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W ith its objective to present circuit analysis in a manner that is clearer, more interesting, and easier to
understand than other texts, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits by Charles Alexander and Matthew Sadiku
has become the student choice for introductory electric circuits courses.
FiFth
Edition
FiFt h Edition
Building on the success of the previous editions, the fifth edition features the latest updates and advances in the
field, while continuing to present material with an unmatched pedagogy and communication style.
Pedagogical Features
Fundamentals of
Electric Circuits
■ Problem-Solving Methodology. A six-step method for solving circuits problems is introduced in Chapter 1 and
used consistently throughout the book to help students develop a systems approach to problem solving that
Electric Circuits
leads to better understanding and fewer mistakes in mathematics and theory.
■ Matched Example Problems and Extended Examples. Each illustrative example is immediately followed by a
Fundamentals of
practice problem and answer to test understanding of the preceding example. one extended example per
chapter shows an example problem worked using a detailed outline of the six-step method so students can
see how to practice this technique. Students follow the example step-by-step to solve the practice problem
without having to flip pages or search the end of the book for answers.
■ Comprehensive Coverage of Material. not only is Fundamentals the most comprehensive text in terms of
material, but it is also self-contained in regards to mathematics and theory, which means that when students
have questions regarding the mathematics or theory they are using to solve problems, they can find answers to
their questions in the text itself. they will not need to seek out other references.
■ Computer tools. PSpice® for Windows is used throughout the text with discussions and examples at the end of
each appropriate chapter. MAtLAB® is also used in the book as a computational tool.
■ new to the fifth edition is the addition of 120 national instruments Multisim™ circuit files. Solutions for almost
all of the problems solved using PSpice are also available to the instructor in Multisim.
■ We continue to make available KCidE for Circuits (a Knowledge Capturing integrated design Environment for
Circuits).
An icon is used to identify homework problems that either should be solved or are more easily solved using
MD DALIM 1167970 10/30/11 CYAN MAG YELO BLACK

■
PSpice, Multisim, and/or KCidE. Likewise, we use another icon to identify problems that should be solved or are
more easily solved using MAtLAB.
Teaching Resources
McGraw-hill Connect® Engineering is a web-based assignment and assessment platform that gives students the
means to better connect with their coursework, with their instructors, and with the important concepts that they
will need to know for success now and in the future. Contact your McGraw-hill sales representative or visit www.
connect.mcgraw-hill.com for more details.
the text also features a website of student and instructor resources. Check it out at www.mhhe.com/alexander.
Alexander
Sadiku
Charles K. Alexander | Matthew n. o. Sadiku

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vi Contents
5.3 Ideal Op Amp 179 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits 313

5.4 Inverting Amplifier 181
5.5 Noninverting Amplifier 183 8.1 Introduction 314
5.6 Summing Amplifier 185 8.2 Finding Initial and Final Values 314
5.7 Difference Amplifier 187 8.3 The Source-Free Series
5.8 Cascaded Op Amp Circuits 191 RLC Circuit 319
5.9 Op Amp Circuit Analysis with PSpice 194 8.4 The Source-Free Parallel
5.10 †
Applications 196 RLC Circuit 326
5.10.1 Digital-to-Analog Converter
8.5 Step Response of a Series RLC
5.10.2 Instrumentation Amplifiers
Circuit 331
5.11 Summary 199 8.6 Step Response of a Parallel RLC
Review Questions 201
Circuit 336
Problems 202
8.7 General Second-Order Circuits 339
Comprehensive Problems 213
8.8 Second-Order Op Amp Circuits 344
8.9 PSpice Analysis of RLC Circuits 346
†
8.10 Duality 350
†
8.11 Applications 353
Chapter 6 Capacitors and 8.11.1 Automobile Ignition System
Inductors 215 8.11.2 Smoothing Circuits
6.1 Introduction 216 8.12 Summary 356
6.2 Capacitors 216
Problems 358
6.3 Series and Parallel Capacitors 222
6.4 Inductors 226
6.5 Series and Parallel Inductors 230
†
6.6.1 Integrator
6.6.2 Differentiator PART 2 AC Circuits 368
6.6.3 Analog Computer
Chapter 9 Sinusoids and Phasors 369
6.7 Summary 240
Review Questions 241 9.1 Introduction 370
Problems 242 9.2 Sinusoids 371
Comprehensive Problems 251 9.3 Phasors 376
9.4 Phasor Relationships for
Circuit Elements 385
9.5 Impedance and Admittance 387
Chapter 7 First-Order Circuits 253 †
9.6 Kirchhoff’s Laws in the Frequency
7.1 Introduction 254 Domain 389
7.2 The Source-Free RC Circuit 254 9.7 Impedance Combinations 390
†
7.3 The Source-Free RL Circuit 259 9.8 Applications 396
7.4 Singularity Functions 265 9.8.1 Phase-Shifters
7.5 Step Response of an RC Circuit 273 9.8.2 AC Bridges
7.6 Step Response of an RL Circuit 280 9.9 Summary 402
†
7.7 First-Order Op Amp Circuits 284 Review Questions 403
7.8 Transient Analysis with PSpice 289 Problems 403
†
7.9 Applications 293 Comprehensive Problems 411
7.9.1 Delay Circuits
7.9.2 Photoflash Unit
7.9.3 Relay Circuits
Chapter 10 Sinusoidal Steady-State
7.9.4 Automobile Ignition Circuit
Analysis 413
7.10 Summary 299
Review Questions 300 10.1 Introduction 414
Problems 301 10.2 Nodal Analysis 414
Comprehensive Problems 311 10.3 Mesh Analysis 417
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Contents vii
10.4 Superposition Theorem 421 12.11 Summary 543

10.5 Source Transformation 424 Review Questions 543
10.6 Thevenin and Norton Problems 544
Equivalent Circuits 426 Comprehensive Problems 553
10.7 Op Amp AC Circuits 431
10.8 AC Analysis Using PSpice 433
†
Chapter 13 Magnetically Coupled
10.9.1 Capacitance Multiplier
Circuits 555
10.9.2 Oscillators
10.10 Summary 441 13.1 Introduction 556
Review Questions 441 13.2 Mutual Inductance 556
Problems 443 13.3 Energy in a Coupled Circuit 564
13.4 Linear Transformers 567
13.5 Ideal Transformers 573
13.6 Ideal Autotransformers 581
†
Chapter 11 AC Power Analysis 457 13.7 Three-Phase Transformers 584
13.8 PSpice Analysis of Magnetically
11.1 Introduction 458
Coupled Circuits 586
11.2 Instantaneous and Average †
Power 458
13.9.1 Transformer as an Isolation Device
11.3 Maximum Average Power
13.9.2 Transformer as a Matching Device
Transfer 464
13.9.3 Power Distribution
11.4 Effective or RMS Value 467
13.10 Summary 597
11.5 Apparent Power and
Power Factor 470
Problems 599
11.6 Complex Power 473
† Comprehensive Problems 611
11.7 Conservation of AC Power 477
11.8 Power Factor Correction 481
†
11.9.1 Power Measurement Chapter 14 Frequency Response 613
11.9.2 Electricity Consumption Cost
11.10 Summary 488
14.2 Transfer Function 614
Review Questions 490 †
14.3 The Decibel Scale 617
Problems 490
14.4 Bode Plots 619
14.5 Series Resonance 629
14.6 Parallel Resonance 634
14.7 Passive Filters 637
14.7.1 Lowpass Filter
Chapter 12 Three-Phase Circuits 503
14.7.2 Highpass Filter
12.1 Introduction 504 14.7.3 Bandpass Filter
12.2 Balanced Three-Phase Voltages 505 14.7.4 Bandstop Filter
12.3 Balanced Wye-Wye Connection 509 14.8 Active Filters 642
12.4 Balanced Wye-Delta Connection 512 14.8.1 First-Order Lowpass Filter
12.5 Balanced Delta-Delta 14.8.2 First-Order Highpass Filter
Connection 514 14.8.3 Bandpass Filter
12.6 Balanced Delta-Wye Connection 516 14.8.4 Bandreject (or Notch) Filter
12.7 Power in a Balanced System 519 14.9 Scaling 648
12.8 †Unbalanced Three-Phase 14.9.1 Magnitude Scaling
Systems 525 14.9.2 Frequency Scaling
12.9 PSpice for Three-Phase Circuits 529 14.9.3 Magnitude and Frequency Scaling
12.10 †Applications 534 14.10 Frequency Response Using
12.10.1 Three-Phase Power Measurement PSpice 652
12.10.2 Residential Wiring 14.11 Computation Using MATLAB 655
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viii Contents
14.12 †
Applications 657 17.3 Symmetry Considerations 768
14.12.1 Radio Receiver 17.3.1 Even Symmetry
14.12.2 Touch-Tone Telephone 17.3.2 Odd Symmetry
14.12.3 Crossover Network 17.3.3 Half-Wave Symmetry
14.13 Summary 663 17.4 Circuit Applications 778
Review Questions 664 17.5 Average Power and RMS Values 782
Problems 665 17.6 Exponential Fourier Series 785
Comprehensive Problems 673 17.7 Fourier Analysis with PSpice 791
17.7.1 Discrete Fourier Transform
17.7.2 Fast Fourier Transform
†
17.8.1 Spectrum Analyzers
PART 3 Advanced Circuit 17.8.2 Filters
Analysis 674 17.9 Summary 800
Chapter 15 Introduction to the Laplace
Problems 802
Transform 675
15.2 Definition of the Laplace Transform 677
15.3 Properties of the Laplace Transform 679
Chapter 18 Fourier Transform 813
15.4 The Inverse Laplace Transform 690
15.4.1 Simple Poles 18.1 Introduction 814
15.4.2 Repeated Poles 18.2 Definition of the Fourier Transform 814
15.4.3 Complex Poles 18.3 Properties of the Fourier
15.5 The Convolution Integral 697 Transform 820
†
15.6 Application to Integrodifferential 18.4 Circuit Applications 833
Equations 705 18.5 Parseval’s Theorem 836
15.7 Summary 708 18.6 Comparing the Fourier and
Review Questions 708 Laplace Transforms 839
†
Problems 709 18.7 Applications 840
18.7.1 Amplitude Modulation
18.7.2 Sampling
18.8 Summary 843
Chapter 16 Applications of the Laplace Review Questions 844
Transform 715 Problems 845
16.1 Introduction 716 Comprehensive Problems 851
16.2 Circuit Element Models 716
16.3 Circuit Analysis 722
16.4 Transfer Functions 726 Chapter 19 Two-Port Networks 853
16.5 State Variables 730
† 19.1 Introduction 854
16.6.1 Network Stability 19.2 Impedance Parameters 854
16.6.2 Network Synthesis 19.3 Admittance Parameters 859
16.7 Summary 745 19.4 Hybrid Parameters 862
Review Questions 746 19.5 Transmission Parameters 867
†
Problems 747 19.6 Relationships Between
Comprehensive Problems 758 Parameters 872
19.7 Interconnection of Networks 875
19.8 Computing Two-Port Parameters
Using PSpice 881
Chapter 17 The Fourier Series 759 †
17.1 Introduction 760 19.9.1 Transistor Circuits
17.2 Trigonometric Fourier Series 760 19.9.2 Ladder Network Synthesis
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Contents ix
19.10 Summary 893 Appendix C Mathematical Formulas A-16

