Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Discrete Structure
Subject Code: IT-302
Semester: 3rd
Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

UNIT-1

Set - Defi itio

A set is a u o de ed olle tio of diffe e t ele e ts. A set a e itte e pli itl listi g its ele e ts
usi g set a ket. If the o de of the ele e ts is ha ged o a ele e t of a set is epeated, it does ot
ake a ha ges i the set.
So e E a ple of Sets
1. A set of all positi e i tege s
2. A set of all the pla ets i the sola s ste
3. A set of all the states i I dia
4. A set of all the lo e ase lette s of the alpha et
Rep ese tatio of a Set
“ets a e ep ese ted i t o a s −
1. ‘oste o Ta ula Fo
2. “et Builde Notatio
1. Roste o Ta ula Fo
The set is ep ese ted listi g all the ele e ts o p isi g it. The ele e ts a e e losed ithi a es
a d sepa ated o as.
E a ple − “et of o els i E glish alpha et, A= {a, e, i, o, u}
E a ple − “et of odd u e s less tha , B= { , , , , }

2. Set Builde Notatio

The set is defi ed spe if i g a p ope t that ele e ts of the set ha e i o o . The set is des i ed as
A={x: p x }
E a ple − the set {a, e, i, o, u} is itte as −
A={ : is a o el i E glish alpha et}
E a ple − the set { , , , , } is itte as −
B={ : < a d % ≠ }
 If a ele e t is a e e of a set “, it is de oted S
 If a ele e t is ot a e e of set “, it is de oted S.
E a ple − If S= { , . , . , }, S ut . S

So e I po ta t Sets
N − the set of all atu al u e s = { , , , …}
) − the set of all i tege s = {....., − , − , − , , , , .....}
)+ − the set of all positi e i tege s
Q − the set of all atio al u e s
R − the set of all eal u e s
W − the set of all hole u e s

Ca di alit of a Set
Ca di alit of a set “, de oted |S|, is the u e of ele e ts of the set. The u e is also efe ed as
the a di al u e . If a set has a i fi ite u e of ele e ts, its a di alit is ∞.
E a ple − |{ , , , }|= ,|{ , , , , ,…}|=∞

If the e a e t o sets X a d Y,
1. |X|=|Y| de otes t o sets X a d Y ha i g sa e a di alit . It o u s he the u e of ele e ts i X
is e a tl e ual to the u e of ele e ts i Y. I this ase, the e e ists a ije ti e fu tio f f o X to
Y.
2. X| |Y de otes that set X s a di alit is less tha o e ual to set Y s a di alit . It o u s he u e
of ele e ts i X is less tha o e ual to that of Y. He e, the e e ists a i je ti e fu tio f f o X to Y.

Page no: 1 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

3. |X|<|Y| de otes that set X s a di alit is less tha set Y s a di alit . It o u s he u e of

ele e ts i X is less tha that of Y. He e, the fu tio f f o X to Y is i je ti e fu tio ut ot
ije ti e.
4. If |X| |Y| a d |X| |Y| the |X|=|Y| the sets X a d Y a e o o l efe ed as e ui ale t sets.

