the only
factor to take into account in deciding what is ethical is the
consequences for oneself and nobody else. Altruism is the
Should we donate some of our hard-earned opposite, claiming that the only thing to consider is the con-
money to charity to help those worse off than sequences for others, never oneself. Utilitarianism holds
we are? that we should consider the consequences for everyone,
including ourselves, in deciding what is ethical. All three of
these theories are examples of consequentialism, as they
that it is wrong to lie but also believe it is wrong to hurt all determine right and wrong action based on the conse-
the feelings of a close friend. If your roommate puts on an quences of those actions. The field of ethics does not say
atrocious outfit for a job interview, should you tell the truth which of these positions is “correct.” Rather ethics studies
and hurt your roommate’s
feelings? Or should you lie
and say it is a great outfit
for an interview and save You find
your hurtful comments for
out that the
another day?
girlfriend of
We make decisions all
day long that impact many
a long-time
people. Yet we do not realis- friend who
tically have time to stop and is your
reason through every deci- roommate
sion the way we might do in has cheated
a philosophy class. Instead, on him with
we pursue guiding princi- another
ples that we establish as we roommate.
mature and that help us make What do
good decisions on a regular you do? Do
basis. As we think through you speak
a new dilemma, we learn to
up? Do you
Gary Conner/PhotoEdit
feel more comfortable pur-

keep quiet
suing the same action in the
future, without starting from
about it?
scratch in our consideration
of the problem.
the pros and cons of these different approaches to ethics In CourseMate, practice what KEY TERMS
through reasoning. you learned by taking the moral philosophy: a
synonym for ethics
Some think that ethical concerns are relevant only if chapter quiz.
others know what we are doing and we might get caught ethics: the study of
human conduct impact-
doing the wrong thing, that is, where consequences are
of importance only if they risk exposing unethical actions 1-4 MOST ing other humans
egoism: the ethical the-
to public scrutiny. Being known as an unethical business
person would have severe consequences on one’s reputation
IMPORTANT ory that right and wrong
action depends on conse-
that would discourage future clients. But we might consider ETHICAL quences for oneself only
whether unethical conduct in private might catch up with
us some day. The convicted con man Bernard Madoff was
ISSUES FOR altruism: the ethical
theory that right and wrong
believed to be an ethical person because he donated much YOU TODAY action depends on conse-
of his wealth to worthy charities, bringing in still more quences for other persons,
business. But his secret unethical behavior eventually was Ethical issues uppermost in our but not for oneself
revealed, undoing whatever reputation he once had as an minds vary considerably depend- utilitarianism: the ethi-
ethical person. In addition, one’s hidden unethical behavior ing on our age, our life situation, cal theory that right and
wrong action depends on
might also become a burden that one’s and individual
consequences for every-
conscience must struggle with, causing circumstances. one, including oneself
one stress and forcing one to engage in [E]thics studies In high school
consequentialism:
further unethical behavior to keep other you might have any ethical theory that
unethical actions secret. the pros and cons been tempted determines right and
Philosophers sometimes like to look to cheat on an wrong action based on
at ordinary language to further unpack of these different exam, but wor- consequences (including
altruism, egoism, and
what we mean by certain key concepts, ried about the
that is, help give light to any complexi- approaches . . . consequences
utilitarianism)
ties in these concepts and clarify these if you were

intricacies. Consider how you and your through caught. If your parents are struggling
friends use the words ethics and ethical financially, you might wonder if you
person and what you mean by it.
reasoning. should forgo college and work to help
Why is
cheating
on a test
wrong?
lisegagne/iStockphoto.com
support the family for the time being. You might be facing humanities are a mere sideshow that will not improve
difficult choices if your parents are elderly and you need their employability.
to help them decide whether to sign a do not resuscitate Philosophy professors firmly believe that the reason-
(DNR) order at a nursing home. If you were raped by an ing skills you will develop this term will be helpful to you
uncle, you might be struggling to decide whether or not to in all of your courses and in your current and future life.
seek an abortion if you become pregnant. You might also But you will also find this course more than an annoying
have struggled simply about whether to tell anyone about hurdle to get beyond if you think about specific goals that
what happened. will help you develop your personal ethics.
Some of the ethical issues facing you personally are This means giving more thought to the most urgent
private and no one should force you to announce them to ethical challenges in your life at the present time. But
others, whether classmates or other acquaintances. it also means coming to a better understanding of how
But, for the purposes of this course, you should think to talk with friends and family about ethical issues that
of some ethical issues in your life now that you are com- concern you. Perhaps you and your friends and family dis-
fortable discussing with the class and instructor. You will agree strongly on the morality of abortion, euthanasia, or
be asked to identify one particular issue to be the spring- eating meat. Developing your personal ethical reasoning
board for personal reflection as the course progresses. tools also means giving thought to how to accommodate
You will have an opportunity to try out different reasoning yourself to an increasingly diverse population, with widely
tools and compare your approaches with those of class- differing views on ethics, religion, politics, and a range
mates facing similar dilemmas. of contemporary issues. Perhaps you feel strongly about
a certain issue, such as environmental protection, animal
In CourseMate, listen to the audio summary of the
rights, or the legalization of marijuana or marriage equal-
chapter.
ity and want to be a more effective advocate in convincing
others of the rightness of your views. Perhaps you are at
1-5 YOUR PERSONAL a point in life where you are questioning traditional reli-
gious views of your friends and family and want to either
GOALS clarify and strengthen those views or gradually move away
from them and develop your own spirituality.
Virtually every college requires students to take a range As with your most pressing ethical issues, some of
of courses to broaden their education and give them your goals are personal and confidential, but many ethi-
the skills that will help them succeed in whatever career cal issues you might be able to share with classmates and
they pursue. Philosophy is rarely a course students rush friends and will feel comfortable discussing in class. For
to take on their own, especially with understandable example, discussing whether or not you have had an abor-
concerns about landing a good job after college and wor- tion might be a topic you want to keep private and you
ries that courses in philosophy and the other traditional have that right. But what to do when you see another
student cheating on an exam might be an issue easier to
tackle with the class. In chapter 2, you will be asked to
set specific goals to help you address the ethical issue you
have identified. You will also be introduced to a tool, the
critical thinking table, which will demonstrate, for each of
the Part II chapters, how to apply methodical reasoning to
work through an ethical claim. Step by step, an example
pertaining to one of the chapter’s topics will be examined:
Michael Doolittle/Alamy
a sample claim will be subjected to the scrutiny outlined

in the left-hand side of the table. From examining and
clarifying key terms and concepts through confirming
that the conclusions you draw are logical, the right-hand
side explanations related to the chapter example will
You realize that a threatening post on a
bring to light the mechanisms to enforce, the techniques
famous social media outlet was authored by a
to develop, the types of questions to ask, and the pitfalls
close friend of yours. What do you do? to avoid.
Plato
O
ne of the most influential philosophers of ancient Greece was Plato (429–347 B.C.E). He framed issues that shaped our
philosophical dialogue in the West for the next two millennia, and even today. He asked questions about the nature of real-
ity (“metaphysics”), knowledge (“epistemology”), and most importantly for us here, ethics. Plato urged us to think through
problems with pure reason, shunning emotion. He believed that we all possess knowledge of universal truths, even though we are not
aware of that knowledge. For Plato, philosophical dialogue is a process of bringing those univer-
sal truths to the surface of our understanding and awareness, drawing out the knowledge that
he believed we all possess.
He never gave simple answers to questions of any sort, but challenged us to think things
through for ourselves. This does not mean he was a relativist who thought any answer was
as good as the next. To the contrary, he thought that absolute truth existed and could be
achieved through reasoning. We might disagree with that strongly held position, but we can
agree with his emphasis on reasoning to work through ethical and other dilemmas.
Plato wrote in a literary form called “dialogues” in which Socrates, his own teacher,
engages in long discussions with other persons to draw out their ideas. This form of writing
may be unusual for contemporary audiences, but it serves Plato’s purpose in stressing the
long careful process of raising questions and meticulously trying to move toward knowl-
Photos.com
edge by answering them. The dialogues are not like the script for a play in the theater,
but rather are an intellectual exercise intended to get at the truth on difficult questions.
Knowledge, he posits, does not consist of rules and conclusions we passively memorize
from others but is instead reasoning we draw from our own efforts. Why are Plato’s writings still pertinent
today?
CHAPTER 1 Case Study