Appendix D Answers to Odd-Numbered
Problems 894
Problems A-21
Comprehensive Problem 905
Selected Bibliography B-1
Index I-1
Appendix A Simultaneous Equations and Matrix
Inversion A
Appendix B Complex Numbers A-9
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Preface
You may be wondering why we chose a photo of NASA’s Mars Rover
for the cover. We actually chose it for several reasons. Obviously, it is
very exciting; in fact, space represents the most exciting frontier for
the entire world! In addition, much of the Rover itself consists of all
kinds of circuits. Circuits that must work without needing maintenance!
Once you are on Mars, it is hard to find a technician!
The Rover must have a power system that can supply all the power
necessary to move it, help it collect samples and analyze them, broadcast
the results back to Earth, and receive instructions from Earth. One of the
important issues that make the problem of working with the rover is that
it takes about 20 minutes for communications to go from the Earth to
Mars. So the Rover does not make changes required by NASA quickly.
What we find most amazing is that such a sophisticated and com-
plicated electro-mechanical device can operate so accurately and reli-
ably after flying millions of miles and being bounced onto the ground!
Here is a link to an absolutely incredible video of what the Rover is
all about and how it got to Mars: http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=5UmRx4dEdRI. Enjoy!
Features
New to This Edition
A model for magnetic coupling is presented in Chapter 13 that will make
analysis easier as well as enhance your ability to find errors. We have suc-
cessfully used this model for years and felt it was now time to add it to
the book. In addition, there are over 600 new end-of-chapter problems,
changed end-of-chapter problems, and changed practice problems.
We have also added National Instruments MultisimTM solutions for
almost all of the problems solved using PSpice®. There is a Multisim
tutorial available on our website. We have added National Instruments
Multisim since it is very user-friendly with many more options for
analysis than PSpice. In addition, it allows the ability to modify circuits
easily in order to see how changing circuit parameters impacts voltages,
currents, and power. We have also moved the tutorials for PSpice, MAT-
LAB®, and KCIDE to our website to allow us to keep up with changes
in the software.
We have also added 43 new problems to Chapter 16. We did this
to enhance using the powerful s-domain analysis techniques to finding
voltages and currents in circuits.
Retained from Previous Editions

A course in circuit analysis is perhaps the first exposure students have
to electrical engineering. This is also a place where we can enhance
some of the skills that they will later need as they learn how to design.
xi
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xii Preface
An important part of this book is our 121 design a problem problems.

These problems were developed to enhance skills that are an important
part of the design process. We know it is not possible to fully develop
a student’s design skills in a fundamental course like circuits. To fully
develop design skills a student needs a design experience normally
reserved for their senior year. This does not mean that some of those
skills cannot be developed and exercised in a circuits course. The text
already included open-ended questions that help students use creativ-
ity, which is an important part of learning how to design. We already
have some questions that are open-ended but we desired to add much
more into our text in this important area and have developed an
approach to do just that. When we develop problems for the student to
solve our goal is that in solving the problem the student learns more
about the theory and the problem solving process. Why not have the
students design problems like we do? That is exactly what we do in
each chapter. Within the normal problem set, we have a set of prob-
lems where we ask the student to design a problem to help other stu-
dents better understand an important concept. This has two very
important results. The first will be a better understanding of the basic
theory and the second will be the enhancement of some of the student’s
basic design skills. We are making effective use of the principle of
learning by teaching. Essentially we all learn better when we teach a
subject. Designing effective problems is a key part of the teaching
process. Students should also be encouraged to develop problems,
when appropriate, which have nice numbers and do not necessarily
overemphasize complicated mathematical manipulations.
A very important advantage to our textbook, we have a total of
2,447 Examples, Practice Problems, Review Questions, and End-of-
Chapter Problems! Answers are provided for all practice problems and
the odd numbered end-of-chapter problems.
The main objective of the fifth edition of this book remains the
same as the previous editions—to present circuit analysis in a manner
that is clearer, more interesting, and easier to understand than other cir-
cuit textbooks, and to assist the student in beginning to see the “fun”
in engineering. This objective is achieved in the following ways:
• Chapter Openers and Summaries
Each chapter opens with a discussion about how to enhance skills
which contribute to successful problem solving as well as success-
ful careers or a career-oriented talk on a sub-discipline of electri-
cal engineering. This is followed by an introduction that links the
chapter with the previous chapters and states the chapter objectives.
The chapter ends with a summary of key points and formulas.
• Problem-Solving Methodology
Chapter 1 introduces a six-step method for solving circuit prob-
lems which is used consistently throughout the book and media
supplements to promote best-practice problem-solving procedures.
• Student-Friendly Writing Style
All principles are presented in a lucid, logical, step-by-step man-
ner. As much as possible, we avoid wordiness and giving too much
detail that could hide concepts and impede overall understanding
of the material.
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Preface xiii
• Boxed Formulas and Key Terms

Important formulas are boxed as a means of helping students sort
out what is essential from what is not. Also, to ensure that students
clearly understand the key elements of the subject matter, key
terms are defined and highlighted.
• Margin Notes
Marginal notes are used as a pedagogical aid. They serve multiple
uses such as hints, cross-references, more exposition, warnings,
reminders not to make some particular common mistakes, and
problem-solving insights.
• Worked Examples
Thoroughly worked examples are liberally given at the end of
every section. The examples are regarded as a part of the text and
are clearly explained without asking the reader to fill in missing
steps. Thoroughly worked examples give students a good under-
standing of the solution process and the confidence to solve prob-
lems themselves. Some of the problems are solved in two or three
different ways to facilitate a substantial comprehension of the sub-
ject material as well as a comparison of different approaches.
• Practice Problems
To give students practice opportunity, each illustrative example is
immediately followed by a practice problem with the answer. The
student can follow the example step-by-step to aid in the solution
of the practice problem without flipping pages or looking at the
end of the book for answers. The practice problem is also intended
to test a student’s understanding of the preceding example. It will
reinforce their grasp of the material before the student can move
on to the next section. Complete solutions to the practice problems
are available to students on the website.
• Application Sections
The last section in each chapter is devoted to practical application
aspects of the concepts covered in the chapter. The material cov-
ered in the chapter is applied to at least one or two practical prob-
lems or devices. This helps students see how the concepts are
applied to real-life situations.
• Review Questions
Ten review questions in the form of multiple-choice objective
items are provided at the end of each chapter with answers. The
review questions are intended to cover the little “tricks” that the
examples and end-of-chapter problems may not cover. They serve
as a self test device and help students determine how well they
have mastered the chapter.
• Computer Tools
In recognition of the requirements by ABET ® on integrating
computer tools, the use of PSpice, Multisim, MATLAB, KCIDE for
Circuits, and developing design skills are encouraged in a student-
friendly manner. PSpice is covered early on in the text so that stu-
dents can become familiar and use it throughout the text. Tutorials
on all of these are available on our website. MATLAB is also intro-
duced early in the book.
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xiv Preface
• Design a Problem Problems