T pes of Sets
“ets a e lassified i to a t pes. “o e of hi h a e fi ite, i fi ite, su set, u i e sal, p ope , si gleto
set, et .
1. Fi ite Set- A set hi h o tai s a defi ite u e of ele e ts is alled a fi ite set.
E a ple – S = { | Na d > > }
2. I fi ite Set- A set hi h o tai s i fi ite u e of ele e ts is alled a i fi ite set.
E a ple − S={ | Na d > }
3. Cou ta le set: a set A is alled ou ta le i fi ite if A N. We sa that A is ou ta le if A N o A is
fi ite. A ou ta le set is a set ith the sa e a di alit u e of ele e ts as so e su set of the set
of atu al u e s. A ou ta le set is eithe a fi ite set o a ou ta le i fi ite set. Whethe fi ite o
i fi ite, the ele e ts of a ou ta le set a al a s e ou ted o e at a ti e a d, although the ou ti g
a e e fi ish, e e ele e t of the set is asso iated ith a u i ue atu al u e .
4. U ou ta le Sets: A u ou ta le set o u a ou ta l i fi ite set is a i fi ite set that o tai s
too a ele e ts to e ou ta le. The u a ou ta ilit of a set is losel elated to its a di al u e :
a set is u ou ta le if its a di al u e is la ge tha that of the set of all atu al u e s.
5. Su set- A set X is a su set of set Y W itte as X⊆Y if e e ele e t of X is a ele e t of set Y.
E a ple − Let, X={ , , , , , } a d Y={ , }. He e set Y is a su set of set X as all the ele e ts of set Y is
i set X. He e, e a ite Y⊆X
E a ple − Let, X= { , , } a d Y= { , , }. He e set Y is a su set Not a p ope su set of set X as all the
ele e ts of set Y is i set X. He e, e a ite Y⊆X
6. P ope Su set- The te p ope su set a e defi ed as su set of ut ot e ual to . A “et X is a
p ope su set of set Y W itte as X⊂Y if e e ele e t of X is a ele e t of set Y a d |X|<|Y|
E a ple − Let, X={ , , , , , } a d Y={ , }. He e set Y⊂X si e all ele e ts i Y a e o tai ed i X too a d
X has at least o e ele e t is o e tha set Y
7. U i e sal Set-It is a olle tio of all ele e ts i a pa ti ula o te t o appli atio . All the sets i
that o te t o appli atio a e esse tiall su sets of this u i e sal set. U i e sal sets a e ep ese ted as U
E a ple − e a defi e U as the set of all a i als o ea th. I this ase, set of all a als is a su set of
U, set of all fishes is a su set of U, a d set of all i se ts is a su set of U, a d so o .
8. E pt Set o Null Set- A e pt set o tai s o ele e ts. It is de oted ∅ . As the u e of
ele e ts i a e pt set is fi ite, e pt set is a fi ite set. The a di alit of e pt set o ull set is ze o.
E a ple − S= { | N a d < < } =∅
9. Si gleto Set o U it Set- “i gleto set o u it set o tai s o l o e ele e t. A si gleto set is
de oted {s}
E a ple − S= { | N, < < } = { }
10. E ual Set- If t o sets o tai the sa e ele e ts the a e said to e e ual.
E a ple − If A={ , , } a d B={ , , } the a e e ual as e e ele e t of set A is a ele e t of set B a d
e e ele e t of set B is a ele e t of set A.
11. E ui ale t Set- If the a di alities of t o sets a e sa e, the a e alled e ui ale t sets.
E a ple − If A= { , , } a d B={ , , }, the a e e ui ale t as a di alit of A is e ual to the a di alit
of B. i.e. |A|=|B|=
12. O e lappi g Set - T o sets that ha e at least o e o o ele e t a e alled o e lappi g sets.
I ase of o e lappi g sets −
a) A∪B = A + B − A∩B
b) A∪B = A−B + B−A + A∩B
c) A = A−B + A∩B
d) B = B−A + A∩B
E a ple − Let, A= { , , } a d B= { , , }

Page no: 2 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

The e is a o o ele e t ; he e these sets a e o e lappi g sets.

13. Disjoi t Set - T o sets A a d B a e alled disjoi t sets if the do ot ha e e e o e ele e t i
o o . The efo e, disjoi t sets ha e the follo i g p ope ties −
A∩B =∅
A∪B = A + B
E a ple − Let, A= { , , } a d B= { , , } the e is ot a si gle o o ele e t, he e these sets a e
o e lappi g sets.

Ve Diag a s
Set Ope atio s
“et Ope atio s i lude “et U io , “et I te se tio , “et Diffe e e, Co ple e t of “et, a d Ca tesia
p odu t.
1. Set U io - The u io of sets A a d B de oted A∪B is the set of ele e ts hi h a e i A, i B,
o i oth A a d B. He e, A∪B={ | A OR B}
E a ple − If A= { , , , } a d B = { , , }, the A∪B= { , , , , , }
The o o ele e t o u s o l o e

Fig . U io
2. Set I te se tio - The i te se tio of sets A a d B de oted A∩B is the set of ele e ts hi h
a e i oth A a d B. He e, A∩B={ | A AND B}
E a ple − If A= { , , } a d B = { , , }, the A∩B={ }

Fig . I te se tio
3. Set Diffe e e/ Relati e Co ple e t - The set diffe e e of sets A a d B de oted A–B is the
set of ele e ts hi h a e o l i A ut ot i B. He e, A−B={ | A AND B}
E a ple − If A= { , , , }
a d B={ , , }, the A−B ={ , , } a d B−A ={ , }. He e, e a see A−B ≠ B−A

Fig . “et Diffe e es

4. Co ple e t of a Set - The o ple e t of a set A de oted A′ is the set of ele e ts hi h a e
ot i set A. He e, A′={ | A}

Page no: 3 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Mo e spe ifi all , A′= U−A he e U is a u i e sal set hi h o tai s all o je ts.
E a ple − If A= { | elo gs to set of odd i tegers} the A′={ | does ot elo g to set of odd i tegers}

Fig . Co ple e t
5. Ca tesia P odu t / C oss P odu t - The Ca tesia p odu t of u e of sets A ,A ,…A de oted
as A ×A ⋯×A a e defi ed as all possi le o de ed pai s , … he e A , A ,… A
E a ple − If e take t o sets A= {a, } a d B= { , }
The Ca tesia p odu t of A a d B is itte as − A×B= { a, , a, , , , , }
The Ca tesia p odu t of B a d A is itte as − B×A= { , a , , , , a , , }
6. Po e Set - Po e set of a set “ is the set of all su sets of “ i ludi g the e pt set. The a di alit
of a po e set of a set “ of a di alit is . Po e set is de oted as P S
E a ple −
Fo a set S= {a, , , d}
Let us al ulate the su sets −
1. “u sets ith ele e ts − {∅} the e pt set
2. “u sets ith ele e t − {a},{ },{ },{d}
3. “u sets ith ele e ts − {a, },{a, },{a, d},{ , },{ , d},{ , d}
4. “u sets ith ele e ts − {a, , },{a, , d},{a , , d},{ , , d}
5. “u sets ith ele e ts − {a, , , d}
He e, P S ={{∅},{a},{ },{ },{d},{a, },{a, },{a,d},{ , },{ ,d},{ ,d},{a, , },{a, ,d},{a, ,d},{ , ,d},{a, , ,d}}
|P S |= =
Note − the po e set of a e pt set is also a e pt set. |P {∅} |= =