Cheating
A
lmost all colleges and universities have honor codes 1. What is your immediate gut reaction to what you should do?
that spell out rules against cheating and plagiarism. Should you hire the same graduate student to do your written
Some include requirements that students who wit- work? Should you report your friends to the professor?
ness another student cheating have an obligation 2. Now think about the reasoning you would use to explain your
to report that student to school authorities. Imagine that two of initial gut reaction. Are you appealing to your self-interest? Are
your best friends in one of your courses have paid an advanced you worried about getting caught? Does your goal of a good
graduate student to complete the written work for the course, grade outweigh your loyalty to your friends? Does your univer-
including term papers and written assignments outside of the sity’s threat of punishment deter or d`iscourage you from taking
classroom. You are worried that the high quality of the work they a chance on cheating? Are there principles that you are relying
are submitting will hurt your grade, as the professor said that on to justify your “gut” reaction? In other words, what general
no more than 15 percent of the students in the class will get principles can you state that would support your initial reaction?
A’s for the course. You need to get a good grade in the course
yourself so you can be admitted to the very competitive program 3. Now that you have put into words your reasoning, do you want
in nursing at your university. Your friends suggest that you hire to change your mind about your decision on what you should
the same graduate student to complete your written work. Your do in this situation? What most influenced you to come to the
university’s policy says that students caught cheating can be same conclusion or to change your mind?
expelled from school. For additional case studies, please see the CourseMate for
this text.
CHAPTER 1 Reading Excerpts
Reading Excerpt: Plato, The Meno least according to Socrates. Plato believed that everything has an
essence, a something that makes it what it is. Socrates pursues
INTRODUCTION the essence of “virtue” in early portions of these excerpts. Socrates
In these brief excerpts from The Meno, one of his many dialogues, also pursues his view of knowledge as recollection of knowledge
Plato asks whether virtue is a form of knowledge that can be that our souls have through eternity. These eternal concepts are
taught. Before we can answer that question, he says, we must known as Plato’s “forms” or “ideas” that exist independently of
examine what virtue is. Meno is a young man in this dialogue us, whether or not we take notice of them. This excerpt from The
with whom Socrates engages in discussion. Meno had previously Meno is adapted from a translation by Benjamin Jowett.
studied with Gorgias, a Sophist who promoted false teaching, at
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION

1. Plato claims that there is an essence to virtue. How does he 3. Reading Plato can be frustrating because he seems to raise
go about making his case? What do you think the essence of more questions than answers. Is his method of drawing out
virtue is? Could we understand the meaning of a term if it did knowledge helpful to you? Does his technique suggest differ-
not have an essence? ent ways of learning than you have previously experienced?
2. What does Plato mean by recollection? If we possess all 4. What do you think virtue means? Do you believe that virtue
knowledge already, and only need to recollect it, what means can be taught or must we all develop our own sense of what
should we use to accomplish this recollection? Has Plato virtue is?
made a persuasive case for his view of knowledge?
READING
The Essence of Virtue different kinds of them; or are they distinguished by some other
SOCRATES: . . . By the gods, Meno, be kind and tell me what you quality, such as beauty, size, or shape? How would you answer me?
think virtue is. For I will be absolutely delighted to find that I have
MENO: I should answer that bees do not differ from one another,
been mistaken, and that you and Gorgias [i.e., Meno’s teacher]
25 as bees.
5 have this knowledge, since, as I have been just saying, I never
found anybody who had. SOCRATES: And if I went on to say: That is what I want to know,
Meno; what is the quality in which they do not differ, but are all
MENO: It will not be difficult, Socrates, to answer your question. Let alike; can you answer that?
us take first the virtue of a man—he should know how to administer
the state in a way that benefits his friends and harms his enemies; MENO: I can.
10 and he must also be careful not to suffer harm himself. A woman’s 30 SOCRATES: And the same for the virtues, however many and dif-
virtue, if you wish to know about that, may also be easily described: ferent they may be, they all have a common nature which makes
her duty is to keep her house in order, and obey her husband. Every them virtues; and he who would answer the question, ‘What is
age, every condition of life, young or old, male or female, bond or free, virtue?’ would do well to have his eye fixed on that. . . . And will
has a different virtue: there are numerous virtues, and no lack of defi- virtue, as virtue, be the same, whether in a child or in a grown-up
15 nitions of them; for virtue is relative to the actions and ages of each 35 person, in a woman or in a man? . . . Then all men are good in the
of us in all that we do. And the same may be said of vice, Socrates. same way, and by participation in the same virtues?
SOCRATES: How fortunate I am, Meno! When I ask you for one MENO: This is the inference.
virtue, you present me with a swarm of them. Suppose that I carry
SOCRATES: And they surely would not have been good in the same
on the metaphor of the swarm, and ask of you, What is the nature
way, unless their virtue had been the same?
20 of the bee? and you answer that there are many kinds of bees, and
I reply: But do bees differ as bees, because there are many and 40 MENO: They would not.
10 Reading Excerpts
MENO: Courage and temperance and wisdom and magnanimity
are virtues; and there are many others.
SOCRATES: Yes, Meno; and again we are in the same place: in
searching for one virtue we have found many, though not in the
70 same way as before; but we have been unable to find the common
virtue which runs through them all.
MENO: Why, Socrates, even now I am not able to follow you in
the attempt to get at one common notion of virtue as of other
nikolpetr/Shutterstock
things.
[W]e have been unable