Finally, design a problem problems are meant to help the student
develop skills that will be needed in the design process.
• Historical Tidbits
Historical sketches throughout the text provide profiles of impor-
tant pioneers and events relevant to the study of electrical
engineering.
• Early Op Amp Discussion
The operational amplifier (op amp) as a basic element is introduced
early in the text.
• Fourier and Laplace Transforms Coverage
To ease the transition between the circuit course and signals and
systems courses, Fourier and Laplace transforms are covered
lucidly and thoroughly. The chapters are developed in a manner
that the interested instructor can go from solutions of first-order
circuits to Chapter 15. This then allows a very natural progression
from Laplace to Fourier to AC.
• Four Color Art Program
An interior design and four color art program bring circuit drawings
to life and enhance key pedagogical elements throughout the text.
• Extended Examples
Examples worked in detail according to the six-step problem solv-
ing method provide a roadmap for students to solve problems in a
consistent fashion. At least one example in each chapter is devel-
oped in this manner.
• EC 2000 Chapter Openers
Based on ABET’s skill-based CRITERION 3, these chapter open-
ers are devoted to discussions as to how students can acquire the
skills that will lead to a significantly enhanced career as an engi-
neer. Because these skills are so very important to the student
while still in college as well after graduation, we use the heading,
“Enhancing your Skills and your Career.”
• Homework Problems
There are 468 new or changed end-of-chapter problems which will
provide students with plenty of practice as well as reinforce key
concepts.
• Homework Problem Icons
Icons are used to highlight problems that relate to engineering
design as well as problems that can be solved using PSpice, Mul-
tisim, KCIDE, or MATLAB.
Organization
This book was written for a two-semester or three-quarter course in
linear circuit analysis. The book may also be used for a one-semester
course by a proper selection of chapters and sections by the instructor.
It is broadly divided into three parts.
• Part 1, consisting of Chapters 1 to 8, is devoted to dc circuits. It
covers the fundamental laws and theorems, circuits techniques, and
passive and active elements.
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Preface xv
• Part 2, which contains Chapter 9 to 14, deals with ac circuits. It

introduces phasors, sinusoidal steady-state analysis, ac power, rms
values, three-phase systems, and frequency response.
• Part 3, consisting of Chapters 15 to 19, are devoted to advanced
techniques for network analysis. It provides students with a solid
introduction to the Laplace transform, Fourier series, Fourier trans-
form, and two-port network analysis.
The material in the three parts is more than sufficient for a two-semester
course, so the instructor must select which chapters or sections to cover.
Sections marked with the dagger sign (†) may be skipped, explained
briefly, or assigned as homework. They can be omitted without loss of
continuity. Each chapter has plenty of problems grouped according to
the sections of the related material and diverse enough that the instruc-
tor can choose some as examples and assign some as homework. As
stated earlier, we are using three icons with this edition. We are using
to denote problems that either require PSpice in the solution
process, where the circuit complexity is such that PSpice or Multisim
would make the solution process easier, and where PSpice or Multisim
makes a good check to see if the problem has been solved correctly.
We are using to denote problems where MATLAB is required in the
solution process, where MATLAB makes sense because of the problem
makeup and its complexity, and where MATLAB makes a good check
to see if the problem has been solved correctly. Finally, we use
to identify problems that help the student develop skills that are needed
for engineering design. More difficult problems are marked with an
asterisk (*).
Comprehensive problems follow the end-of-chapter problems. They
are mostly applications problems that require skills learned from that
particular chapter.
Prerequisites
As with most introductory circuit courses, the main prerequisites, for
a course using this textbook, are physics and calculus. Although famil-
iarity with complex numbers is helpful in the later part of the book, it
is not required. A very important asset of this text is that ALL the math-
ematical equations and fundamentals of physics needed by the student,
are included in the text.
Supplements
McGraw-Hill Connect® Engineering
McGraw-Hill Connect Engineering is a web-based assignment and
assessment platform that gives students the means to better connect
with their coursework, with their instructors, and with the important
concepts that they will need to know for success now and in the
future. With Connect Engineering, instructors can deliver assign-
ments, quizzes, and tests easily online. Students can practice impor-
tant skills at their own pace and on their own schedule. Ask your
McGraw-Hill representative for more details and check it out at
www.mcgrawhillconnect.com/engineering.
ale80571_fm_i-xxii_1.qxd 12/2/11 5:00 PM Page xvi
xvi Preface
Instructor and Student Website

Available at www.mhhe.com/alexander are a number of additional
instructor and student resources to accompany the text. These include
complete solutions for all practice and end-of-chapter problems, solu-
tions in PSpice and Multisim problems, lecture PowerPoints®, text
image files, transition guides to instructors, Network Analysis Tutori-
als, FE Exam questions, flashcards, and primers for PSpice, Multisim,
MATLAB, and KCIDE. The site also features COSMOS, a complete
online solutions manual organization system that allows instructors to
create custom homework, quizzes, and tests using end-of-chapter prob-
lems from the text.
Knowledge Capturing Integrated Design

Environment for Circuits (KCIDE for Circuits)
This software, developed at Cleveland State University and funded by
NASA, is designed to help the student work through a circuits problem
in an organized manner using the six-step problem-solving methodol-
ogy in the text. KCIDE for Circuits allows students to work a circuit
problem in PSpice and MATLAB, track the evolution of their solution,
and save a record of their process for future reference. In addition, the
software automatically generates a Word document and/or a PowerPoint
presentation. The software package can be downloaded for free.
It is hoped that the book and supplemental materials supply the
instructor with all the pedagogical tools necessary to effectively pres-
ent the material.
McGraw-Hill Create™
Craft your teaching resources to match the way you teach! With
McGraw-Hill Create, www.mcgrawhillcreate.com, you can easily
rearrange chapters, combine material from other content sources, and
quickly upload content you have written like your course syllabus or
teaching notes. Find the content you need in Create by searching
through thousands of leading McGraw-Hill textbooks. Arrange your
book to fit your teaching style. Create even allows you to personalize
your book’s appearance by selecting the cover and adding your name,
school, and course information. Order a Create book and you’ll receive
a complimentary print review copy in three to five business days or a
complimentary electronic review copy (eComp) via e-mail in minutes.
Go to www.mcgrawhillcreate.com today and register to experience how
McGraw-Hill Create empowers you to teach your students your way.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our appreciation for the loving support we
have received from our wives (Hannah and Kikelomo), daughters
(Christina, Tamara, Jennifer, Motunrayo, Ann, and Joyce), son (Baixi),
and our extended family members. We would like to additionally thank
Baixi (now Dr. Baixi Su Alexander) for his assistance in checking prob-
lems for clarity and accuracy.
ale80571_fm_i-xxii_1.qxd 12/2/11 5:00 PM Page xvii
Preface xvii
At McGraw-Hill, we would like to thank the following editorial and

production staff: Raghu Srinivasan, publisher and senior sponsoring editor;
Lora Kalb-Neyens, developmental editor; Curt Reynolds, marketing manager,
Joyce Watters, project manager; and Margarite Reynolds, designer.
The fifth edition has benefited greatly from the many outstanding
reviewers and symposium attendees who contributed to the success of
the first four editions! In addition, the following have made important
contributions to this edition (in alphabetical order):
Alok Berry, George Mason University
Vahe Caliskan, University of Illinois-Chicago
Archie Holmes, University of Virginia
Anton Kruger, University of Iowa
Arnost Neugroschel, University of Florida
Arun Ravindran, University of North Carolina-Charlotte
Finally, we appreciate the feedback received from instructors and students
who used the previous editions. We want this to continue, so please keep
sending us e-mails or direct them to the publisher. We can be reached at
c.alexander@ieee.org for Charles Alexander and sadiku@ieee.org for
Matthew Sadiku.
C. K. Alexander and M. N. O. Sadiku
ale80571_fm_i-xxii_1.qxd 12/2/11 5:00 PM Page xviii
ale80571_fm_i-xxii_1.qxd 12/2/11 5:00 PM Page xix
A Note to the Student

This may be your first course in electrical engineering. Although elec-
trical engineering is an exciting and challenging discipline, the course
may intimidate you. This book was written to prevent that. A good text-
book and a good professor are an advantage—but you are the one who
does the learning. If you keep the following ideas in mind, you will do
very well in this course.
• This course is the foundation on which most other courses in the
electrical engineering curriculum rest. For this reason, put in as
much effort as you can. Study the course regularly.
• Problem solving is an essential part of the learning process. Solve as
many problems as you can. Begin by solving the practice problem
following each example, and then proceed to the end-of-chapter prob-
lems. The best way to learn is to solve a lot of problems. An aster-
isk in front of a problem indicates a challenging problem.
• Spice and Multisim, computer circuit analysis programs, are used
throughout the textbook. PSpice, the personal computer version of
Spice, is the popular standard circuit analysis program at most uni-
versities. PSpice for Windows and Multisim are described on our
website. Make an effort to learn PSpice and/or Multisim, because
you can check any circuit problem with them and be sure you are
handing in a correct problem solution.
• MATLAB is another software that is very useful in circuit analysis
and other courses you will be taking. A brief tutorial on MATLAB
can be found on our website. The best way to learn MATLAB is
to start working with it once you know a few commands.
• Each chapter ends with a section on how the material covered in
the chapter can be applied to real-life situations. The concepts in
this section may be new and advanced to you. No doubt, you will
learn more of the details in other courses. We are mainly interested
in gaining a general familiarity with these ideas.
• Attempt the review questions at the end of each chapter. They
will help you discover some “tricks” not revealed in class or in the
textbook.
• Clearly a lot of effort has gone into making the technical details in
this book easy to understand. It also contains all the mathematics
and physics necessary to understand the theory and will be very
useful in your other engineering courses. However, we have also
focused on creating a reference for you to use both in school as
well as when working in industry or seeking a graduate degree.
• It is very tempting to sell your book after you have completed your
classroom experience; however, our advice to you is DO NOT SELL
YOUR ENGINEERING BOOKS! Books have always been expen-
sive; however, the cost of this book is virtually the same as I paid
for my circuits text back in the early 60s in terms of real dollars. In
xix
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xx A Note to the Student
fact, it is actually cheaper. In addition, engineering books of the

past are nowhere near as complete as what is available now.
When I was a student, I did not sell any of my engineering text-
books and was very glad I did not! I found that I needed most of them
throughout my career.
A short review on finding determinants is covered in Appendix A,
complex numbers in Appendix B, and mathematical formulas in Appen-
dix C. Answers to odd-numbered problems are given in Appendix D.
Have fun!
C. K. A. and M. N. O. S.
ale80571_fm_i-xxii_1.qxd 12/2/11 5:00 PM Page xxi
About the Authors

