Engineering Mathematics John Bird

Chapter 27
Methods of differentiation
f(x)
27.1 Introduction to calculus
B
Calculus is a branch of mathematics involving or lead-
ing to calculations dealing with continuously varying
functions – such as velocity and acceleration, rates
of change and maximum and minimum values of
A f(x2)
curves. C
Calculus has widespread applications in science and
engineering and is used to solve complicated problems f(x1)
for which algebra alone is insufficient. E D
Calculus is a subject that falls into two parts: x2
0 x1 x
(i) differential calculus, or differentiation, which
is covered in Chapters 27 to 36, and Figure 27.2
(ii) integral calculus, or integration, which is cov-
ered in Chapters 37 to 44.
For the curve shown in Fig. 27.2, let the points A and
B have co-ordinates (x 1 , y1) and (x 2 , y2), respectively.
27.2 The gradient of a curve In functional notation, y1 = f (x 1 ) and y2 = f (x 2 ) as
shown.
If a tangent is drawn at a point P on a curve, then the The gradient of the chord AB
gradient of this tangent is said to be the gradient of the
curve at P. In Fig. 27.1, the gradient of the curve at P
BC BD − CD f (x 2 ) − f (x 1 )
is equal to the gradient of the tangent PQ. = = =
AC ED (x 2 − x 1 )
f(x)
For the curve f (x) = x 2 shown in Fig. 27.3.
Q (i) the gradient of chord AB
f (3) − f (1) 9 − 1
= = =4
P
3−1 2
(ii) the gradient of chord AC

0 x
f (2) − f (1) 4 − 1
= = =3
Figure 27.1 2−1 1
288 Higher Engineering Mathematics
f(x) y
10
B f(x) 5 x 2
8
B (x 1 x, y 1 y)
6
y
4 C
A(x, y) f(x 1 x)
2 D
A x
f(x)
0 1 1.5 2 3 x
0 x
Figure 27.3
Figure 27.4
(iii) the gradient of chord AD

δy
As δx approaches zero, approaches a limiting value
f (1.5) − f (1) 2.25 − 1 δx
= = = 2.5 and the gradient of the chord approaches the gradient of
1.5 − 1 0.5
the tangent at A.
(iv) if E is the point on the curve (1.1, f (1.1)) then When determining the gradient of a tangent to a curve
the gradient of chord AE there are two notations used. The gradient of the curve
at A in Fig. 27.4 can either be written as
f (1.1) − f (1) 1.21 − 1 !
= = = 2.1 δy f (x + δx) − f (x)
1.1 − 1 0.1 limit or limit
δx→0 δx δx→0 δx
(v) if F is the point on the curve (1.01, f (1.01)) then
the gradient of chord AF dy δy
In Leibniz notation, = limit
dx δx→0 δx
f (1.01) − f (1) 1.0201 − 1
= = = 2.01 In functional notation,
1.01 − 1 0.01
!
Thus as point B moves closer and closer to point A the f (x +δx) − f (x)
f ! (x) = limit
gradient of the chord approaches nearer and nearer to the δx→0 δx
value 2. This is called the limiting value of the gradient
dy
of the chord AB and when B coincides with A the chord is the same as f " (x) and is called the differential
becomes the tangent to the curve. dx
coefficient or the derivative. The process of finding the
differential coefficient is called differentiation.
27.3 Differentiation from first Problem 1. Differentiate from first principle

principles f (x) = x 2 and determine the value of the gradient
of the curve at x = 2.
In Fig. 27.4, A and B are two points very close together
on a curve, δx (delta x) and δy (delta y) representing
To ‘differentiate from first principles’ means ‘to find
small increments in the x and y directions, respectively.
δy f " (x)’ by using the expression
Gradient of chord AB = ; however, !
δx f (x + δx) − f (x)
δy = f (x + δx) − f (x). f " (x) = limit
δx→0 δx
δy f (x + δx) − f (x)
Hence = .
δx δx f (x) = x 2
Methods of differentiation 289
Substituting (x + δx) for x gives y

f (x + δx) = (x + δx)2 = x 2 + 2xδx + δx 2 , hence
A
!
" (x 2 + 2xδx + δx 2 ) − (x 2 ) y sin x
f (x) = limit !
δx→0 δx
B D
! (a)
(2xδx + δx 2 ) 0 ! ! 3! 2! x rad
= limit 2 2
δx→0 δx "
= limit [2x + δx] C

δx→0 0# D#
d
dy (sin x) cos x
dx
As δx → 0, [2x + δx] →[2x + 0]. Thus f ! (x) = 2x, i.e. dx
the differential coefficient of x 2 is 2x. At x = 2, the !
A# C#
gradient of the curve, f " (x) = 2(2) = 4. (b)
0 ! ! 3! 2! x rad
2 2
"
Differentiation from first principles can be a lengthy
process and it would not be convenient to go through this
B#
procedure every time we want to differentiate a function.
In reality we do not have to because a set of general
rules have evolved from the above procedure, which we Figure 27.5
consider in the following section.
(i) At 0, the gradient is positive and is at its steepest.