What does the metaphor of the bee used by Socrates mean?
What is important in the comparison of virtues with bees: their to find the common
individuality or their common nature or both? Why?
virtue which runs through
them all.
Justice as a Virtue
SOCRATES: Now that the sameness of all virtue has been proven,
try and remember what you and Gorgias say that virtue is. . . . 75 SOCRATES: . . . Why, did not I ask you the nature of virtue as a
whole? And you are very far from telling me this; but you declare
MENO: If you want to have one definition of them all, I do not
every action to be virtue which is done with a part of virtue; as
45 know what to say, except that virtue is the power of governing
though you had told me and I must already know the whole of
mankind.
virtue, and this too when frittered away into little pieces. And,
SOCRATES: And does this definition of virtue include all virtue? Is 80 therefore, my dear Meno, I fear that I must begin again and repeat
virtue the same in a child and in a slave, Meno? Can the child gov- the same question: What is virtue? for otherwise, I can only say,
ern his father, or the slave his master; and would he who governed that every action done with a part of virtue is virtue; what else is
50 be any longer a slave? the meaning of saying that every action done with justice is virtue?
Should I ask the question over again; for can any one who does not
MENO: I think not, Socrates.
85 know virtue know a part of virtue?
SOCRATES: No, indeed; there would be small reason in that. Yet
MENO: No, he cannot.
once more, fair friend; according to you, virtue is ‘the power of
governing;’ but shouldn’t you add ‘justly and not unjustly’?
55 MENO: Yes, Socrates; I agree; for justice is virtue. Acquiring Knowledge
MENO: And how will you enquire, Socrates, into that which you do
SOCRATES: Would you say ‘virtue,’ Meno, or ‘a virtue’?
not know? What will you suggest as the subject of enquiry? And
MENO: What do you mean? 90 if you find what you want, how will you ever know that this is the
SOCRATES: I mean as I might say about anything; that a circle, for thing which you did not know?
example, is ‘a figure’ and not simply ‘figure,’ and I speak this way SOCRATES: I know, Meno, what you mean; but just see what a
60 because there are other figures. tiresome dispute you are introducing. You argue that a man cannot
MENO: I agree; and that is just what I am saying about virtue— enquire either about that which he knows, or about that which he
that there are other virtues along with justice. 95 does not know; for if he knows, he has no need to enquire; and if
not, he cannot; for he does not know the very subject about which
he is to enquire.
Other Virtues
MENO: Well, Socrates, is not my argument sound?
SOCRATES: What are they? tell me the names of them, as I would
65 tell you the names of the other figures if you asked me. SOCRATES: I think not.
Chapter 1 11
100 MENO: Why not? SOCRATES: If the truth of all things always existed in the soul,
then the soul is immortal. Therefore be of good cheer, and try
SOCRATES: I will tell you why: I have heard from certain wise men
to recollect what you do not know, or rather what you do not
and women who spoke of things divine that—
135 remember.
MENO: What did they say?
MENO: I feel, somehow, that I like what you are saying. . . .
SOCRATES: They spoke of a glorious truth, as I conceive.
SOCRATES: Then, as we agree that a man should enquire about
105 MENO: What was it? and who were they?
that which he does not know, shall you and I make an effort to
enquire together into the nature of virtue?
Knowledge as Recollection
SOCRATES: Some of them were priests and priestesses, who
140 Is Virtue Knowledge?
had studied how they might be able to give a reason of their
MENO: By all means, Socrates. And yet I would much rather return
profession: there have been poets also, who spoke of these
to my original question, Whether in seeking to acquire virtue we
110 things by inspiration . . . and many others who were inspired.
should regard it as a thing to be taught, or as a gift of nature, or
And they say . . . that the soul of man is immortal, and at one
as coming to men in some other way?
time has an end, which is termed dying, and at another time
is born again, but is never destroyed. And the moral is, that 145 SOCRATES: Had I the command of you as well as of myself, Meno,
a man ought to live always in perfect holiness . . . . The soul, I would not have enquired whether virtue is given by instruc-
115 then, as immortal, and having been born again many times, tion or not, until we had first ascertained ‘what it is.’ . . . Let the
and having seen all things that exist, whether in this world or first hypothesis be that virtue is or is not knowledge,—in that
in the world below, has knowledge of them all; and it is no case will it be taught or not? or, as we were just now saying,
wonder that she should be able to remember all that she ever 150 ‘remembered’? For there is no use in arguing about the name.
knew about virtue, and about everything; for as all nature is But is virtue taught or not? or rather, does not every one see that
120 akin, and the soul has learned all things; there is no difficulty knowledge alone is taught?
in her eliciting or as men say learning, out of a single recollec-
tion all the rest, if a man is strenuous and does not faint; for MENO: I agree.
all enquiry and all learning is but recollection. And therefore
SOCRATES: Then if virtue is knowledge, virtue will be taught?
we ought not to listen to this sophistical argument about the
125 impossibility of enquiry: for it will make us idle; and is sweet 155 MENO: Certainly.
only to the sluggard; but the other saying will make us active
and inquisitive. In that confiding, I will gladly enquire with you SOCRATES: Then we have made a quick end to this question: if
into the nature of virtue. virtue is of such a nature, it will be taught; and if not, not?
MENO: Yes, Socrates; but what do you mean by saying that we MENO: Certainly.
130 do not learn, and that what we call learning is only a process of
recollection? Can you teach me how this is? . . . SOCRATES: The next question is, whether virtue is knowledge or
160 something else?
MENO: Yes, that appears to be the question which comes next in

order.
SOCRATES: Do we not say that virtue is a good?—This is a

Lipsky/Shutterstock
hypothesis which is not set aside.
165 MENO: Certainly.
SOCRATES: Now, if there be any sort of good which is distinct

If “what we call learning is only a process of recollection,” does
that mean that the human race could keep a record of what is
from knowledge, virtue may be that good; but if knowledge
“recollected” in a big dictionary, for instance, that could help embraces all good, then we shall be right in thinking that virtue
teach virtue? is knowledge?
12 Reading Excerpts
200 SOCRATES: And the same may be said of temperance and
quickness of apprehension; whatever things are learned or done
[I]f there be any sort with sense are beneficial, but when done without sense they are
of good which is distinct hurtful?
from knowledge, virtue may MENO: Very true.
be that good . . . 205 SOCRATES: And in general, all that the soul attempts or endures,
when under the guidance of wisdom, ends in happiness; but when
she is under the guidance of folly, in the opposite?
MENO: That appears to be true.
170 MENO: True.
SOCRATES: If then virtue is a quality of the soul, and is admitted
SOCRATES: And virtue makes us good?
210 to be beneficial, it must be wisdom or prudence, since none of the
MENO: Yes. things of the soul are either beneficial or hurtful in themselves, but
they are all made beneficial or hurtful by the addition of wisdom or
of folly; and therefore if virtue is beneficial, virtue must be a sort
Is Virtue Beneficial? of wisdom or prudence?
SOCRATES: And if we are good, then we are beneficial; for all good
215 MENO: I quite agree.
175 things are beneficial?
SOCRATES: And the other goods, such as wealth and the like, of
MENO: Yes.
which we were just now saying that they are sometimes good
SOCRATES: Then virtue is beneficial? and sometimes evil, do they not also become beneficial or hurtful,
accordingly as the soul guides and uses them rightly or wrongly;
MENO: That is the only inference.
220 just as the things of the soul herself are benefited when under the
SOCRATES: Then now let us see what are the things which sev- guidance of wisdom and harmed by folly?
180 erally benefit us. Health and strength, and beauty and wealth—
MENO: True.
these, and the like of these, we call beneficial?
SOCRATES: And the wise soul guides them rightly, and the foolish
MENO: True.
soul wrongly.
SOCRATES: And yet these things may also sometimes do us harm:
225 MENO: Yes.
would you not think so?
SOCRATES: And is not this universally true of human nature? All
185 MENO: Yes.
other things hang upon the soul, and the things of the soul herself
SOCRATES: And what is the guiding principle which makes them hang upon wisdom, if they are to be good; and so wisdom is inferred
beneficial or the reverse? Are they beneficial when they are rightly to be that which profits—and virtue, as we say, is beneficial?
used, and hurtful when they are not rightly used?
230 MENO: Certainly.
MENO: Certainly.
190 SOCRATES: Next, let us consider the goods of the soul: they Is Virtue Wisdom?
are temperance, justice, courage, quickness of apprehension, SOCRATES: And thus we arrive at the conclusion that virtue is
memory, magnanimity, and the like? either wholly or partly wisdom?
MENO: Surely. MENO: I think that what you are saying, Socrates, is very true.
SOCRATES: And those things which are not knowledge, but of 235 SOCRATES: But if this is true, then the good are not by nature
195 another sort, are sometimes beneficial and sometimes hurtful; good? . . . And if the good are not by nature good, are they made
as, for example, courage lacking prudence, which is only a sort of good by instruction?
confidence? When a man has no sense he is harmed by courage,
MENO: There appears to be no other alternative, Socrates. On the
but when he has sense he profits?
supposition that virtue is knowledge, there can be no doubt that
MENO: True. 240 virtue is taught.
Chapter 1 13
Hill Street Studios/Blend Images/Jupiter Images
Were you ever taught virtue