Charles K. Alexander is professor of electrical and computer engi-
neering in the Fenn College of Engineering at Cleveland State Uni-
versity, Cleveland, Ohio. He is also the Director of The Center for
Research in Electronics and Aerospace Technology (CREATE). From
2002 until 2006 he was Dean of the Fenn College of Engineering. From
2004 until 2007, he was Director of Ohio ICE, a research center in
instrumentation, controls, electronics, and sensors (a coalition of CSU,
Case, the University of Akron, and a number of Ohio industries). From
1998 until 2002, he was interim director (2000 and 2001) of the Insti-
tute for Corrosion and Multiphase Technologies and Stocker Visiting
Professor of electrical engineering and computer science at Ohio Uni-
versity. From 1994–1996 he was dean of engineering and computer
science at California State University, Northridge.
From 1989–1994 he was acting dean of the college of engineer-
ing at Temple University, and from 1986–1989 he was professor and
chairman of the department of electrical engineering at Temple. From
1980–1986 he held the same positions at Tennessee Technological Uni-
versity. He was an associate professor and a professor of electrical Charles K. Alexander
engineering at Youngstown State University from 1972–1980, where
he was named Distinguished Professor in 1977 in recognition of “out-
standing teaching and research.” He was assistant professor of electri-
cal engineering at Ohio University in 1971–1972. He received honorary
Dr. Eng. from Ohio Northern University (2009), the PhD (1971) and
M.S.E.E. (1967) from Ohio University and the B.S.E.E. (1965) from
Ohio Northern University.
Dr. Alexander has been a consultant to 23 companies and gov-
ernmental organizations, including the Air Force and Navy and sev-
eral law firms. He has received over $85 million in research and
development funds for projects ranging from solar energy to software
engineering. He has authored 40 publications, including a workbook
and a videotape lecture series, and is coauthor of Fundamentals of
Electric Circuits, Problem Solving Made Almost Easy, and the fifth
edition of the Standard Handbook of Electronic Engineering, with
McGraw-Hill. He has made more than 500 paper, professional, and
technical presentations.
Dr. Alexander is a fellow of the IEEE and served as its president
and CEO in 1997. In 1993 and 1994 he was IEEE vice president, pro-
fessional activities, and chair of the United States Activities Board
(USAB). In 1991–1992 he was region 2 director, serving on the
Regional Activities Board (RAB) and USAB. He has also been a mem-
ber of the Educational Activities Board. He served as chair of the
USAB Member Activities Council and vice chair of the USAB
Professional Activities Council for Engineers, and he chaired the RAB
Student Activities Committee and the USAB Student Professional
Awareness Committee.
xxi
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xxii About the Authors
In 1998 he received the Distinguished Engineering Education

Achievement Award from the Engineering Council, and in 1996 he
received the Distinguished Engineering Education Leadership Award
from the same group. When he became a fellow of the IEEE in 1994,
the citation read “for leadership in the field of engineering education and
the professional development of engineering students.” In 1984 he
received the IEEE Centennial Medal, and in 1983 he received the
IEEE/RAB Innovation Award, given to the IEEE member who best con-
tributes to RAB’s goals and objectives.
Matthew N. O. Sadiku is presently a professor at Prairie View A&M