27.4 Differentiation of common Hence 0" is a maximum positive value.
functions (ii) Between 0 and A the gradient is positive but is
decreasing in value until at A the gradient is zero,
From differentiation by first principles of a number of shown as A" .
examples such as in Problem 1 above, a general rule
(iii) Between A and B the gradient is negative but
for differentiating y = ax n emerges, where a and n are
is increasing in value until at B the gradient is at
constants.
its steepest negative value. Hence B " is a maxi-
dy mum negative value.
The rule is: if y = axn then = anxn−1
dx
(iv) If the gradient of y = sin x is further investigated
dy
f (x)= axn then f ! (x)= anxn−1 ) and is true for all
(or, if between B and D then the resulting graph of
real values of a and n. dx
is seen to be a cosine wave. Hence the rate of
For example, if y = 4x 3 then a = 4 and n =3, and change of sin x is cos x,
dy dy
= anx n−1 = (4)(3)x 3−1 = 12x 2 i.e. if y = sin x then = cos x
dx dx
If y = ax n and n =0 then y = ax 0 and By a similar construction to that shown in Fig. 27.5 it
dy may be shown that:
= (a)(0)x 0−1 = 0,
dx dy
i.e. the differential coefficient of a constant is zero. if y = sin ax then = a cos ax
dx
Figure 27.5(a) shows a graph of y = sin x. The gra-
dient is continually changing as the curve moves from If graphs of y = cos x, y = ex and y = ln x are plotted
dy and their gradients investigated, their differential coef-
0 to A to B to C to D. The gradient, given by , may ficients may be determined in a similar manner to that
dx
be plotted in a corresponding position below y = sin x, shown for y = sin x. The rate of change of a function is
as shown in Fig. 27.5(b). a measure of the derivative.
The standard derivatives summarized below may be In general, the differential coefficient of a con-
proved theoretically and are true for all real values of x stant is always zero.
(b) Since y = 6x, in the general rule a = 6 and n =1.
dy
y or f (x) or f " (x) dy
dx Hence = (6)(1)x 1−1 = 6x 0 = 6
dx
ax n anx n−1
In general, the differential coefficient of kx, where
sin ax a cos ax k is a constant, is always k.
cos ax −a sin ax
eax aeax Problem 4. Find the derivatives of
√ 5
1 (a) y = 3 x (b) y = √
3 4
ln ax x
x
√
The differential coefficient of a sum or difference is (a) y = 3 x is rewritten in the standard differential
1
the sum or difference of the differential coefficients of form as y = 3x 2 .
the separate terms. 1
In the general rule, a = 3 and n =
2
Thus, if f (x) = p(x) + q(x) − r(x),
(where f, p, q and r are functions), " #
dy 1 1 3 1
Thus = (3) x 2 −1 = x − 2
then f " (x) = p" (x) + q " (x) − r " (x) dx 2 2
Differentiation of common functions is demonstrated in 3 3

= 1
= √
the following worked problems. 2 x
2x 2
Problem 2. Find the differential coefficients of 5 5 4