formally when you were in
school? If no class you ever
attended was called Virtue,
was there any class that taught
a subject matter that discussed
the concept of virtue?
SOCRATES: Yes, indeed; but what if the supposition is erroneous? MENO: Not if we are right in our view. But I cannot believe,
Socrates, that there are no good men: And if there are, how did
MENO: I certainly thought just now that we were right.
they come into existence? . . .
SOCRATES: Yes, Meno; but a principle which has any soundness
SOCRATES: Good men are necessarily useful or beneficial. Were
should stand firm not only just now, but always.
265 we not right in admitting this? It must be so.
245 MENO: Well; and why are you so slow in believing that knowledge
MENO: Yes.
is virtue?
SOCRATES: And in supposing that they will be useful only if they
SOCRATES: I will try and tell you why, Meno. I do not retract the
are true guides to us of action—there we were also right?
assertion that if virtue is knowledge it may be taught; but I fear
that I have some reason in doubting whether virtue is knowledge: MENO: Yes.
250 for consider now and say whether virtue, and not only virtue but
270 SOCRATES: But when we said that a man cannot be a good guide
anything that is taught, must not have teachers and disciples?
unless he have knowledge, this we were wrong.
MENO: Surely.
Is True Opinion the Same as True Knowledge?
MENO: What do you mean by the word ‘right’?
Can Virtue Be Taught? SOCRATES: I will explain. If a man knew the way to Larisa, or
SOCRATES: And conversely, may not the art of which neither teach- 275 anywhere else, and went to the place and led others thither, would
255 ers nor disciples exist be assumed to be incapable of being taught? he not be a right and good guide?
MENO: True; but do you think that there are no teachers of virtue? MENO: Certainly.
SOCRATES: I have certainly often enquired whether there were SOCRATES: And a person who had a right opinion about the way,
any, and taken great pains to find them, and have never suc- but had never been and did not know, might be a good guide also,
ceeded; . . . 280 might he not?
260 SOCRATES: Then virtue cannot be taught? MENO: Certainly.
14 Reading Excerpts
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
order of Asteroidea to which Asterias belongs, the adambulacrals
themselves do not project much, but in all other cases they form
prominent mouth-angles, so that the opening of the mouth becomes
star-shaped (Fig. 211, p. 483).
Except in the case of the ambulacral and adambulacral plates little

regular arrangement is to be detected in the ossicles of the skeleton
which, as has already been mentioned, form a mesh-work. If,
however, the arm be cut open and viewed from the inside it will be
seen that the edge is strengthened above and below by very thick,
powerful, rod-like plates. These are called the "supero-marginal" and
"infero-marginal" ossicles; they are not visible from the outside, since
they are covered by a thick layer of the body-wall containing other
smaller plates (Fig. 190, marg). In many genera, however, they are
exposed, and form a conspicuous edging to the arm above and
below. In many genera, also, there are three conspicuous series of
plates on the back of each arm, viz. a median row, called "carinals"
(car., Fig. 191), and two lateral rows, termed "dorso-laterals" (d.lat.,
Fig. 191). These three rows, with the two rows of marginals, one of
ambulacrals, and one of adambulacrals on each side (11 rows in all),
constitute the primitive skeleton of the arm, and appear first in
development.
The structure of all these elements of the skeleton is the same. They
may be described as scaffoldings of carbonate of lime,
interpenetrated by a mesh-work of cells fused with one another, by
which the carbonate of lime has been deposited. The matrix in which
the ossicles lie is a jelly-like substance traversed by a few bands of
fibres which connect the various rods with one another. This jelly is
almost fluid in the fresh state, but when heated forms a hard
compound, possibly allied to mucin, which will turn the edge of a
razor.
When the covering of the back is dissected off the coelom is

opened. This is a spacious cavity which apparently surrounds the
alimentary canal and extends into the arms. It has, however, its own
proper wall, which is called the "peritoneum," both on the outer side,
where it abuts on the skin, and on the inner side, where it comes in
contact with the wall of the alimentary canal. The outer wall is called
the "somatic peritoneum," and it is possible to dissect off the rest of
the body-wall and leave it intact; the inner wall, from its close
association with the alimentary canal, is termed the "splanchnic
peritoneum." This wall can only be distinguished in microscopic
sections from that of the alimentary canal, to which it is closely
applied.
The coelom is filled with a fluid, which is practically sea water with a
little albuminous matter in solution. Through the thin walls of the
papulae oxygen passes into this fluid, whence it easily reaches the
inner organs, since they are all in contact with some part of the
coelomic wall. Similarly CO2 is absorbed by the coelomic fluid from
all parts of the body, and diffuses through the papulae to the
surrounding water.
The Starfish possesses no definite kidney for getting rid of

nitrogenous waste. In most of the higher animals with a well-
developed coelom it has been proved that the kidney is simply a
specialised portion of the coelom, and in many cases some parts of
the coelomic wall still retain their excretory functions, which
apparently the whole originally possessed. In the Starfish and in
Echinodermata generally this primitive state of affairs is still retained.
From the cells forming the coelomic wall, cells are budded off into
the fluid, where they swim about. These cells from their movements
are called amoebocytes. If a substance such as indigo-carmine,
which when introduced into the tissues of the higher animals is
eliminated by the kidney, is injected into the Starfish, it is found soon
after to be vigorously absorbed by the amoebocytes. These later
accumulate in the dermal branchiae, through the thin walls of which
they make their way[442] to the outside, where they degenerate.
The coelom is indented by five folds, which project inwards from the
interradii. These folds are called the "interradial septa"; they are
stiffened by a calcareous deposit, which is not, however, sufficiently
dense to constitute a plate. In one of the septa the axial sinus and
stone-canal (see below) are embedded. These septa are to be
regarded as areas of lateral adhesion between the arms.
Fig. 188.—View of upper half of a specimen of Asterias rubens, which has been
split horizontally into two halves. ax.c, Axial sinus; g.d, genital duct; oe, cut
end of the oesophagus, the narrow neck of the stomach; py, pyloric sac;
py.c, pyloric caeca; r, rectum; r.c, rectal caeca; sept, interradial septum; st.c,
stomach lobe.
The alimentary canal consists of several distinct portions. The

mouth leads by a narrow neck called the "oesophagus" into a
voluminous baggy sac termed the "stomach," which is produced into
ten short pouches, two projecting into each arm. The stomach leads
in turn by a wide opening into a pentagonal flattened sac, the "pyloric
sac," which lies above it. Each angle of the pyloric sac is prolonged
into a tube—the so-called "pyloric duct"—running out into the arm,
where it immediately bifurcates into two forks, each beset by a large
number of small pouches and attached to the dorsal wall of the
coelom by suspensory bands of membrane called mesenteries.
These ten forks are called "pyloric caeca"; they are of a deep green
colour owing to the pigment in their wall. Beyond the pyloric sac the
alimentary canal is continued as the slender "rectum" to the anus.
The rectum gives off two small branched pouches of a brown colour
called "rectal caeca." This comparatively complicated form of
alimentary canal is related to the nature of the food of the animal and
the method it employs to capture its prey.
Fig. 189.—View of a Starfish (Echinaster) devouring a Mussel. 1. The