University. Prior to joining Prairie View, he taught at Florida Atlantic
University, Boca Raton, and Temple University, Philadelphia. He has
also worked for Lucent/Avaya and Boeing Satellite Systems.
Dr. Sadiku is the author of over 170 professional papers and almost
30 books including Elements of Electromagnetics (Oxford University
Press, 3rd ed., 2001), Numerical Techniques in Electromagnetics (2nd ed.,
CRC Press, 2000), Simulation of Local Area Networks (with M. IIyas,
CRC Press, 1994), Metropolitan Area Networks (CRC Press, 1994), and
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (with C. K. Alexander, McGraw-Hill).
His books are used worldwide, and some of them have been translated
into Korean, Chinese, Italian, and Spanish. He was the recipient of the
2000 McGraw-Hill/Jacob Millman Award for outstanding contributions
in the field of electrical engineering. He was the IEEE region 2 Student
Activities Committee chairman and is an associate editor for IEEE
“Transactions on Education.” He received his PhD at Tennessee
Matthew N. O. Sadiku Technological University, Cookeville.
ale80571_fm_i-xxii_1.qxd 12/2/11 5:00 PM Page 1
Fundamentals of
Electric Circuits
Another random document with
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against the native strength of the other, the manners and
pusillanimity of the one against the fate-defying chivalry of the other
—had each his active workers not only in Spain, but in America,
those of Velazquez being some of them in the very camp of Cortés.
Since the royal grant of superior powers to Velazquez, this faction
has lifted its head. And now its brain works.
The messengers for Spain had scarcely left the port before these
malcontents form a plot, this time not with the sole desire to return to
a more comfortable and secure life, but with a view to advise
Velazquez of the treasure ship so close at hand. Amongst them are
to be found the priest Juan Diaz; Juan Escudero, the alguacil of
Baracoa, who beguiled and surrendered Cortés into the hands of the
authorities; Diego Cermeño and Gonzalo de Umbría, pilots;
Bernardino de Coria, and Alonso Peñate, beside several leading
men who merely countenanced the plot.[252] They have already
secured a small vessel with the necessary supplies, and the night of
embarkment is at hand, when Coria repents and betrays his
companions.
Cortés is profoundly moved. It is not so much the hot indignation
that stirs his breast against the traitors as the light from afar that
seems to float in upon his mind like an inspiration, showing him more
vividly than he had ever seen it before, his situation. So lately a lax
and frivolous youth, apparently of inept nature, wrought to stiffer
consistency by some years of New World kneading, by a stroke of
the rarest fortune he suddenly finds himself a commander of men, in
a virgin field of enterprise fascinating beyond expression, and
offering to the soldier possibilities excelled by nothing within the
century. As the mind enlarges to take in these possibilities, the whole
being seems to enlarge with it, the unstable adventurer is a thing of
the past, and behold a mighty rock fills the place. Against it heads
shall beat unprofitably. The momentous question of to be or not to be
is forever determined; it is an affair simply of life now. Life and the
power of which he finds himself possessed shall rise or fall together;
and if his life, then the lives of others. No life shall be more precious
to him than his own; no life shall be accounted precious at all that
stands in the way of his plans. To a lady who complained of the
burning of the Palatinate by Turenne, Napoleon answered: “And why
not, madame, if it was necessary to his designs?” The Palatinate! ay,
and a hundred million souls flung into the same fire, ere the one
omnipotent soul shall suffer the least abridgment. It was a small
matter, and he would do it; all the islands of the Western Inde he
would uproot and fling into the face of the Cuban governor before he
would yield one jot of his stolen advantage. Each for himself were
Velazquez, Columbus, and Charles, and the rest of this world’s great
and little ones, and Cortés would be for himself. Henceforth, like
Themistocles, though he would die for his country he would not trust
her. Return to Cuba he well knew for him was death, or ignominy
worse than death. His only way was toward Mexico. As well first as
last. All the past life of Cortés, all his purposes for the future,
concentred in these resolves to make them the pivot of his destiny.
Cortés, master of kings, arbiter of men’s lives! As for these traitors,
they shall die; and if other impediments appear, as presently we shall
see them appear, be they in the form of eye or right hand, they shall
be removed. Tyrant, he might be branded; ay, as well that as another
name, for so are great ends often brought to pass by small means.
Unpleasant as it may be, the survivors may as well bear in mind that
it will be less difficult another time.
So the conspirators are promptly seized and sentenced,
Escudero and Cermeño to be hanged, Umbría to lose his feet, and
others to receive each two hundred lashes.[253] Under cover of his
cloth Padre Diaz, the ringleader and most guilty of them all, escapes
with a reprimand. As for the rest, though among them were some
equally guilty, they were treated with such dissembling courtesy and
prudence as either to render them harmless or to convert them into
friends. “Happy the man who cannot write, if it save him from such
business as this!” exclaimed the commander, as he affixed his name
to the death-warrants. For notwithstanding his inexorable resolve he
was troubled, and would not see his comrades die though they
would have sacrificed him. On the morning of the day of execution
he set off at breakneck speed for Cempoala, after ordering two
hundred soldiers to follow with the horses and join a similar force
which had left three days before under Alvarado.[254]
Cortés’ brain was in a whirl during that ride. It was a horrible
thing, this hanging of Spaniards, cutting off feet, and flogging.
Viewed in one light it was but a common piece of military discipline;
from another stand-point it was the act of an outlaw. The greater part
of the little army was with the commander; to this full extent the men
believed in him, that on his valor and discretion they would
adventure their lives. With most men beliefs are but prejudices, and
opinions tastes. These Spaniards not only believed in their general,
but they held to a most impetuous belief in themselves. They could
do not only anything that any one else ever had done or could do,
but they could command the supernatural, and fight with or against
phantoms and devils. They were a host in themselves; besides
which the hosts of Jehovah were on their side. And Cortés measured
his men and their capabilities, not as Xerxes measured his army, by
filling successively a pen capable of holding just ten thousand; he
measured them rather by his ambition, which was as bright and as
limitless as the firmament. Already they were heroes, whose story
presently should vie in thrilling interest with the most romantic tales
of chivalry and knight-errantry, and in whom the strongest human
passions were so blended as to lift them for a time out of the hand of
fate and make their fortunes their own. The thirst for wealth, the
enthusiasm of religion, the love of glory, united with reckless daring
and excessive loyalty, formed the most powerful incentives to action.
Life to them without the attainment of their object was valueless; they
would do or die; for to die in doing was life, whereas to live failing
was worse than death. Cortés felt all this, though it scarcely lay on
his mind in threads of tangible thought. There was enough however
that was tangible in his thinkings, and exceedingly troubling.
Unfortunately the mind and heart of all his people were not of the
complexion he would have them. And those ships. And the
disaffected men lying so near them, looking wistfully at them every
morning, and plotting, and plotting all the day long. Like the
Palatinate to Turenne, like anything that seduced from the stern
purposes of Cortés, it were better they were not.
This thought once flashed into his mind fastened itself there. And
it grew. And Cortés grew with it, until the man and the idea filled all
that country, and became the wonder and admiration of the world.
Destroy the ships! Cut off all escape, should such be needed in case
of failure! Burn the bridge that spans time, and bring to his desperate
desire the aid of the eternities! The thought of it alone was daring;
more fearfully fascinating it became as Cortés dashed along toward
Cempoala, and by the time he had reached his destination the thing
was determined, and he might with Cæsar at the Rubicon exclaim,
Jacta est alea! But what would his soldiers say? They must be made
to feel as he feels, to see with his eyes, and to swell with his
ambition.
The confession of the conspirators opened the eyes of Cortés to
a fact which surely he had seen often enough before, though by
reason of his generous nature which forgot an injury immediately it
was forgiven, it had not been much in his mind of late, namely, that
too many of his companions were lukewarm, if not openly
disaffected. They could not forget that Cortés was a common man
like themselves, their superior in name only, and placed over them
for the accomplishment of this single purpose. They felt they had a
right to say whether they would remain and take the desperate
chance their leader seemed determined on, and to act on that right
with or without his consent. And their position assuredly was sound;
whether it was sensible depended greatly on their ability to sustain
themselves in it. Cortés was exercising the arbitrary power of a
majority to drive the minority as it appeared to their death. They had
a perfect right to rebel; they had not entered the service under any
such compact. Cortés himself was a rebel; hence the rebellion of the
Velazquez men, being a rebelling against a rebel, was in truth an
adherence to loyalty. Here as everywhere it was might that made
right; and, indeed, with the right of these matters the narrator has
little to do.
Success, shame, fear, bright prospects, had all lent their aid to
hold the discontented in check, but in these several regards feeling
and opinion were subject to daily fluctuations. Let serious danger or
reverses come, and they would flee in a moment if they could. And
the fleet lying so near was a constant temptation. Cut that off, and
the nerves of every man there would be freshly strung. The meanest
would suddenly become charged with a kind of nobility; they would
at once become inspired with the courage that comes from
desperation. Often those least inclined to fight when forced to it are
the most indifferent to death. Other dormant elements would be
brought out by the disappearance of those ships; union, fraternity,