Relations
Whe e e sets a e ei g dis ussed, the elatio ship et ee the ele e ts of the sets is the e t thi g that
o es up. Relatio s a e ist et ee o je ts of the sa e set o et ee o je ts of t o o o e sets.
Defi itio a d P ope ties
A i a elatio ‘ f o set to itte as R o R , is a su set of the Ca tesia p odu t × . If the
o de ed pai of G is e e sed, the elatio also ha ges. Ge e all a -a elatio ‘ et ee sets
A … a d A is a su set of the -a p odu t A ×⋯×A . The i i u a di alit of a elatio ‘ is )e o a d
a i u is i this ase. A i a elatio ‘ o a si gle set A is a su set of A × A
Fo t o disti t sets, A a d B, ha i g a di alities a d espe ti el , the a i u a di alit of a
elatio ‘ f o A to B is .
Do ai a d Ra ge
If the e a e t o sets A a d B, a d elatio ‘ ha e o de pai , , the −
1. The do ai of ‘, Do ‘ , is the set { | , ‘ fo so e i B}
2. The a ge of ‘, ‘a ‘ , is the set { | , ‘ fo so e i A}
E a ples Let, A = { , , } a d B = { , , }
Case − If elatio ‘ is 'e ual to' the R= { , , , }
Do ‘ = { , }, Ra R = { , }
Case − If elatio ‘ is 'less tha ' the R= { , , , , , , , }
Do ‘ = { , }, Ra R = { , }
Case − If elatio ‘ is 'g eate tha ' the R= { , , , , , , , }
Do ‘ = { , }, Ra R = { , , }
T pes of Relatio s
1. The E pt Relatio et ee sets X a d Y, o o E, is the e pt set ∅

Page no: 4 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

2. The Full Relatio et ee sets X a d Y is the set X×Y

3. The Ide tit Relatio o set X is the set { , | X}
4. The I e se ‘elatio ‘' of a elatio ‘ is defi ed as − R′={ , a | a, R}
E a ple − If R= { , , , } the R′ ill e { , , , }
P ope ties of Relatio :-
1. A elatio ‘ o set A is alled Refle i e if ∀a A is elated to a a‘a holds
E a ple − The elatio R= { a, a , , } o set X={a, } is efle i e.
2. A elatio ‘ o set A is alled I efle i e if o a A is elated to a a‘a does ot hold .
E a ple − The elatio R= { a, , , a o set X={a, } is i efle i e.
3. A elatio ‘ o set A is alled S et i if R i plies R , ∀ A a d ∀ A
E a ple − The elatio R= { , , , , , , , } o set A={ , , } is s et i .
4. A elatio ‘ o set A is alled A ti-S et i if R a d R i plies = ∀ Aa d∀ A
E a ple − the elatio R= { , →N | } is a ti-s et i si e a d i plies =
5. A elatio ‘ o set A is alled T a siti e if R a d Rz i plies Rz,∀ , , z A
E a ple − The elatio R={ , , , , , } o set A={ , , } is t a siti e.

Co positio of Relatio s: “uppose that e ha e th ee sets A, B a d C. A elatio ‘ defi ed f o A to B,

a d a elatio “ defi ed f o B to C. We a o defi e a e elatio k o as the o positio of ‘ a d
“, itte as “ o ‘. This e elatio is defi ed as follo s:
If a is a ele e t i A a d is a ele e t i C, the a “ o ‘ , if a d o l if, the e e ists so e ele e t i
B, su h that a‘ a d “ . This ea s that, e ha e a elatio “ o ‘ f o a to , if a d o l if, e a ea h
f o a to i t o steps; i.e. f o a to elated ‘ a d f o to elated “. I this a e , elatio “
o ‘ a e i te p eted as ‘ follo ed “, si e this is the o de i hi h the t o elatio s eed to e
o side ed, fi st ‘ the “.

Question: Let A = {a, b, c}, B = {1, 2} and C = {a, b, g} is being three sets and R = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 2), (c, 1)} and S = {(1, a), (2,
b), (2, g)} be two relations, find SoR.
Solution:
Here, R is a relation where a goes to 1 and so on. Thus, S o R will be calculated as a goes to 1 and in turn, 1 goes to a,
yielding (a, a).
Hence, SoR = {(a, a), (a, b), (a, g), (b, b), (b, g), (c, a)}.