madreporite.
The favourite food[443] of Asterias consists of the common bivalves

of the coast, notably of the Mussel (Mytilus edulis). There is,
however, no animal which it will not attack if it is fortunate enough to
be able to catch it. The Starfish seizes its prey by the tube-feet, and
places it directly under its mouth, folding its arms down over it in
umbrella fashion. The muscles which run around the arms and disc
in the body-wall contract, and the pressure thus brought to bear on
the incompressible fluid contained in the coelom, forces out the thin
membranous peristome and partially turns the stomach inside out.
The everted edge of the stomach is wrapped round the prey.
Soon the bivalve is forced to relax its muscles and allow the valves
to gape. The edge of the stomach is then inserted between the
valves and applied directly to the soft parts of the prey which is thus
completely digested. When the Starfish moves away nothing but the
cleaned shell is left behind. If the bivalve is small it may be
completely taken into the stomach, and the empty shell later rejected
through the mouth.
It was for a long time a puzzle in what way the bivalve was forced to
open. Schiemenz[444] has, however, shown that when the Starfish
folds itself in umbrella-like form over the prey it holds on to the
substratum by means of the tube-feet of the distal portions of the
arms, whilst, by means of the tube-feet belonging to the central
portions, it drags apart the valves by main force. He has shown
experimentally: (1) that whilst a bivalve may be able to resist a
sudden pull of 4000 grammes it will yield to a pull of 900 grammes
long continued; (2) that a Starfish can exert a pull of 1350 grammes;
(3) that a Starfish is unable to open a bivalve unless it be allowed to
raise itself into a hump, so that the pull of the central tube-feet is at
right angles to the prey. A Starfish confined between two glass plates
walked about all day carrying with it a bivalve which it was unable to
open.
The lining of the stomach is found to consist very largely of mucus-

forming cells, which are swollen with large drops of mucus or some
similar substance. It used to be supposed that this substance had
some poisonous action on the prey and paralysed it, but the
researches of Schiemenz show that this is incorrect. If when an
Asterias is devouring a bivalve another be offered to it, it will open it,
but will not digest it, and the victim shows no sign of injury but soon
recovers. The cells forming the walls of the pyloric sac and its
appendages are tall narrow cylindrical cells crowded with granules
which appear to be of the nature of digestive ferment. This
substance flows into the stomach and digests the captured prey.
A very small amount of matter passes into the rectum and escapes
by the anus, as the digestive powers of the Starfish are very
complete. The rectal caeca are lined by cells which secrete from the
coelomic fluid a brown material, in all probability an excretion, which
is got rid of by the anus.
When the meal is finished the stomach is restored to its former place
by the action of five pairs of retractor muscles, one pair of which
originates from the upper surface of the ambulacral ossicles in each
arm and extends to the wall of the stomach, where they are inserted
(Fig. 190, ret).
The tube-feet, which are at once the locomotor and the principal
sensory organs of the Starfish, are appendages of that peculiar
system of tubes known as the water-vascular system, which is
derived from a part of the coelom cut off from the rest during the
development of the animal. This system, as already mentioned,
consists of (1) a narrow "ring-canal," encircling the mouth and lying
on the inner surface of the membranous peristome; (2) a radial canal
leaving the ring-canal and running along the under surface of each
arm just above the ambulacral groove; (3) a vertical stone-canal
running from the madreporite downwards to open into the ring-canal
in the interspace between two arms. The madreporite is covered
externally by grooves lined with long cilia, and is pierced with narrow
canals of excessively fine calibre, the walls of which are also lined by
powerful cilia. Most of these narrow canals open below into a main
collecting canal, the stone-canal, but some open into a division of the
coelom termed the axial sinus, with which also the stone-canal
communicates by a lateral opening. The cavity of the stone-canal is
reduced by the outgrowth from its walls of a peculiar Y-shaped
projection, the ends being rolled on themselves in a complicated way
(Fig. 190, B). The walls of the canal consist of a layer of very long
narrow cells, which carry powerful flagella, and outside this of a crust
of calcareous deposit, which gives rigidity to the walls and has
suggested the name stone-canal.
The tube-feet are covered externally by ectoderm, inside which is a

tube in connexion with the radial water-vascular canal. This latter is
lined by flattened cells, which in the very young Starfish are
prolonged into muscular tails; in the older animal these tails are
separated off as a distinct muscular layer lying between the
ectoderm and the cells lining the cavity of the tube. The tube-foot is
prolonged inwards into a bulb termed the "ampulla," which projects
into the coelom of the arm and in consequence is covered outside by
somatic peritoneum. Just where the ampulla passes into the tube-
foot proper the organ passes downwards between two of the
powerful ambulacral ossicles which support the ambulacral groove,
and a little below this spot a short transverse canal connects the
tube-foot with the radial canal which lies beneath these ossicles (Fig.
191).
Fig. 190.—A, view of the under half of a specimen of Asterias rubens, which has
been horizontally divided into two halves. B, enlarged view of the axial
sinus, stone-canal and genital stolon cut across. amb.oss, Ambulacral
ossicle; amp. ampullae of the tube-feet; ax.s, axial sinus; gon, gonad; g.stol,
genital stolon; marg, marginal ossicle; nerv.circ, nerve ring; oe, cut end of
oesophagus; pst, peristome; ret, retractor muscle of the stomach; sept,
interradial septum; stone c, stone-canal; T, Tiedemann's body; w.v.r, water-
vascular ring-canal.
The tube-feet are, therefore, really a double row of lateral branches

of the radial canal. The appearance of being arranged in four rows is
due to the fact that the transverse canals connecting them with the
radial canal are alternately longer and shorter so as to give room for
more tube-feet in a given length of the arm. Each tube-foot ends in a
round disc with a slightly thickened edge. The radial canal terminates
in a finger-shaped appendage, called the median tentacle, at the
base of which is the eye.
The manner in which this complicated system acts is as follows:—
When the tube-foot is to be stretched out the ampulla contracts and
drives the fluid downwards. The contraction of the ampulla is brought
about by muscles running circularly around it. The tube-foot is thus
distended and its broad flattened end is brought in contact with the
surface of the stone over which it is moving and is pressed close
against it. The muscles of the tube-foot itself, which are arranged
longitudinally, now commence to act, and the pressure of the water
preventing the tearing away of the sucker from the object to which it
adheres, the Starfish is slowly drawn forward, whilst the fluid in the
tube-foot flows back into the ampulla.
Fig. 191.—Diagrammatic cross-section of the arm of a Starfish. adamb,