complete community, not only of interest but of life. Their leader with
multiplied power would become their god. On him they would be
dependent for all things; for food and raiment, for riches, glory, and
every success; for life itself. Cortés saw all this, pondered it well, and
thought it would be very pretty to play the god awhile. He would
much prefer it to confinement in old Velazquez’ plaza-pen, or even in
a Seville prison. Cortés was now certain in his own mind that if his
band remained unbroken either by internal dissension or by white
men yet to arrive, he would tread the streets of the Mexican capital
before he entered the gates of the celestial city. If Montezuma would
not admit him peaceably, he would gather such a force of the
emperor’s enemies as would pull the kingdom down about his ears.
It would be necessary on going inland to leave a garrison at Villa
Rica; but it would be madness to leave also vessels in which they
could sail away to Cuba or elsewhere. And finally, if the ships were
destroyed, the sailors, who otherwise would be required to care for
them, might be added to the army. Such were the arguments which
the commander would use to win the consent of his people to one of
the most desperate and daring acts ever conceived by a strategist of
any age or nation.
Not that such consent was necessary. He might destroy the
ships and settle with the soldiers afterward. The deed accomplished,
with or without their consent, there would be but one course open to
them. Nevertheless he preferred they should think themselves the
authors of it rather than feel that they had been tricked, or in any way
unfairly dealt with. And with the moral he would shift the pecuniary
responsibility to their shoulders. So he went to work as usual, with
instruments apparently independent, but whose every step and word
were of his directing. One day quickly thereafter it came to pass that
the masters of several of the largest ships appeared before the
captain-general with lengthened faces well put on, with the sad
intelligence that their respective craft were unseaworthy; indeed one
of them had sunk already. They did not say they had secretly bored
holes in them according to instructions. Cortés was surprised, nay he
was painfully affected; Roscius himself could not have performed the
part better; “for well he could dissemble when it served his purpose,”
chimes in Las Casas. With Christian fortitude he said: “Well, the will
of God be done; but look you sharply to the other ships.” Barnacles
were then freely discussed, and teredos. And so well obeyed the
mariners their instructions that soon they were able to swear that all
the vessels save three were unsafe, and even these required costly
repairs before they would be seaworthy.[255] Thus as by the hand of
providence, to the minds of the men as they were able to bear it, the
deed unfolded. Soon quite apparent became the expediency of
abandoning such vessels as were leaking badly; there was trouble
and no profit in attempting to maintain them, for they would surely
have to be abandoned in the end. “And indeed, fellow-soldiers,”
continued Cortés, “I am not sure but it were best to doom to
destruction also the others, and so secure the coöperation of the
sailors in the coming campaign, instead of leaving them in idleness
to hatch fresh treachery.” This intimation was successful, as had
been foreordained by the ruler of these events it should be. It was
forthwith resolved to scuttle all the ships but one, the one brought by
Salcedo. Accordingly Escalante, the alguacil mayor, a brave and
able officer wholly devoted to Cortés, was sent down to Villa Rica to
carry out the order, with the aid of the picked soldiers there
stationed. Sails, anchors, cables, and everything that could be
utilized were removed, and a few hours later some small boats were
all that remained of the Cuban fleet.[256]
It was then the community first realized its situation. The
followers of Cortés, with unbounded faith in their leader, did not so
much care, but the partisans of Velazquez, few of whom knew that
the affair had been coolly predetermined, were somewhat agitated.
And when on closer inquiry they were enlightened by certain of the
mariners, the cry arose that they were betrayed; they were lambs led
to the slaughter. Cortés promptly faced the now furious crowd. What
did they want? Were their lives more precious than those of the rest?
“For shame! Be men!” he cried, in conclusion. “You should know ere
this how vain are the attempts to thwart my purpose. Look on this
magnificent land with its vast treasures, and narrow not your vision
to your insignificant selves. Think of your glorious reward, present
and to come, and trust in God, who, if it so please him, can conquer
this empire with a single arm. Yet if there be one here still so craven
as to wish to turn his back on the glories and advantages thus
offered; if there be one here so base, so recreant to heaven, to his
king, to his comrades, as to slink from such honorable duty, in God’s
name let him go. There is one ship left, which I will equip at my own
charge to give that man the immortal infamy he deserves.” This he
said and much more, and to the desired effect. The speaker knew
well how to play upon his men, as on an instrument, so that they
would respond in any tune he pleased. Cheers rent the air as he
concluded, in which the opposition were forced to join through very
shame. Seeing which Cortés gently intimated, “Would it not be well
to destroy the remaining vessel, and so make a safe, clean thing of
it?” In the enthusiasm of the moment the act was consummated with
hearty approval.[257]
“To Mexico!” was now the cry, and preparations for the march
were at once made. Escalante, whose character and services had
endeared him to Cortés, was placed in command of Villa Rica. The
native chiefs were directed to regard him as the representative of the
general, and to supply him with every requirement.[258]
Some nine days after the sinking of the fleet a messenger
arrived from Escalante, announcing that four vessels[259] had
passed by the harbor, refusing to enter, and had anchored three
leagues off, at the mouth of a river. Fearing the descent upon him of
Velazquez, Cortés hurried off with four horsemen, after selecting fifty
soldiers to follow. Alvarado and Sandoval were left jointly in charge
of the army, to the exclusion of Ávila, who manifested no little
jealousy of the latter. Cortés halted at the town merely to learn
particulars, declining Escalante’s hospitality with the proverb, “A
lame goat has no rest.” On the way to the vessels they met a notary
with two witnesses,[260] commissioned to arrange a boundary on
behalf of Francisco de Garay, who claimed the coast to the north as
first discoverer, and desired to form a settlement a little beyond
Nautla. It appeared that Garay, who had come out with Diego Colon,
and had risen from procurador of Española to become governor of
Jamaica, had resolved to devote his great wealth to extending his
fame as explorer and colonizer. On learning from Alaminos and his
fellow voyagers of the coasts discovered in this direction, he
resolved to revive the famed projects of Ponce de Leon, and with
this view despatched a small fleet in 1518, under Diego de Camargo.
[261]Driven back by the Floridans with great slaughter, says Gomara,
the expedition sailed down to Pánuco River, again to be repulsed,
with the loss of some men, who were flayed and eaten. Torralba,
steward of Garay, was then sent to Spain, and there, with the aid of
Garay’s friends, obtained for him a commission as adelantado and
governor of the territories that he might discover north of Rio San
Pedro y San Pablo.[262] Meanwhile a new expedition was
despatched to Pánuco, under Alonso Álvarez Pineda, to form a
settlement and to barter for gold. After obtaining some three
thousand pesos, Pineda sailed southward to take possession and to
select a site for the colony.[263]
And now while the notary is endeavoring to arrange matters with
Cortés, Pineda waits for him a little distance from the shore. At that
moment Cortés cared little for Garays or boundaries; but he would
by no means object to a few more Spaniards to take the place of
those he had hanged, and of others whom he might yet be obliged to
hang. To this end he converted perforce to his cause the notary and
his attendants. Then learning from them that Pineda could on no
account be prevailed on to land for a conference, Cortés signalled to
the vessels with the hope that more men would come on shore. This
failing, he bethought himself of letting three of his men exchange
clothes with the new-comers and approach the landing, while he
marched back with the rest in full view of the vessels. As soon as it
grew dark, the whole force returned to hide near the spot. It was not
till late the following morning that the suspicious Pineda responded
to the signals from shore, and sent off a boat with armed men. The
trio now withdrew behind some bushes, as if for shade. Four
Spaniards and one Indian landed, armed with two firelocks and two
cross-bows, and on reaching the shrubbery they were pounced upon
by the hidden force, while the boat pushed off to join the vessels all
ready to sail.[264]
FOOTNOTES
[252] The names vary somewhat in different authorities, Bernal Diaz including
instead of Peñate, a number of the Gibraltar sailors known as Peñates, who were
lashed at Cozumel for theft. The plot was hatched ‘Desde â quatro dias que
partieron nuestros Procuradores.’ Hist. Verdad., 39. Cortés mentions only four
‘determinado de tomar un bergantin ... y matar al maestre dél, y irse á la isla
Fernandina.’ Cartas, 53-4. Gomara assumes them to be the same who last
revolted on setting out for Tizapantzinco. Hist. Mex., 64. ‘Pusieron ... por obra de
hurtar un navío pequeño, é salir á robar lo que llevaban para el rey.’ Tapia,
Relacion, in Icazbalceta, Col. Doc., ii. 563. Peter Martyr jumbles the names, dec.
v. cap. i.
[253] Thus Cortés had his revenge on the alguacil. ‘Y no le valiò el ser su
Compadre,’ says Vetancvrt, with a hasty assumption which is not uncommon with
him. Teatro Mex., pt. iii. 119. Gomara mentions no mutilation. ‘Parece claro ser
aquestas obras, ... propias de averiguado tirano,’ says Las Casas, Hist. Ind., iv.
496, which may be regarded as a singularly mild expression for the bishop.
Herrera dwells upon Cermeño’s extraordinary skill with the leaping-pole; he could
also smell land fifteen leagues off the coast, dec. ii. lib. v. cap. xiv. ‘Coria, vezino
que fue despues de Chiapa.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 39.
[254] ‘Embiado ... por los pueblos de la sierra, porque tuuiessen que comer;
porque en nuestra Villa passauamos mucha necessidad de bastimentos.’ Id. This
seems unlikely, since the Totonacs were not only willing, but bound, to provide
supplies.
[255] Testimonio de Montejo y Puertocarrero, in Col. Doc. Inéd., i. 489, 494.