Rep ese tatio of Relatio s usi g G aph

A elatio a e ep ese ted usi g a di e ted g aph. The u e of e ti es i the g aph is e ual to the
u e of ele e ts i the set f o hi h the elatio has ee defi ed. Fo ea h o de ed pai , i the
elatio ‘, the e ill e a di e ted edge f o the e te to e te . If the e is a o de ed pai , ,
the e ill e self- loop o e te .
“uppose, the e is a elatio ‘= { , , , , , } o set “ = { , , } , it a e ep ese ted the
follo i g g aph −

Fig .

Page no: 5 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

E ui ale e Relatio :
A elatio is a E ui ale e ‘elatio if it is efle i e, s et i , a d t a siti e.
E a ple − The elatio R={ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , } o set A={ , , } is a
e ui ale e elatio si e it is efle i e, s et i , a d t a siti e.
E a ple : The e ualit elatio = o a set of u e s su h as { , , } is a e ui ale e elatio .
E a ple : The o g ue t odulo elatio o the set of i tege s i.e. {<a, >| a od },
he e is a positi e i tege g eate tha , is a e ui ale e elatio .

Pa tial O de Relatio :
A elatio is a Pa tial O de ‘elatio if it is efle i e, A ti s et i , a d t a siti e.
E a ple − The elatio R={ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , } o set A={ , , } is a
e ui ale e elatio si e it is efle i e, s et i , a d t a siti e.
E a ple − A elatio " " is a pa tial o de o a set if it has:
. ‘efle i it : fo all.
. A ti-s et i : a d i plies.
. T a siti it : a d i plies.

Jo S heduli g: “uppose e ha e jo s ea h of hi h take ti e ti to p o ess a d ide ti al a hi es o

hi h to s hedule thei o pletio Jo s a ot e split et ee a hi es Fo a gi e s heduli g, let A j e
the set of jo s assig ed to a hi e j. Let Lj = P i Aj ti is the load of a hi e j. The i i u ake spa
s heduli g p o le is to fi d a assig e t of jo s to a hi es that i i izes the ake spa , defi ed as
the a i u load o e all a hi es i.e. a j Lj .
We o side the follo i g g eed algo ith fo this p o le hi h so ts the jo s so that t t ... t ,
a d ite ati el allo ates the e t jo to the a hi e ith the least load.

“ heduli g P o le s: I o de to ake ou p o le o e spe ifi a d fo si pli it , e eed to ake

so e assu ptio s. Fi st e ill assu e that a p o esso a o k o a task. I additio e ill al a s
assu e the follo i g t o ules:
i No p o esso a e idle if the e is so e task it a e doi g.
ii O e a p o esso has egu a task, it alo e ust o ti ue to p o ess that task u til it is fi ished.

Discrete Mathematics - Functions

A Fu tio assig s to ea h ele e t of a set, e a tl o e ele e t of a elated set. Fu tio s fi d thei
appli atio i a ious fields like ep ese tatio of the o putatio al o ple it of algo ith s, ou ti g
o je ts, stud of se ue es a d st i gs, to a e a fe . The thi d a d fi al hapte of this pa t highlights
the i po ta t aspe ts of fu tio s.
Fu tio - Defi itio
A fu tio o appi g Defi ed as f: X→Y is a elatio ship f o ele e ts of o e set X to ele e ts of
a othe set Y X a d Y a e o -e pt sets . X is alled Do ai a d Y is alled Codo ai of fu tio f .
Fu tio f is a elatio o X a d Y su h that fo ea h X, the e e ists a u i ue Y su h that , R.
is alled p e-i age a d is alled i age of fu tio f. A fu tio a e o e to o e o a to o e ut
ot o e to a .
1. I je ti e / O e-to-o e fu tio - A fu tio f: A→B is i je ti e o o e-to-o e fu tio if fo e e
B, the e e ists at ost o e a A su h that f s =t. This ea s a fu tio f is i je ti e if a ≠a i plies
f a ≠f a
E a ple
a) f:N→N,f = is i je ti e.
b) f:N→N,f = is i je ti e.
c) f:R→R,f = is ot i je ti e as − =
2. Su je ti e / o to fu tio - A fu tio f: A→B is su je ti e o to if the i age of f e uals its a ge.
E ui ale tl , fo e e B, the e e ists so e a A su h that f a = . This ea s that fo a i B, the e
e ists so e i A su h that =f