Adambulacral ossicle; amb, ambulacral ossicle; amp, ampulla of tube-foot;
branch, papula; car, carinal plate; d.lat, dorso-lateral plate; inf.marg, infero-
marginal plate; p.br, peribranchial space; ped, pedicellaria; s.marg, supero-
marginal plate. The nervous ridge between the bases of the tube-feet and
the two perihaemal canals above this ridge are shown in the figure but not
lettered.
If each tube-foot were practically water-tight, then each would be

entirely independent of all the rest, and it would not be easy to
suggest a reason for the presence of the complicated system of
radial canals and stone-canal. Just at the spot, however, where the
transverse canal leading from the radial canal enters the tube-foot
there is a pair of valves which open inwards and allow fluid to pass
from the radial canal into the tube-foot but prevent any passing
outwards in the reverse direction. The presence of these valves
renders it probable that the tube-foot is not quite water-tight; that
when it is distended under the pressure produced by the contraction
of the muscles of the ampulla, some fluid escapes through the
permeable walls; and that the loss thus suffered is made up by the
entry of fresh fluid from the radial canal. The radial canal in turn
draws from the ring-canal, and this last is supplied by the stone-
canal, the cilia of which keep up a constant inward current.
In the fluid contained in the water-vascular system, as in the

coelomic fluid, there are amoebocytes floating about. These are
produced in short pouches of the ring-canal, nine in number, which
are called after their discoverer "Tiedemann's bodies" (Fig. 190, T).
From the cells lining these the amoebocytes are budded off.
The nervous system of the Starfish is in a very interesting

condition. The essential characteristic of all nervous systems is the
presence of the "neuron," a cell primitively belonging to an
epithelium but which generally has sunk below the level of the others
and lies amongst their bases. This type of cell possesses a round
body produced in one direction into a long straight process, the
"axon," whilst in the other it may have several root-like processes, or
"dendrites," which may spring from a common stem, in which case
the neuron is said to be "bipolar." The axon is often distinguished as
a "nerve-fibre" from the round body which is termed the "nerve-cell."
This is due to the fact that for a long time it was not recognised that
these two structures are parts of a whole.
Now at the base of the ectoderm all over the body of the Starfish
there is to be found a very fine tangle of fibrils; these are to be found
partly in connexion with small bipolar neurons lying amongst them
and partly with isolated sense-cells scattered amongst the ordinary
ectoderm cells. This nervous layer is, however, very much thickened
in certain places, so as to cause the ectoderm to project as a ridge.
One such ridge is found at the summit of each ambulacral groove
running along the whole under surface of the arm and terminating in
a cushion at the base of the median tentacle of the water-vascular
system. This ridge is called the radial nerve-cord. The five radial
nerve-cords are united by a circular cord, the nerve-ring, which
appears as a thickening on the peristome surrounding the mouth.
The sense-organs of the Starfish are chiefly the discs of the tube-
feet. Round the edges of these there is a special aggregation of
sense-cells; elsewhere, as in the skin of the back, only isolated
sense-cells are found, and it becomes impossible to speak of a
sense-organ.
A prolongation of the radial nerve-cord extends outwards along one

side of each tube-foot. This is often spoken of as the "pedal nerve,"
but the term nerve is properly retained for a mere bundle of axons
such as we find in the higher animals, whereas the structure referred
to contains the bodies of nerve-cells as well as their outgrowths or
cell-fibres and is therefore a prolongation of the nerve-cord.
Fig. 192.—Diagrammatic longitudinal section through a young Asteroid passing

through the tip of one arm and the middle of the opposite interradius. This
diagram is generalised from a section of Asterina gibbosa. ab, Aboral sinus;
ax, axial sinus; ax1, basal extension of axial sinus forming the inner
perihaemal ring-canal; br, branchia = gill = papula; g.r, genital rachis; mp,
madreporite; musc.tr, muscle uniting a pair of ambulacral ossicles; nerv.circ,
nerve-ring; n.r, radial nerve-cord; oc, eye-pit; oss, ossicles in skin; p.br,
peribranchial sinus; p.c, pore canal; perih (on the right), perihaemal radial
canal, (on the left), outer perihaemal ring-canal; py, pyloric caecum; rect,
rectum; rect.caec, rectal caeca; sp, spines; st.c, stone-canal; t, median
tentacle terminating radial canal; w.v.r, water-vascular radial canal. The
genital stolon (not marked by a reference line) is seen as an irregular band
accompanying the stone-canal, its upper end projects into a small closed
sac, also unmarked, which is the right hydrocoele or madreporic vesicle.
At the base of the terminal tentacle the radial nerve-cord ends in a

cushion. This cushion is called the "eye," for it is beset with a large
number of cup-shaped pockets of the ectoderm. Each pocket is lined
partly by cells containing a bright orange pigment and partly by
visual cells each of which ends in a small clear rod projecting into the
cavity of the pit (Fig. 193, A, vis.r). The pit is apparently closed by a
thin sheet of cuticle secreted by the most superficial cells.
An exposed nervous system and simple sense-organs such as the

Starfish possesses lend themselves admirably to the purposes of
physiological experiment, and so Starfish have been favourite
"corpora vilia" with many physiologists.
Fig. 193.—A, longitudinal section of a single eye-pit of Asterias. s.n, Nucleus of

supporting cell; vis.n, nucleus of visual cell; vis.r, visual rod. B, view of the
terminal tentacle showing the eye-pits scattered over it. (After Pfeffer.)
The light-perceiving function of the eye is easily demonstrated. If a

number of Starfish be put into a dark tank which is illuminated only
by a narrow beam of light they will be found after an interval to have
collected in the space reached by the beam of light.[445] If all the
median tentacles but one be removed this will still be the case; if,
however, they are all removed the Starfish will exhibit indifference to
the light.
If the under surface of a Starfish be irritated by an electric shock or a

hot needle, or a drop of acid, the tube-feet of the affected area will
be strongly retracted, and this irritation will be carried by the pedal
nerves to the radial nerve-cord, with the result that finally all the
tube-feet in the groove will be retracted and the groove closed by the
action of the transverse muscle connecting each ambulacral ossicle
with its fellow. If, on the other hand, the back of a Starfish be irritated
this may produce a contraction of the tube-feet if the irritation be
strong, but this will be followed by active alternate expansions and
contractions, in a word, by endeavours to move. Preyer[446] by
suspending a Starfish ventral surface upward, by means of a small
zinc plate to which a string was attached which passed through a
hole bored in the back and through the mouth, caused movements of
this description which lasted for hours. Irritation of the back causes
also activity of the local pedicellariae, which open their valves widely
and then close them with a snap in the endeavour to seize the
aggressor.
The uninjured Starfish in moving pursues a definite direction, one

arm being generally directed forwards, but this may be any one of
the five. The tube-feet of this arm are directed forwards when they
are stretched out, by the slightly unequal contraction of the
longitudinal muscles of opposite sides of the foot, which persists
even when the circular muscles of the ampulla are contracting. They
thus may be said to swing parallel to the long axis of the arm. The
tube-feet of the other arms assist in the movement, and hence swing
obliquely with reference to the long axis of the arm to which they
belong, although they move parallel to the general direction in which
the Starfish is moving. A change in the direction of the swing of the
tube-feet will bring about a change in the direction of the movement
of the animal as a whole. If now the connexion of each radial nerve-
cord with the nerve-ring be cut through, each arm will act as a
separate Starfish and will move its tube-feet without reference to the
movement of those in the other arms, so that the animal is pulled
first one way and then another according as the influence first of one
arm and then of another predominates. Similarly, when a Starfish is
placed on its back, it rights itself by the combined action of the tube-
feet of all the arms, extending them all as widely as possible, those
which first catch hold being used as the pivot for the turning
movement. If, however, the radial nerve-cords are cut through, each
arm tries to right itself and it is only by chance that the efforts of one
so predominate as to turn the whole animal over. From these
experiments it is clear that the nerve-ring acts as co-ordinator of the
movements of the Starfish, that is to say as its brain.
If a section be taken across the arm of a Starfish (Fig. 191), it will be

seen that between the V-shaped ridge constituting the radial nerve-
cord and the radial water-vascular canal there are two canals lying
side by side and separated from one another by a vertical septum.
These canals are not mere splits in the substance of the body-wall,
but have a well-defined wall of flattened cells. They are termed, for
reasons which will be explained subsequently, perihaemal canals,
and they open into a circular canal called the "outer perihaemal ring,"
situated just beneath the water-vascular ring-canal (Fig. 192, perih).
These canals originate as outgrowths from the coelom. From their
upper walls are developed the muscles which connect the pairs of
ambulacral ossicles and close the groove, and also those which
connect each ossicle with its successor and predecessor and help to
elevate or depress the tip of the arm.
In most of the higher animals the processes of many of the ganglion-