‘Viniesen á él, cuando estuviese mucha gente con él junta, y le denunciasen como
no podian vencer el agua de los navíos.’ Las Casas, Hist. Ind., iv. 497. ‘Tuuo
forma para que los soldados mas aficionados que tenia se lo pidiessen.... Los
soldados se lo pidieron, y dello se recibio auto por ante escriuano.’ Herrera, dec.
ii. lib. v. cap. xiv. ‘Le aconsejamos los que eramos sus amigos, que no dexasse
Nauio en el Puerto.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 39.
[256] ‘Los Pilotos, ê Maestres viejos, y marineros, que no erã buenos para ir â la
guerra, que se quedassen en la Villa, y cõ dos chinchorros que tuuiessen cargo
de pescar ... y luego se vino (Escalante) â Cempoal con vna Capitania de
hombres de la mar, que fuessen los que sacaron de los Nauios, y salieron
algunos dellos muy buenos soldados.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 40.
[257] It is generally admitted that Cortés suggested the idea of destroying the fleet,
for even Bernal Diaz, who at first gives the credit to the men by saying, ‘le
aconsejamos los que eramos sus amigos,’ confesses on the following page that
‘el mismo Cortès lo tenia ya concertado.’ Hist. Verdad., 39-40. The preponderating
testimony also shows that the masters made their report in public, with the evident
object, as the best authorities clearly indicate, of obtaining the consent of the
responsible majority for the scuttling. During the partition of treasures at Mexico,
large shares were set aside for Cortés and Velazquez to cover the cost of the fleet
and the outfit, ‘que dimos al traues con ellos, pues todos fuimos en ellos,’ Bernal
Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 84, which is proof, in addition to the reliable assertion that the
deed was agreed upon by the majority. Cortés’ expression, ‘los eché á la costa,’
Cartas, 54, is merely that of a leader of that party or majority, who besides really
gives credit to others. Hence the conclusion of Prescott and others, that the
scuttling was done on his own responsibility, is not well founded. Cortés was
clever enough always to have those present who were ready to take any
responsibility for him that he might wish. The phrase, ‘his was the greatest
sacrifice, for they (the vessels) were his property,’ Prescott’s Mex., i. 374, is also
wrong, for he was compensated by the army. And it is an exaggeration to say that
the execution of the measure ‘in the face of an incensed and desperate soldiery,
was an act of resolution that has few parallels in history,’ Id., 376, since his party
supported him. According to Gomara the pilots bore holes in the vessels, and
bring their report, whereupon five vessels are first sunk; shortly afterward the
remainder except one are scuttled. The offer of this vessel to those who wished to
return was made with a view to learn who were the cowards and malcontents.
Many indeed did ask for leave, but half of them were sailors. Others kept quiet out
of shame. Hist. Mex., 65. It was never Cortés’ policy to mark the disaffected,
however. This author is followed by Torquemada, ‘porque asi se ha platicado
siempre entre las Gentes, que mas supieron de esta Jornada,’ i. 409, and on the
strength of this the latter argues that Herrera’s version, dec. ii. lib. v. cap. xiv.,
which adheres chiefly to Bernal Diaz’, must be wrong. Tapia, Relacion, in
Icazbalceta, Col. Doc., ii. 563, conforms chiefly to Gomara. Robertson, after
following Bernal Diaz, takes the trouble of having the ships ‘drawn ashore and ...
broke in pieces.’ Hist. Am., ii. 33-4; Clavigero, Storia Mess., iii. 35-6; Oviedo, Hist.
Gen., iii. 262; Sandoval, Hist. Carlos V., i. 171; Peter Martyr, dec. v. cap. i. Peralta
has them burned by secret agents of Cortés. Nat. Hist., 76. Solis, ever zealous for
his hero, objects to Bernal Diaz’ attempt to pluck any of the glory, and scouts the
idea that fears of pecuniary liability could have influenced Cortés to gain the
approval of others for his act. ‘Tuvo á destreza de historiador el penetrar lo interior
de las acciones,’ is the complacent tribute to his own skill in penetrating the
question. Hist. Mex., i. 214-15. The view of the foundering fleet, appended to
some editions of his work, has been extensively copied. One is given in the
Antwerp edition of 1704, 141. A still finer view, with the men busy on shore, and
the sinking vessels in the distance, is to be found in the Madrid issue of 1783, i.
213. The destruction of the fleet has been lauded in extravagant terms by almost
every authority, from Gomara and Solis to Robertson and Prescott, as an
unparalleled deed. Of previous examples there are enough, however, even though
the motives and the means differ. We may go back to Æneas, to whose fleet the
wives of the party applied the torch, tired of roaming; or we may point to
Agathocles, who first fired his soldiers with a resolution to conquer or to die, and
then compelled them to keep their word by firing the vessels. Julian offered a
tamer instance during his campaign on the Tigris; but the deed of the terrible
Barbarossa in the Mediterranean, only a few years before the Mexican campaign,
was marked by reckless determination. Still examples little affect the greatness of
an act; motives, means, and results afford the criteria. ‘Pocos exemplos destos ay,
y aquellos son de grandes hombres.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 65. ‘Una de las
acciones en que mas se reconoce la grandeza de su ánimo.... Y no sabemos si
de su género se hallará mayor alguna en todo el campo de las Historias.’ Solis,
Hist. Mex., i. 213. ‘An effort of magnanimity, to which there is nothing parallel in
history.’ Robertson, Hist. Am., ii. 34. ‘Un’impresa, che da per se sola basterebbe a
far conoscere la sua magnanimità, e ad immortalare il suo nome.’ Clavigero,
Storia Mess., iii. 35; Prescott, Mex., i. 375-6, is equally carried away, and he finds
more words for his admiration. He is wrong in supposing that one of the vessels in
the harbor was left intact; the exempt ship referred to by a chronicler was the one
carrying the messengers to Spain.
Antonio de Solis y Ribadeneyra is remarkable as the first Spanish historian of
the conquest. It appears to us strange that an episode so glorious to the fame of
Castilians should have been allowed to lie so long neglected in the musty pages of
their chroniclers. True, these were worthy, zealous men, who conscientiously
narrated every occurrence of any note, but their standard for historic truth and
dignity caused them to clothe facts, however striking, in a garb of dreary gravity,
dryness of detail, and ambiguous confusion, which discouraged even the student.
It required the dramatic eye of the composer and the imagination of the poet to
appreciate the picturesque sketches of a strange people now fading into oblivion,
the grandeur of a semi-savage pageantry, the romantic exploits that recalled the
achievements of the Cid. This faculty was innate in Solis, developed besides by a
long and successful career in letters. He had profited also by the advantages
opened to him as the secretary of Conde de Oropesa, Viceroy of Navarre and of
Valencia, who Mæcenas-like fostered the talents and aided in the promotion of the
promising savant, for as such he already ranked. Cradled in the famous college
town of Alcalá de Henares, he had given early evidence of talent, and at
Salamanca university he had signalized himself in his seventeenth year by
producing a comedy of considerable merit. While pursuing with energy the study
of law and moral philosophy, he cultivated with hardly less ardor the muses, to
which end he was no doubt impelled also by his intimacy with the illustrious
Calderon. Several of his dramas were received with acclamation, and one was
translated into French, while his miscellaneous poems, reprinted in our days, are
marked by a vivid imagination and an elegance which also adorns his letters.
Talents so conspicuous did not wait long for recognition, and with the aid of his
patron he advanced to the dignities of royal secretary and chief chronicler of the
Indies. When 56 years old his mind underwent a change, and entering the church
he abandoned forever the drama and light literature. The pen changed only its
sphere, however, for it served the historiographer zealously, achieving for him the
greatest fame; and fame alone, for at his death, in April, 1686, at the age of 76,
deep poverty was his companion. When he entered on this office the Indies had
lapsed into the dormant quietude imposed by a strict and secluding colonial
régime. There were no stirring incidents to reward the efforts of the historian, save
those connected with free-booter raids, which offered little that could flatter
Spanish pride. To achieve fame he must take up some old theme, and present it in
a form likely to rouse attention by its contrast. Thus it was that he selected the
thrilling episode of the conquest of Mexico, with the determination to rescue it from
the unskilful arrangement and repetitions, the want of harmony and consistency,
the dryness and faulty coloring, to which it had hitherto been subjected, and to
expend upon it the effects of elegant style and vast erudition. When the work
appeared at Madrid, in 1684, its superior merits were instantly recognized, and
although the sale at first was not large, editions have multiplied till our day, the
finest and costliest being the illustrated issue of 1783-4, in two volumes, which I
quote, while consulting also the notes of several others. So grand and finely
elaborated a subject, and that from a Spanish historian who was supposed to
have exhausted all the available resources of the Iberian archives, could not fail to
rouse general attention throughout Europe, and translations were made into
different languages. Robertson, among others, while not failing to point out certain
blemishes, has paid the high compliment of accepting Solis for almost sole guide
on the conquest, and this with a blindness which at times leads him into most
amusing errors. Even Prescott warms to his theme in a review of six closely
printed pages, wherein eulogy, though not unmingled with censure, is stronger
than a clearer comprehension of the theme would seem to warrant. But in this he
is impelled to a great extent by his oft displayed tendency to hero worship.
Solis deserves acknowledgment for bringing order out of chaos, for presenting
in a connected form the narrative of the conquest, and for adorning it with an
elegant style. But he has fulfilled only a part of the promises made in his preface,
and above all has he neglected to obtain information on his topic beyond that
presented in a few of the generally accessible works, even their evidence being
not very closely examined. He has also taken great liberties with the text,
subordinating facts to style and fancy, seizing every possible opportunity to
manufacture speeches for both native and Spanish heroes, and this with an
amusing disregard for the consistency of language with the person and the time.
His religious tendencies seriously interfere with calm judgment, and impel him to
rave with bigoted zeal against the natives. The hero worship of the dramatist
introduces itself to such an extent as frequently to overshadow everything else,
and to misrepresent. ‘Sembra più un panegirico, che una istoria,’ says Clavigero,
very aptly. Storia Mess., i. 16. His arguments and deductions are at times most
childish, while his estimation of himself as a historian and thinker is aired in more
than one place with a ridiculous gravity. With regard to style, Solis had Livy for a
model, and belonged to the elder school of historians; he was its last good
representative, in fact. His language is expressive and elegant, greatly imbued
with a poetic spirit not unsuited to the subject, and sustained in eloquence, while
its pure idiom aids to maintain the work as classic among Castilians. ‘Ingenio
Conceptuoso, Floridisimo, i Eloquente,’ is the observation in the work of his
historiographic predecessor, Pinelo, Epitome, ii. 607. But it lacks in boldness and
dignity; the rhapsodies are often misplaced, and the verboseness is tiresome.
Some of the faults are of course due to the time, but not the many, and it also
becomes only too apparent that Solis is so conceitedly infatuated with his affected
grandiloquence as to sacrifice facts wherever they interfere with its free scope. It is
said that he intended to continue the history of Mexico after the conquest, and that
death alone prevented the consummation of the project. But this is mere
conjecture, and it appears just as likely that the dramatist recognized the effect of
closing a great work at so appropriate a point as the fall of Mexico. The work was
taken up, however, by Salazar y Olarte, who published in 1743 the second part of
the Conquest, till the death of Cortés, abounding in all the faults of the superficial
and florid composition of Solis.
[258] ‘Luego le zahumaron [the chiefs] al Juan de Escalante con sus inciensos.’
Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 40. ‘Dejé en la villa de la Veracruz ciento y cincuenta
hombres con doze de caballo.’ Cortés, Cartas, 52-3. One hundred and fifty
Spaniards, with two horses and two fire-arms, were left here under Pedro de Ircio,
Gomara, Hist. Mex., 65-6, but Bernal Diaz corrects him. ‘Al Pedro de Ircio no le
auian dado cargo ninguno, ni aun de cuadrillero.’ ubi sup.; Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich.,
291. The force seems to be altogether too large. Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 51,
says 60 old and suffering soldiers were left as garrison.
[259] Bernal Diaz says one vessel; but Cortés and other authorities mention four.
[260] Bernal Diaz, who appears to have been with the party, names them as
Guillen de la Loa, notary; Andrés Nuñez, shipwright; Pedro de la Arpa, a
Valencian, and a fourth man. Hist. Verdad., 40.
[261] ‘Armo Francisco de Garay tres carauelas en Iamaica, el año de mil quiniẽtos
y deziocho, y fue a tentar la Florida.’ Gomara, Hist. Ind., 55. ‘Determinó de enviar
á un hidalgo, llamado Diego de Camargo, á descubrir é continuar el
descubrimiento que Grijalva habia hecho, con uno ó con dos navios; el cual
descubrió la provincia de Panuco, ó, por mejor decir, comenzó de allí donde
Grijalva se habia tornado, que fué desde Panuco, y anduvo navegando por la
costa cien leguas hácia la Florida.’ Las Casas, Hist. Ind., iv. 466; Herrera, dec. ii.
lib. iii. cap. xi.; Galvano’s Discov., 133-4.
[262] See Hist. Mex., i. 29, this series. ‘El Rey se las concedió el año de 819,
estando en Barcelona.’ Las Casas, loc. cit. ‘Torralua ... truxo prouisiones para que
fuesse Adelantado, y Gouernador desde el rio de San Pedro, y San Pablo, y todo
lo que descubriesse: y por aquellas prouisiones embiò luego tres Nauios con
hasta dozientos y setenta soldados.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 41.
[263] Bernal Diaz intimates that Pineda had remained at Rio Pánuco to colonize,
while one vessel was sent down to take possession where Cortés met the men.
After giving an account of two expeditions in 1518 and 1519, Gomara says: ‘Otros
dizen, que no fue mas de vna vez. Sino que como estuuo mucho alla cuẽtan por
dos.’ Hist. Ind., 55. But Las Casas mentions distinctly that it was on the strength of
Camargo’s discoveries, in 1518, that the grant was made to Garay in the following
year, ubi sup. ‘Garai auia corrido mucha costa en demãda de la Florida, y tocado
en vn rio y tierra, cuyo rey se llamaua Panuco, donde vieron oro, aun que poco. Y
que sin salir de las naues auiã rescatado hasta tres mil pesos de oro.’ Gomara,
Hist. Mex., 67; Cortés, Cartas, 56-7; Oviedo, iii. 262-3; Herrera, dec. ii. lib. vi. cap.
i.
[264] ‘El uno(of the captured ones) era maestre de la una nao, é puso fuego á la
escopeta, é matara al capitan de la Veracruz, sino que á la mecha le faltó el
fuego.’ Oviedo, iii. 263. Bernal Diaz, in a less intelligent account of the capture,
states that only two men landed. ‘Por manera que se huuieron de aquel Nauio
seis soldados.... Y esto es lo que se hizo, y no lo que escriue el Coronista
Gomara.’ Hist. Verdad., 41. But Cortés’ version must surely be the best, since it
was related shortly after the occurrence, and by an immediate participator in the
events.
CHAPTER XII.
MARCH TOWARD MEXICO.
August-September, 1519.
Enthusiasm of the Army—The Force—The Totonacs Advise the Tlascalan