Page no: 6 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

E a ple
a) f:N→N,f = + is su je ti e.
b) f:R→R,f = is ot su je ti e si e e a ot fi d a eal u e hose s ua e is egati e.
3. Bije ti e / O e-to-o e Co espo de t - A fu tio f: A→B is ije ti e o o e-to-o e o espo de t
if a d o l if f is oth i je ti e a d su je ti e.
P o le - P o e that a fu tio f: R→R defi ed f = – is a ije ti e fu tio .
E pla atio − e ha e to p o e this fu tio is oth i je ti e a d su je ti e.
If f =f , the – = – a d it i plies that = . He e, f is i je ti e.
He e, – =
“o, = + / hi h elo gs to ‘ a d f = . He e, f is su je ti e.
“i e f is oth su je ti e a d i je ti e, e a sa f is ije ti e.
4. I e se of a Fu tio - The i e se of a o e-to-o e o espo di g fu tio f: A→B , is the fu tio
g:B→A , holdi g the follo i g p ope t − f = ⇔g = The fu tio f is alled i e ti le, if its i e se
fu tio g e ists.
E a ple
A Fu tio f:)→),f = + , is i e ti le si e it has the i e se fu tio g:)→),g = − .
A Fu tio f:)→),f = is ot i e ti le si e this is ot o e-to-o e as − =
5. Co positio of Fu tio s - T o fu tio s f: A→B a d g: B→C a e o posed to gi e a
o positio gof. This is a fu tio f o A to C defi ed gof =g f
E a ple
Let f = + a d g = , fi d fog a d gof
Solutio
fog =f g =f + = + + = +
gof =g f =g + = + + = +
He e, fog ≠ gof
6. Re u si el Defi ed Fu tio s – A e u si e defi itio has t o pa ts:
a) Defi itio of the s allest a gu e t usuall f o f .
b) Defi itio of f , gi e f - , f - , et .
f = ;
f = .f -
So e Fa ts a out Co positio
c) If f a d g a e o e-to-o e the the fu tio gof is also o e-to-o e.
d) If f a d g a e o to the the fu tio gof is also o to.
e) Co positio al a s holds asso iati e p ope t ut does ot hold o utati e p ope t .

Pigeo hole P i iple

I , Ge a athe ati ia , Pete Gusta Lejeu e Di i hlet, stated a p i iple hi h he alled the
d a e p i iple. No , it is k o as the pigeo hole p i iple.
Pigeo hole P i iple states that if the e a e fe e pigeo holes tha total u e of pigeo s a d ea h
pigeo is put i a pigeo hole, the the e ust e at least o e pigeo hole ith o e tha o e pigeo . If
pigeo s a e put i to pigeo holes he e > , the e's a hole ith o e tha o e pigeo .
E a ples
a) Te e a e i a oo a d the a e taki g pa t i ha dshakes. If ea h pe so shakes ha ds at least
o e a d o a shakes the sa e a s ha d o e tha o e the t o e took pa t i the sa e
u e of ha dshakes.
b) The e ust e at least t o people i a lass of hose a es sta t ith the sa e alpha et.

The I lusio -E lusio p i iple

The I lusio -e lusio p i iple o putes the a di al u e of the u io of ultiple o -disjoi t sets.
Fo t o sets A a d B, the p i iple states −
|A∪B|=|A|+|B|−|A∩B|
Fo th ee sets A, B a d C, the p i iple states −

Page no: 7 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

|A∪B∪C|=|A|+|B|+|C|−|A∩B|−|A∩C|−|B∩C|+|A∩B∩C|
The ge e alized fo ula –
|⋃ni= Ai|=∑ ≤i<j<k≤ n| Ai ∩ Aj|+∑ ≤i<j< k≤ n| Ai ∩ Aj ∩ Ak|−⋯+ − π− |A ∩⋯∩A |
P o le
Ho a i tege s f o to a e ultiples of o ut ot oth?
Solutio
Fo to , the e a e / = u e s hi h a e ultiples of .
The e a e / = u e s hi h a e ultiples of .
The e a e / = u e s hi h a e ultiples of oth a d .
“o, |A|= , |B|= a d |A∩B|=
|A∪B|=|A|+|B|−|A∩B|= + − =

P o le
I a g oup of stude ts like old d i ks a d like hot d i ks a d ea h stude t likes at least o e of
the t o d i ks. Ho a like oth offee a d tea?
Solutio
Let X is the set of stude ts ho like old d i ks a d Y is the set of people ho like hot d i ks.
“o, |X∪Y|= , |X|= , |Y|=
|X∩Y|=|X|+|Y|−|X∪Y|= + − = − =
He e, the e a e stude ts ho like oth tea a d offee.

Solved problems on union of sets:

1. Let A = {x: x is a natural number and a factor of 18} and B = {x: x is a natural number and less than 6}.
Find A ∪ B.
Solution:
A = {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, and 18} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, and 5} Therefore, A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, and 18}

2. Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and C = {1, 3, 5, 7} Verify (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)

Solution:
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
L.H.S. = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
A ∪ B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8}
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = { , , , , , , , , } ………………..
R.H.S. = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
B ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
A ∪ (B ∪ C = { , , , , , , , , } ………………..
Therefore, from (1) and (2), we conclude that;
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) [verified]
3. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Y = {2, 3, 5} and Z = {4, 5, 6}.
(i) Verify X ∪ Y = Y ∪ X
(ii) Verify (X ∪ Y) ∪ Z = X ∪ (Y ∪ Z)
Solution:
(i) X ∪ Y = Y ∪ X
L.H.S = X ∪ Y
= {1, 2, 3, 4} ∪ {2, 3, 4}
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
R.H.S. = Y ∪ X
= {2, 3, 5} U {1, 2, 3, 4}
= {2, 3, 5, 1, 4} Therefore, X ∪ Y = Y ∪ X [verified]
(ii) (X ∪ Y) ∪ Z = X ∪ (Y ∪ Z)
L.H.S. = (X ∪ Y) ∪ ZX ∪ Y
= {1, 2, 3, 4} U {2, 3, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Page no: 8 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Now (X ∪ Y) ∪ Z= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} {4, 5, 6}

= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6}
R.H.S. = X U (Y ∪ Z) Y ∪ Z
= {2, 3, 5} ∪ {4, 5, 6}
= {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
X ∪ (Y ∪ Z) = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∪ {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Therefore, (X ∪ Y) ∪ Z = X ∪ (Y ∪ Z) [verified]
Solved problems on intersection of sets:
1. Let A = {x: x is a natural number and a factor of 18} B = {x: x is a natural number and less than 6}
Find A ∪ B and A ∩ B.
Solution:
A = {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18}
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
The efo e, A ∩ B = { , , }
2. If P = {multiples of 3 between 1 and 20} and Q = {even natural numbers upto 15}. Find the intersection
of the two given set P and set Q.
Solution:
P = {multiples of 3 between 1 and 20} So, P = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}
Q = {even natural numbers upto 15} So, Q = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}
Therefore, intersection of P and Q is the largest set containing only those elements which are common to
both the given sets P and Q
He e, P ∩ Q = { , }.

3. Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and C = {1, 3, 5, 7} Ve if A ∩ B ∩ C = A ∩ B ∩ C

Solution:
A∩B ∩C=A∩ B∩C
L.H.“. = A ∩ B ∩ CA ∩ B
= { , } A ∩ B ∩ C = {∅} ………………..
‘.H.“. = A ∩ B ∩ C B ∩ C = {∅}
A ∩ {B ∩ C} = {∅} ………………..
The efo e, f o a d , e o lude that; A ∩ B ∩ C = A ∩ B ∩ C [ e ified]

4. Given three sets P, Q and R such that:

P = {x: x is a natural number between 10 and 16},
Q = {y: y is an even number between 8 and 20} and
R = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}
a. Find the difference of two sets P and Q
b. Find Q - R
c. Find R - P
d. Find (Q – P)
Solution:
According to the given statements:
P = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15}
Q = {10, 12, 14, 16, 18}
R = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}
(i) P – Q = {those elements of set P which are not in set Q}
= {11, 13, and 15}
(ii) Q – R = {those elements of set Q not belonging to set R}
= {10, 12, and 16}
(iii) R – P = {those elements of set R which are not in set P}
= {7, 9, 18, and 20}
(iv) Q – P = {those elements of set Q not belonging to set P}

Page no: 9 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

= {10, 16, and 18}

Problems on Operation on Sets

1. If A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {3, 5, 6} and C = {1, 3, 7}
(i) Verify that A ∪ B ∩ C = A ∪ B ∩ A ∪ C)
ii Ve if A ∩ B ∪ C = A ∩ B ∪ A ∩ C
Solution:
(i) A ∪ B ∩ C = A ∪ B ∩ A ∪ C)
L.H.S. = A ∪ B ∩ C
B∩C={ }
A ∪ B ∩ C = { , , } ∪ { } = { , , } ………………..
R.H.S. = (A ∪ B ∩ A ∪ C)
A ∪ B = {1, 3, 5, 6}
A ∪ C = {1, 3, 5, 7}
(A ∪ B ∩ A ∪ C = { , , , } ∩ { , , , } = { , , } ………………..
From (1) and (2), we conclude that;
A ∪ B ∩ C = A ∪ B ∩ A ∪ C)[verified]
ii A ∩ B ∪ C) = ( A ∩ B ∪ A ∩ C
L.H.“. = A ∩ B ∪ C)
B ∪ C = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7}
A ∩ B ∪ C = { , , } ∩ { , , , , } = { , , } ………………..
‘.H.“. = A ∩ B ∪ A ∩ C
A∩B={ , }
A∩C={ , }
( A ∩ B ∪ A ∩ C = { , } ∪ {1, 3} = {1, 3, 5} ………………..
From (1) and (2), we conclude that;
A ∩ B ⋃ C = A ∩ B ⋃ A ∩ C [verified]
2. Let A = {a, b, d, e}, B = {b, c, e, f} and C = {d, e, f, g}
i Ve if A ∩ B ∪ C = A ∩ B ∪ A ∩ C
(ii) Verify A ∪ B ∩ C = A ∪ B ∩ A ∪ C)
Solution:
i A ∩ B ∪ C) = ( A ∩ B ∪ A ∩ C
L.H.“. = A ∩ B ∪ C)
B ∪ C = {b, c, d, e, f, g}
A ∩ B ∪ C) = {b, d, e} ………………..
R.H.S. = ( A ∩ B ∪ A ∩ C
A ∩ B = { , e}
A ∩ C = {d, e}
A ∩ B ∪ A ∩ C = { , d, e} ………………..
From (1) and (2), we conclude that;