(b) y= √ 3 4
= 4 = 5x − 3 in the standard differen-
12 x x3
(a) y = 12x 3 (b) y = 3
x tial form.
In the general rule, a = 5 and n =− 43
dy
If y = ax n then = anx n−1 " #
dx dy 4 − 4 −1 −20 − 7
Thus = (5) − x 3 = x 3
(a) Since y = 12x 3 , a = 12 and n =3 thus dx 3 3
dy
= (12)(3)x 3−1 = 36x2
dx −20 −20
= 7
= √3
12 3 x7
(b) y = 3 is rewritten in the standard ax n form as 3x 3
x
y = 12x −3 and in the general rule a = 12 and
n = − 3. Problem 5. Differentiate, with respect to x,
dy 36 1 1
Thus = (12)(−3)x −3−1 = −36x −4 = − 4 y = 5x 4 + 4x − 2 + √ − 3.
dx x 2x x
1 1
Problem 3. Differentiate (a) y = 6 (b) y = 6x. y = 5x 4 + 4x − + √ − 3 is rewritten as
2x 2 x
(a) y = 6 may be written as y = 6x 0 , i.e. in the general 1 1
rule a = 6 and n =0. y = 5x 4 + 4x − x −2 + x − 2 −3
2
dy When differentiating a sum, each term is differentiated
Hence = (6)(0)x 0−1 = 0
dx in turn.
dy 1
Thus = (5)(4)x 4−1 + (4)(1)x 1−1 − (−2)x −2−1 Problem 9. Determine the co-ordinates of the
dx 2
" # point on the graph y = 3x 2 − 7x + 2 where the
1 − 1 −1 gradient is −1.
+ (1) − x 2 −0
2
1 3 The gradient of the curve is given by the derivative.
= 20x 3 + 4 + x −3 − x − 2
2 dy
dy 1 1 When y = 3x 2 − 7x + 2 then = 6x − 7
i.e. = 20x3 + 4 + 3 − √ dx
dx x 2 x3 Since the gradient is −1 then 6x − 7 =−1, from which,
x =1
Problem 6. Find the differential coefficients of
(a) y = 3 sin4x (b) f (t ) = 2 cos3t with respect to When x = 1, y = 3(1)2 − 7(1) + 2 = −2
the variable. Hence the gradient is −1 at the point (1, −2).
dy
(a) When y = 3 sin4x then = (3)(4 cos 4x)
dx
= 12 cos 4x
Now try the following exercise
(b) When f (t ) = 2 cos 3t then
f " (t ) = (2)(−3 sin 3t ) =−6 sin 3t
Exercise 115 Further problems on
differentiating common functions
Problem 7. Determine the derivatives of
2 In Problems 1 to 6 find the differential coeffi-
(a) y = 3e5x (b) f (θ) = 3θ (c) y = 6 ln2x. cients of the given functions with respect to the
e
variable.
dy 1
(a) When y = 3e5x then = (3)(5)e 5x = 15e5x 1. (a) 5x 5 (b) 2.4x 3.5 (c)
dx x
2 $ %
(b) f (θ) = = 2e−3θ , thus 1
e3θ (a) 25x 4 (b) 8.4x 2.5 (c) − 2
x
−6
f " (θ) = (2)(−3)e−30 = −6e−3θ = $ %
e3θ −4 8
2. (a) 2 (b) 6 (c) 2x (a) 3 (b) 0 (c) 2
" # x x
dy 1 6
(c) When y = 6 ln2x then =6 =
dx x x √ √ 3 4
3. (a) 2 x (b) 3 x 5 (c) √
x
$ %
Problem 8. Find the gradient of the curve 1 √
3 2 2
y = 3x 4 − 2x 2 + 5x − 2 at the points (0, −2) (a) √ (b) 5 x (c) − √
x x3
and (1, 4).
−3
The gradient of a curve at a given point is given by 4. (a) √
3
(b) (x − 1)2 (c) 2 sin 3x
x
the corresponding value of the derivative. Thus, since  
y = 3x 4 − 2x 2 + 5x − 2 1
 (a) √3 4
(b) 2(x − 1) 
 x 
dy
Then the gradient = = 12x 3 − 4x + 5 (c) 6 cos 3x
dx
At the point (0, −2), x = 0 3
Thus the gradient =12(0)3 − 4(0) + 5 =5 5. (a) −4 cos 2x (b) 2e6x (c) 5x
e
$ %
At the point (1, 4), x = 1 6x −15
(a) 8 sin 2x (b) 12e (c) 5x
Thus the gradient =12(1)3 − 4(1) + 5 = 13. e
√ Using the product rule:

e x − e−x 1− x dy dv du
6. (a) 4 ln9x (b) (c) = u + v
2 x dx dx dx
 
4 ex + e−x ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
(a) (b)
 x 2  dy
  gives: = (3x 2 )(2 cos 2x) + (sin 2x)(6x)
 −1 1  dx
(c) 2 + √
x 2 x3 dy
i.e. = 6x 2 cos 2x + 6x sin 2x
dx
7. Find the gradient of the curve y = 2t 4 +
3t 3 − t + 4 at the points (0, 4) and (1, 8). = 6x(xcos 2x +sin 2x)
[−1, 16] Note that the differential coefficient of a product is
8. Find the co-ordinates of the point on the not obtained by merely differentiating each term and
graph y = 5x 2 − 3x + 1 where the gradient multiplying the two answers together. The product rule
,- 1 3 ./ formula must be used when differentiating products.
is 2. 2, 4
2
9. (a) Differentiate y = + 2 ln2θ − Problem 11. Find the√ rate of change of y with
θ2 respect to x given y = 3 x ln 2x.
2
2 (cos 5θ + 3 sin 2θ) − 3θ
e
dy
dy π The rate of change of y with respect to x is given by
(b) Evaluate in part (a) when θ = , dx
dθ 2 √ 1
correct to 4 significant figures. y = 3 x ln2x = 3x 2 ln 2x, which is a product.
 −4 2  1
(a) 3 + + 10 sin 5θ Let u = 3x 2 and v = ln 2x
 θ θ 
 6  dy dv du
 −12 cos 2θ +  Then = u + v
 e3θ  dx dx dx
(b) 22.30 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
" #" # $ " # %
1 1 1 1
−1
ds = 3x 2 + (ln 2x) 3 x 2
10. Evaluate , correct to 3 significant figures, x 2
dt
π " #
when t = given 1
−1 3 −1
6 √ = 3x 2 + (ln 2x) x 2
2
s = 3 sin t − 3 + t. [3.29] " #
1 1
= 3x − 2 1 + ln 2x
2
" #
dy 3 1
27.5 Differentiation of a product i.e. = √ 1 + ln 2x
dx x 2
When y = uv, and u and v are both functions of x,
Problem 12. Differentiate y = x 3 cos 3x ln x.
dy dv du
then =u +v
dx dx dx Let u = x 3 cos 3x (i.e. a product) and v = ln x
This is known as the product rule. dy dv du
Then =u +v
dx dx dx
Problem 10. Find the differential coefficient of du
y = 3x 2 sin2x. where = (x 3 )(−3 sin 3x) + (cos 3x)(3x 2 )
dx
3x 2 sin 2x is a product of two terms 3x 2 and sin 2x dv 1