Route—Arrival at Jalapa—A Look Backward—The Anáhuac Plateau—
Meeting with Olintetl—Arrival in the Country of the Tlascaltecs—The
Senate Convenes and Receives the Envoys of Cortés—An Encounter—
A More Serious Battle—Xicotencatl Resolves to Try the Prowess of
the Invaders, and is Defeated.
The Garay affair having thus been disposed of, it was

announced to the Spaniards that they would now go in quest of the
great Montezuma. For as the conciliating sea smooths the sand
which but lately it ground in its determinate purpose from the rocks,
so had Cortés quieted the ruffled temper of the malcontents, till they
were committed as one man to the will of the leader. And he smiled
somewhat grimly as he concluded his harangue: “To success or total
destruction now we march; for there is open to us no retreat. In
Christ we trust, and on our arms rely. And though few in number, our
hearts are strong.” The soldiers shouted their approval, and again
signified their desire to press onward to Mexico.[265]
The force for the expedition consisted of about four hundred and
fifty Spaniards, with fifteen horses, and six or seven light guns,
attended by a considerable number of Indian warriors and carriers,
including Cubans. The Totonac force comprised also forty chiefs,
taken really as hostages, among whom are named Mamexi, Tamalli,
and Teuch, the latter proving a most able and trusty guide and
counsellor.[266]
The advice of the Totonacs is to take the route through Tlascala,

as a state friendly to them and bitterly opposed to the Mexicans, and
on the 16th of August the army leaves Cempoala for the interior.
Soon begins the gentle ascent which lifts them from oppressive heat
and overpowering vegetation to cooler regions, and at the close of
the second day is reached the beautiful Jalapa,[267] a halting-place
between the border of the sea and the upper plateau.
There they turn with one accord and look back. How charming!
how inexpressibly refreshing are these approaching highlands to the
Spaniards, so lately from the malarious Isthmus and the jungle-
covered isles, and whose ancestors not long since had held all
tropics to be uninhabitable; on the border, too, of Montezuma’s
kingdom, wrapped in the soft folds of perpetual spring. Before the
invaders are the ardent waters of the gulf, instant in their humane
pilgrimage to otherwise frozen and uninhabitable lands; before them
the low, infectious tierra caliente that skirts the lofty interior
threateningly, like the poisoned garment of Hercules, with vegetation
bloated by the noxious air and by nourishment sucked from the
putrid remains of nature’s opulence, while over all, filled with the
remembrance of streams stained sanguine from sacrificial altars,
passes with sullen sighs the low-voiced winds. But a change comes
gradually as the steep ascent is made that walls the healthful table-
land of Anáhuac. On the templada terrace new foliage is observed,
though still glistening with sun-painted birds and enlivened by
parliaments of monkeys. Insects and flowers bathe in waves of
burning light until they display a variety of colors as wonderful as
they are brilliant, while from cool cañons rise metallic mists
overspreading the warm hills. Blue and purple are the summits in the
distance, and dim glowing hazy the imperial heights beyond that
daily baffle the departing sun. And on the broad plateau, whose rich
earth with copious yield of gold and grain allures to cultivation, all the
realm are out of doors keeping company with the sun. From afar
comes the music-laden breeze whispering its secrets to graceful
palms, aloft against the sky, and which bend to meet the confidence,
while the little shrubs stand motionless with awe. Each cluster of
trees repeats the story, and sings in turn its own matin to which the
rest are listeners. At night, how glittering bright with stars the
heavens, which otherwise were a shroud of impenetrable blackness.
In this land of wild Arcadian beauty the beasts are free, and man
keeps constant holiday. And how the hearts of these marauders
burned within them as they thought, nothing doubting, how soon
these glories should be Spain’s and theirs.
The boundary of the Totonac territory was crossed, and on the
fourth day the army entered a province called by Cortés
Sienchimalen, wherein the sway of Montezuma was still maintained.
This made no difference to the Spaniards, however, for the late
imperial envoys had left orders with the coast governors to treat the
strangers with every consideration. Of this they had a pleasing
experience at Xicochimalco,[268] a strong fortress situated on the
slope of a steep mountain, to which access could be had only by a
stairway easily defended. It overlooked a sloping plain strewn with
villages and farms, mustering in all nearly six thousand warriors.[269]
With replenished stores the expedition began to ascend the
cordillera in reality, and to approach the pine forests which mark the
border of the tierra fria. Marching through a hard pass named
Nombre de Dios,[270] they entered another province defended by a
fortress, named Teoxihuacan,[271] in no wise inferior to the first for
strength or hospitality. They now finished the ascent of the cordillera,
passed through Tejotla, and for three days continued their way
through the alkaline wastes skirting the ancient volcano of
Nauhcampatepetl,[272] exposed to chilling winds and hailstorms,
which the Spaniards with their quilted armor managed to endure, but
which caused to succumb many of the less protected and less hardy
Cubans. The brackish water also brought sickness. On the fourth
day the pass of Puerto de Leña,[273] so called from the wood piled
near some temples, admitted them to the Anáhuac plateau, over
seven thousand feet above the sea. With a less balmy climate and a
flora less redundant than that of the Antillean stamping-ground, it
offered on the other hand the attraction of being not unlike their
native Spain. A smiling valley opened before them, doubly alluring to
the pinched wanderers, with its broad fields of corn, dotted with
houses, and displaying not far off the gleaming walls and thirteen
towering temples of Xocotlan, the capital of the district. Some
Portuguese soldiers declaring it the very picture of their cherished
Castilblanco, this name was applied to it.[274]
Cacique Olintetl, nicknamed the temblador from the shaking of
his fat body, came forth with a suite and escorted them through the
plaza to the quarters assigned them, past pyramids of grinning
human skulls, estimated by Bernal Diaz at over one hundred
thousand. There were also piles of bones, and skulls suspended
from beams, all of which produced far from pleasant impressions.
This horror was aggravated by the evident coldness of their
reception, and by the scanty fare offered.[275] Olintetl occupied what
Cortés describes as the “largest and most finely constructed houses
he had yet seen in this country,” wherein two thousand servants
attended to the wants of himself and his thirty wives.
Impressed by the magnificence of his surroundings, Cortés
inquired whether he was a subject or ally of Montezuma. “Who is not
his slave?” was the reply. He himself ruled twenty thousand subjects,
[276] yet was but a lowly vassal of the emperor, at whose command
thirty chiefs at least could place each one hundred thousand warriors
in the field. He proceeded to extol the imperial wealth and power,
and the grandeur of the capital, wherein twenty thousand human
victims were annually given to the idols. This was probably intended
to awe the little band; “But we,” says Bernal Diaz,[277] “with the
qualities of Spanish soldiers, wished we were there striving for
fortunes, despite the dangers described.” Cortés calmly assured the
cacique that great as Montezuma was, there were vassals of his own
king still mightier, with more to the same effect; and he concluded by
demanding the submission of the cacique, together with a present of
gold, and the abandonment of sacrifices and cannibalism. Olintetl’s
only reply was that he could do nothing without authority from the
capital. “Your Montezuma,” replied the audacious Spaniard, with
suppressed anger, “shall speedily send you orders to surrender to
me gold or any other desired effects in your possession.”

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MD DALIM 1167970 10/30/11 CYAN MAG YELO BLACK

Charles K. Alexander | Matthew n. o. Sadiku

5.3 Ideal Op Amp 179 Chapter 8 Second-Order Circuits 313

10.4 Superposition Theorem 421 12.11 Summary 543

19.10 Summary 893 Appendix C Mathematical Formulas A-16

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[255] Testimonio de Montejo y Puertocarrero, in Col. Doc. Inéd., i. 489, 494.

Enthusiasm of the Army—The Force—The Totonacs Advise the Tlascalan

The Garay affair having thus been disposed of, it was

The advice of the Totonacs is to take the route through Tlascala,

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