A ∩ B ⋃ C = A ∩ B ⋃ A ∩ C [verified]
(ii) A ∪ B ∩ C = A ∪ B ∩ A ∪ C)
L.H.S. = A ∪ B ∩ C
B ∩ C = {e, f}
A ∪ B ∩ C = {a, , d, e, f} ………………..
R.H.S. = (A ∪ B ∩ A ∪ C)
A∪B = {a, b, c, d, e, f}
A∪C = {a, b, d, e, f, g}
(A ∪ B ∩ A ∪ C) = {a, b, d, e, f} ………………..
From (1) and (2), we conclude that;
A ∪ B ∩ C = A ∪ B ∩ A ∪ C) [verified]

Page no: 10 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Nu e i al o Sets:-
1. Let A and B be two finite sets such that n (A) = 20, n (B) = 28 and n (A ∪ B) = 36, find n (A ∩ B .
Solution:
Using the formula n (A ∪ B) = n (A) + n (B) - A ∩ B .
Then n (A ∩ B = n (A) + n (B) - n (A ∪ B)
= 20 + 28 - 36
= 48 - 36
= 12

2. If n (A - B) = 18, n (A ∪ B) = 70 and n (A ∩ B = , the fi d n (B).

Solution:
Using the formula n(A∪B) = n(A - B + A ∩ B + B - A)
70 = 18 + 25 + n(B - A)
70 = 43 + n(B - A)
n(B - A) = 70 - 43
n(B - A) = 27
No B = A ∩ B + B - A)
= 25 + 27
= 52
3. In a group of 60 people, 27 like cold drinks and 42 like hot drinks and each person likes at least one of
the two drinks. How many like both coffee and tea?
Solution:
Let A = Set of people who like cold drinks.
B = Set of people who like hot drinks.
Given
(A ∪ B) = 60 n (A) = 27 n (B) = 42 then;
n (A ∩ B = A + B - n(A ∪ B)
= 27 + 42 - 60
= 69 - 60 = 9
Therefore, 9 people like both tea and coffee.

4. There are 35 students in art class and 57 students in dance class. Find the number of students who are
either in art class or in dance class.
(i) When two classes meet at different hours and 12 students are enrolled in both activities.
(ii) When two classes meet at the same hour.

Solution:
n(A) = 35, n(B) = 57, A∩B =
(Let A be the set of students in art class.
B be the set of students in dance class.)
(i) When 2 classes meet at different hours n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - A ∩ B
= 35 + 57 - 12
= 92 - 12
= 80
ii Whe t o lasses eet at the sa e hou , A∩B = ∅ n (A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - A∩B
= n(A) + n(B)
= 35 + 57
= 92

Page no: 11 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

5. In a group of 100 persons, 72 people can speak English and 43 can speak French. How many can speak
English only? How many can speak French only and how many can speak both English and French?
Solution:

Let A be the set of people who speak English.

B is the set of people who speak French.
A - B is the set of people who speak English and not French.
B - A be the set of people who speak French and not English.
A ∩ B e the set of people ho speak oth F e h a d E glish.
Given,
n (A) = 72 n (B) = 43 n (A ∪ B) = 100
Now, n (A ∩ B = n (A) + n (B) - n (A ∪ B)
= 72 + 43 - 100
= 115 - 100
= 15
The efo e, Nu e of pe so s ho speak oth F e h a d E glish =
A = A-B + A∩B
⇒ A-B = A - A∩B
= -
=
B-A = B - A∩B
= -
=
The efo e, Nu e of people speaki g E glish o l =
Nu e of people speaki g F e h o l =
6. In a competition, a school awarded medals in different categories. 36 medals in dance, 12 medals in
dramatics and 18 medals in music If these medals went to a total of 45 persons and only 4 persons got
medals in all the three categories, how many received medals in exactly two of these categories?
Solution:

Let A = set of persons who got medals in dance.

B = set of persons who got medals in dramatics.
C = set of persons who got medals in music.
Given,
n(A) = 36 n(B) = 12 n(C) = 18
n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = 45 A∩B∩C =
We know that number of elements belonging to exactly two of the three sets A, B, C
= A∩B + B∩C + A∩C - A∩B∩C
= A∩B + B∩C + A∩C -3×4 …….. i
n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - A ∩ B - B ∩ C - A ∩ C + A ∩ B ∩ C
The efo e, A ∩ B + B ∩ C + A ∩ C = A + B + C + A ∩ B ∩ C - n(A ∪ B ∪ C)
F o i e ui ed u e
= A + B + C + A∩B∩C - A∪B∪C -
= + + + - -
= -
=

7. Each student in a class of 40 plays at least one indoor game, chess, carom and scrabble. 18 play chess,
20 play scrabble and 27 play carom. 7 play chess and scrabble, 12 play scrabble and carom and 4 play
chess, carom and scrabble. Find the number of students who play (i) chess and carom. (ii) Chess, carom
but not scrabble.