cells are connected together in bundles called "motor nerves," which
can be traced into contact with the muscles, and thus the path along
which the stimulus travels in order to evoke movement can clearly be
seen. No such well-defined nerves can be made out in the case of
the Starfish, and it is therefore interesting when exceptionally the
paths along which stimuli travel to the muscles can be traced. This
can be done in the case of the muscles mentioned above. Whereas
they originate from the dorsal walls of the perihaemal canals,
ganglion-cells develop from the ventral walls of these canals, which
are in close contact with the nerve-cord, so that the nervous system
of the Starfish is partly ectodermic and partly coelomic in origin.
Stimuli reaching the ectodermic ganglion-cells are transmitted by
them to the nervous part of the wall of the perihaemal canal and from
that to the muscular portion of the same layer of cells.
Besides the radial perihaemal canals and their connecting outer

perihaemal ring there are several other tubular extensions of the
coelom found in the body-wall. These are:—
(1) The "inner perihaemal canal," a circular canal in close contact

with the inner side of the outer perihaemal canal (Fig. 192, ax1).
(2) The "axial sinus" (ax) a wide vertical canal embedded in the
body-wall outside the stone-canal. This canal opens into the inner
perihaemal canal below; above it opens into several of the pore-
canals and into the stone-canal. The separation of the axial sinus
from the rest of the coelom is the remains of a feebly marked
metamerism in the larva.
(3) The "madreporic vesicle," a closed sac embedded in the dorsal

body-wall just under the madreporite. This sac by its history in the
larva appears to be a rudimentary counterpart of the water-vascular
system, since this organ in correspondence with the general bilateral
symmetry of the larva is at first paired. Into this a special process of
the genital stolon projects.
(4) The "aboral sinus" (Fig. 192, ab), a tube embedded in the dorsal
body-wall running horizontally round the disc. The aboral sinus
surrounds the genital rachis (see p. 452) and gives off into each arm
two branches, the ends of which swell so as to surround the genital
organs. It has no connexion with the axial sinus though the contrary
has often been stated by Ludwig.[447]
(5) The "peribranchial spaces," circular spaces which surround the

basal parts of the papulae (Fig. 192, p.br).
Besides these, large irregular spaces have been described as

existing in the body-wall by Hamann[448] and other authors, but for
various reasons and especially because they possess no definite
wall they appear to be nothing more than rents caused by the
escape of CO2 gas during the process of decalcifying, to which the
tissues of the Starfish must be subjected before it is easy to cut
sections of them.
The question as to whether or not there is a blood system in the

Starfish has an interesting history. It must be remembered that the
examination of the structure of Echinodermata was first undertaken
by human anatomists, who approached the subject imbued with the
idea that representatives of all the systems of organs found in the
human subject would be found in the lower animals also. So the
perihaemal canals were originally described as blood-vessels. Later,
Ludwig[449] discovered a strand of strongly staining material running
in each septum which separates the two perihaemal canals of the
arm. Each of these radial strands could be traced into connexion
with a circular strand interposed between the outer and the inner
perihaemal ring-canals. This circular strand again came into
connexion with a brown, lobed organ, lying in the wall of the axial
sinus, and this in turn joined at its upper end a circular cord of
pigmented material adhering to the dorsal wall of the coelom (lying in
fact within the aboral sinus), from which branches could be traced to
the generative organs. Ludwig concluded that he had at last
discovered the true blood-vessels, though the facts that the radial
strands and the oral circular strand absorbed neutral carmine
strongly and that the vertical and aboral strands were pigmented,
constituted a very slender basis on which to found such a
conclusion. The colour apparently appealed to the imagination, and it
is undoubtedly true that the "plasma" or blood-fluid of other animals
often absorbs stain strongly.
The strands were accordingly named "radial blood-vessels," "oral

blood-ring," "aboral blood-ring"; and the brown vertical strand was
called the "heart," although no circulation or pulsations had ever
been observed. When later investigations revealed the fact that the
so-called heart was practically solid, the term "central blood-plexus"
was substituted for heart, although it was still regarded as the central
organ of the system. The name "perihaemal" was given to the
spaces so called because they surrounded the supposed blood-
vessels.
In order to come to a satisfactory conclusion on the matter some

general idea as to the fundamental nature and function of the blood-
vessels in general must be arrived at. Investigations made on
various groups of animals, such as Annelida, Mollusca, Crustacea,
Vertebrata, show that at an early period of development a
considerable space intervenes between the alimentary canal and the
ectoderm, which is filled with a more or less fluid jelly. Into this cavity,
the so-called "primary body-cavity" or "archicoel," amoebocytes,
budded from the ectoderm or endoderm or both, penetrate. In this
jelly with its contained amoebocytes is to be found the common
rudiment both of the connective tissue and of the blood system. The
resemblance of the archicoele and its contents to the jelly of a
Medusa is too obvious to require special insistence on, and therefore
in the Coelenterata it may be stated that there is to be found a tissue
which is neither blood system nor connective tissue but is the
forerunner of both.
In the higher animals as development proceeds the jelly undergoes

differentiation, for some of the amoebocytes become stationary and
connected with their pseudopodia so as to form a protoplasmic
network. A portion of this network becomes altered into tough fibres,
but a portion of each strand remains living, and in this way the
connective tissue is formed. In the interstices of the network of fibres
a semi-fluid substance (the unaltered jelly) is found, and this is
traversed by free, wandering amoebocytes. In other places the jelly
becomes more fluid and forms the plasma, or liquid of the blood,
whilst the amoebocytes form the blood corpuscles. The blood
system thus arises from regions of the archicoel where fibres are not
precipitated.
Now in the Starfish the whole substance of the body-wall intervening

between the ectoderm and the coelomic epithelium really represents
the archicoel. The formation of fibres has, it is true, proceeded to a
certain extent, since there are interlacing bundles of these, but there
are left wide meshes in which amoebocytes can still move freely.
Apart from the skeleton, therefore, the tissues of the body-wall of the
Starfish do not exhibit much advance on those of a Jellyfish. If
anything is to be compared to the blood system of the higher animals
it must be these meshes in the connective tissue. From observations
made on other Echinoderms it appears probable that the colour of
the skin is due to amoebocytes loaded with pigment wandering
outwards through the jelly of the body-wall and disintegrating there.
The strands regarded as blood-vessels by Ludwig are specially
modified tracts of connective tissue in which fibres are sparse, and in
which there are large quantities of amoebocytes and in which the
"jelly" stains easily. Cuénot[450] suggests that they are placed where
new amoebocytes are formed; this is quite possible, and in this case
they ought to be compared to the spleen and other lymphatic organs
of Vertebrates, and not to the blood-vessels.[451]
The organ regarded as the heart, however, belongs to a different