Page no: 12 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Solution:
Let A be the set of students who play chess
B be the set of students who play scrabble
C be the set of students who play carom
Therefore, We are given n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = 40,
n(A) = 18, n(B) = 20 n(C) = 27,
A∩B = , C∩B = A∩B∩C =
We have
n (A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - A ∩ B - B ∩ C - C ∩ A + A ∩ B ∩ C
Therefore, 40 = 18 + 20 + 27 - 7 - 12 - C ∩ A + 4
40 = 69 – 19 - C ∩ A
40 = 50 - C ∩ A C ∩ A = - 40
n C∩A =
Therefore, Number of students who play chess and carom are 10
Also, number of students who play chess, carom and not scrabble
= C∩A - A∩B∩C
= 10 – 4
=6

Mathematical Induction
Mathe ati al i du tio is a te h i ue fo p o i g esults o esta lishi g state e ts fo atu al u e s.
This pa t illust ates the ethod th ough a a iet of e a ples.
Defi itio - Mathe ati al I du tio is a athe ati al te h i ue hi h is used to p o e a state e t, a
fo ula o a theo e is t ue fo e e atu al u e .
The te h i ue i ol es t o steps to p o e a state e t, as stated elo −
Step Base step − It p o es that a state e t is t ue fo the i itial alue.
Step I du ti e step − It p o es that if the state e t is t ue fo the th ite atio o u e , the it is
also t ue fo +1 th ite atio o u e +1 .
Ho to Do It
Step − Co side a i itial alue fo hi h the state e t is t ue. It is to e sho that the state e t is
t ue fo = i itial alue.
Step − Assu e the state e t is t ue fo a alue of = k. The p o e the state e t is t ue fo = k+1.
We a tuall eak = k+1 i to t o pa ts, o e pa t is = k hi h is al ead p o ed a d t to p o e the
othe pa t.

. n− is a ultiple of fo = , , .....
Solutio
Step − fo = , * − = − = hi h is a ultiple of
Step − Let us assu e − is t ue fo =k, He e, k− is t ue It is a assu ptio
We ha e to p o e that k+ − is also a ultiple of
k+ − = × k− = × k + k−
The fi st pa t × k is e tai to e a ultiple of a d the se o d pa t k− is also t ue as ou p e ious
assu ptio .
He e, k+ – is a ultiple of .
“o, it is p o ed that – is a ultiple of .

. + + +...+ n− =n fo n= , , …
Solutio
Step − fo = , = , He e, step is satisfied.
Step − Let us assu e the state e t is t ue fo =k
He e, + + +⋯+ k− =k is t ue It is a assu ptio
We ha e to p o e that + + +...+ k+ − = k+ also hold

Page no: 13 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

+ + +⋯+ k+ −
= + + +⋯+ k+ −
= + + +⋯+ k+
= + + +⋯+ k− + k+
=k + k+
= k+
“o, + + +⋯+ k+ − = k+ hold hi h satisfies the step .
He e, + + +⋯+ − = is p o ed.

. P o e that ab n = anbn is t ue fo e e atu al u e n

Solutio
Step − Fo = , a =a =a , He e, step is satisfied.
Step − Let us assu e the state e t is t ue fo =k, He e, a k
=ak k
is t ue It is a assu ptio .
We ha e to p o e that ab k+ =ak+ bk+ also hold
Gi e , a k= ak k O , a k a = ak k a
[Multipl i g oth side 'a ']
O , a k+ = a ak k

O , a k+ = ak+ k+
He e, step is p o ed.
“o, ab n = anbn is t ue fo e e atu al u e .

St o g I du tio
“t o g I du tio is a othe fo of athe ati al i du tio . Th ough this i du tio te h i ue, e a
p o e that a p opositio al fu tio , P is t ue fo all positi e i tege s, , usi g the follo i g steps −
Step Base step − It p o es that the i itial p opositio P t ue.
Step I du ti e step − It p o es that the o ditio al state e t [P ∧P ∧P ∧⋯∧P k ]→P k+ is t ue
fo positi e i tege s k.

P oof Co t adi tio . To p o e a state e t P is t ue, e egi assu i g P false a d sho that this
leads to a o t adi tio ; so ethi g that al a s false.
Ma of the state e ts e p o e ha e the fo P ⇒ Q hi h, he egated, has the fo P ⇒ ∼Q.

P opositio P ⇒ Q

P oof: Assu e, fo the sake of o t adi tio P is t ue ut Q is false. · · · “i e e ha e a o t adi tio , it

ust e that Q is t ue

P oof: √ is i atio al

P oof: “uppose √ is atio al. The i tege s a a d e ist so that √ = a/ . Without loss of ge e alit e
a assu e that a a d ha e o fa to s i o o i.e., the f a tio is i si plest fo . Multipl i g oth
sides a d s ua i g, e ha e
= a so e see that a is e e . This ea s that a is e e ho ould ou p o e this? so a = fo
so e ). The
=a = = hi h, afte di idi g , gi es = so is e e . This ea s = fo
so e ).

Page no: 14 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

 We hope you find these notes useful.
You can get previous year question papers at
https://qp.rgpvnotes.in .

If you have any queries or you want to submit your

study notes please write us at
rgpvnotes.in@gmail.com