category: it is really the original seat of the genital cells and should
be termed the "genital stolon." Careful sections show that at its
upper end it is continuous with a strand of primitive germ-cells which
lies inside the so-called aboral blood-vessel, and is termed the
"genital rachis" (Fig. 192, g.r). The germ-cells are distinguished by
their large nuclei and their granular protoplasm. The genital organs
are only local swellings of the genital rachis, and from the shape of
some of the germ-cells it is regarded as highly probable that the
primitive germ-cells wander along the rachis and accumulate in the
genital organs. The genital rachis itself is an outgrowth from the
genital stolon, and this latter originates as a pocket-like ingrowth of
the coelom into the wall separating it from the axial sinus; when fully
formed it projects into and is apparently contained in this latter
space.
Not all the cells forming the genital stolon become sexual cells. Many
degenerate and become pigment-cells, a circumstance to which the
organ owes its brown colour. In very many species of Starfish many
of the cells of the genital rachis undergo a similar degeneration, and
hence is produced the apparent aboral blood-vessel. Further, the
rachis is embedded in connective tissue which has undergone what
we may call the "lymphatic" modification, and this for want of a better
name we call the "aboral" blood-ring.
The size of the genital organs varies with the season of the year;
they are feather-shaped, and attached to the genital rachis by their
bases, but project freely into the coelom of the arm. From their great
variation in size and also from the shape of some of the cells in the
genital rachis, Hamann concludes that as each period of maturity
approaches fresh germ-cells are formed in the rachis and wander
into the genital organ and grow there in size. It is probable that the
aboral end of the genital stolon is the seat of the formation of new
germ-cells.
In the Starfish, therefore, as in other animals with a well-defined

coelom, the genital cells ultimately originate from the coelomic wall.
The genital ducts are formed by the burrowing outwards of the germ-
cells. When it is remembered that the fundamental substance of the
body-wall is semi-fluid jelly, this process will be better understood.
When the ova and spermatozoa are ripe, they are simply shed out
into the sea and fertilisation occurs there. The development is
described in Chapter XXI. The free-swimming larval period lasts
about six weeks.
Having described a single species with some degree of fulness, we

must now give some account of the range of variation of structure
met with in the group.
Number of Arms.—In the overwhelming majority of Starfish the

number of arms is 5, but deviations from this rule are met with not
only as individual variations, but as the characteristics of species,
genera, and even families.
The number 5 is rarely diminished, but amongst a large collection of

specimens of Asterina gibbosa, belonging to the author, some 4-
rayed individuals are met with. One species of Culcita, C. tetragona,
is normally 4-rayed.
On the other hand the number 5 is often exceeded. The families

Heliasteridae and Brisingidae are characterised by possessing
numerous (19-25) arms. In the normally 5-rayed family Asteriidae
Pycnopodia has 22 arms; and in the Solasteridae the genera
Rhipidaster and Solaster are characterised by possessing 8 and 11-
15 arms respectively; whilst Korethraster and Peribolaster have only
5. The common Starfish of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Asterias polaris,
is 6-rayed, whilst most of the other species of the same genus are 5-
rayed, though 6 rays are often met with as a variation.
In some species the fact that the number of arms exceeds 5 seems
to be connected with the power of multiplication by transverse
fission. Thus Ludwig[452] has shown that in Asterias tenuispina the
number of arms is usually 7, but sometimes 5, 6, or 8, and that in
most cases the arms are arranged in two groups—one consisting of
small arms, the other of large.
Shape.—Apart from the varying number of arms, differences in the

shape of the Starfish are due to two circumstances:—
(1) The proportion of breadth to length of arm; and
(2) The amount of adhesion between adjacent arms.
The adhesion can go so far that the animal acquires the shape of a
pentagonal disc. This is the case for instance in Culcita. The fact that
the body of this animal is really composed of adherent arms is at
once made clear when the coelom is opened. This space is found to
be divided up by inwardly projecting folds called interradial septa,
which are stiffened by calcareous deposits and represent the
conjoined adjacent walls of two arms.
In the family Heliasteridae the mutual adhesion between the arms

has gone on merely to a slight extent, for the interradial septa are
still double.
Skeleton.—Most of the schemes of classification have been

founded on the skeleton, largely because the greater number of
species have only been examined in the dried condition, and little is
known of their internal anatomy or habits. There is, however, this
justification for this procedure, that the habits and food of the species
(with the exception of the Paxillosa) which have been observed in
the living condition appear to be very uniform, and that it is with
regard to the skeleton that Asteroidea seem to have split into
divergent groups through adopting different means of protecting
themselves from their foes.
The description of the various elements of the skeleton will be

arranged under the following heads:—(a) Main framework; (b)
Spines; (c) Pedicellariae; (d) Ambulacral skeleton.
(a) Main Framework.—The type of skeleton which supports the

body-wall of Asterias is called reticulate. As already indicated it
consists of a series of rods bound together by bundles of connective-
tissue fibres so as to form a mesh-work. This is a very common type
of aboral skeleton, but in a large number of Starfish a different type
occurs, consisting of a series of plates which may fit edge to edge,
leaving between them only narrow interstices, as in the
Zoroasteridae, or which may be placed obliquely (as in Asterina) so
that they imbricate or overlap one another. In a very large number of
Asteroidea the supero- and infero-marginal ossicles are represented
by squarish plates even when the rest of the skeleton is reticulate;

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(eBook PDF) ETHICS (Explore Our New

Philosophy 1st Editions)

Case Study: Educating Children 69

THINKING IT THROUGH 1 58 6. FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION 98

William James 119

THINKING IT THROUGH 3 127

Frances Kamm 153 10-4 DNA Testing’s Impact 172

11. COMPUTER ETHICS 188

Overview 214 THINKING IT THROUGH 6 244

13. WAR AND THE WORLD 228

13-2a Utilitarianism 231

BRIEFING 5: RELIGIOUS ETHICS 256

The problem is that no ethical system has ever achieved

After you complete this unit, you should be able to:

1-1 Explain what philosophy and

1-2 State a working definition of what

1-3 Summarize different meanings of what

1-4 Identify ethical issues that are currently

1-5 State goals you would like to

been promoted in the history

not because they necessarily have the

ries in testing out different

of ethics courses understand-

1-3 VARIOUS MEANINGS

feel more comfortable pur-

ties in these concepts and clarify these if you were

a sample claim will be subjected to the scrutiny outlined

CHAPTER 1 Case Study

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION

[W]e have been unable

MENO: Yes, that appears to be the question which comes next in

SOCRATES: Do we not say that virtue is a good?—This is a

hypothesis which is not set aside.

165 MENO: Certainly.

SOCRATES: Now, if there be any sort of good which is distinct

from knowledge, virtue may MENO: Very true.

Were you ever taught virtue

Except in the case of the ambulacral and adambulacral plates little

When the covering of the back is dissected off the coelom is

The Starfish possesses no definite kidney for getting rid of

The alimentary canal consists of several distinct portions. The

Fig. 189.—View of a Starfish (Echinaster) devouring a Mussel. 1. The

The favourite food[443] of Asterias consists of the common bivalves

The lining of the stomach is found to consist very largely of mucus-

The tube-feet are covered externally by ectoderm, inside which is a

The tube-feet are, therefore, really a double row of lateral branches

Fig. 191.—Diagrammatic cross-section of the arm of a Starfish. adamb,

If each tube-foot were practically water-tight, then each would be

In the fluid contained in the water-vascular system, as in the

The nervous system of the Starfish is in a very interesting

A prolongation of the radial nerve-cord extends outwards along one

Fig. 192.—Diagrammatic longitudinal section through a young Asteroid passing

At the base of the terminal tentacle the radial nerve-cord ends in a

An exposed nervous system and simple sense-organs such as the

Fig. 193.—A, longitudinal section of a single eye-pit of Asterias. s.n, Nucleus of

The light-perceiving function of the eye is easily demonstrated. If a

If the under surface of a Starfish be irritated by an electric shock or a

The uninjured Starfish in moving pursues a definite direction, one

If a section be taken across the arm of a Starfish (Fig. 191), it will be

In most of the higher animals the processes of many of the ganglion-

Besides the radial perihaemal canals and their connecting outer

(1) The "inner perihaemal canal," a circular canal in close contact