and =
Let u = 3x 2 and v = sin2x dx x
" #
dy 1
Hence = (x 3 cos 3x) + (ln x)[−3x 3 sin3x
dx x 8. et lnt cos t
$ " # !%
+ 3x 2 cos 3x] 1
et + ln t cos t − ln t sint
= x 2 cos 3x + 3x 2 ln x(cos 3x − x sin3x) t
di
dy 9. Evaluate , correct to 4 significant figures,
i.e. = x2 {cos 3x + 3 lnx(cos 3x −x sin 3x)} dt
dx when t = 0.1, and i = 15t sin3t .
[8.732]
Problem 13. Determine the rate of change of dz
voltage, given v = 5t sin 2t volts when t = 0.2 s. 10. Evaluate , correct to 4 significant figures,
dt
when t = 0.5, given that z =2e3t sin2t .
dv [32.31]
Rate of change of voltage =
dt
= (5t )(2 cos 2t ) + (sin 2t )(5)
= 10t cos 2t + 5 sin2t
27.6 Differentiation of a quotient
dv
When t = 0.2, = 10(0.2) cos 2(0.2) + 5 sin 2(0.2) u
dt When y = , and u and v are both functions of x
v
= 2 cos 0.4 + 5 sin 0.4 (where cos 0.4 du dv
means the cosine of 0.4 radians) dy v dx − u dx
then =
dv dx v2
Hence = 2(0.92106) + 5(0.38942)
dt This is known as the quotient rule.
= 1.8421 + 1.9471 = 3.7892
Problem 14. Find the differential coefficient of
i.e. the rate of change of voltage when t = 0.2 s is 4 sin5x
3.79 volts/s, correct to 3 significant figures. y=
5x 4
4 sin5x
Now try the following exercise is a quotient. Let u = 4 sin5x and v = 5x 4
5x 4
(Note that v is always the denominator and u the
Exercise 116 Further problems on numerator.)
differentiating products du dv
dy v dx − u dx
In Problems 1 to 8 differentiate the given products =
dx v2
with respect to the variable.
du
1. x sin x [x cos x + sin x] where = (4)(5) cos 5x = 20 cos5x
dx
2. x 2 e2x [2x e2x (x + 1)] dv
and = (5)(4)x 3 = 20x 3
dx
3. x 2 ln x [x(1 + 2 ln x)] dy (5x 4 )(20 cos 5x) − (4 sin 5x)(20x 3 )
Hence =
dx (5x 4 )2
4. 2x 3 cos 3x [6x 2(cos 3x − x sin 3x)]
√ 100x 4 cos 5x − 80x 3 sin 5x
,√ - ./ =
5. x 3 ln3x x 1 + 32 ln 3x 25x 8
20x 3 [5x cos 5x − 4 sin 5x]
6. e3t sin 4t [e3t (4 cos 4t + 3 sin 4t )] =
$ " #% 25x 8
1 dy 4
7. e4θ ln3θ e4θ + 4 ln3θ i.e. = 5 (5x cos 5x − 4 sin 5x)
θ dx 5x
Note that the differential coefficient is not obtained by Let u = t e2t and v = 2 cos t then
merely differentiating each term in turn and then divid- du dv
ing the numerator by the denominator. The quotient = (t )(2e2t ) + (e2t )(1) and = −2 sint
dt dt
formula must be used when differentiating quotients.
du dv
dy v dx − u dx
Problem 15. Determine the differential Hence =
coefficient of y = tan ax. dx v2
(2 cos t )[2t e2t + e2t ] − (t e2t )(−2 sint )
=
sin ax (2 cos t )2
y = tan ax = . Differentiation of tan ax is thus
cos ax 4t e2t cos t + 2e2t cos t + 2t e2t sin t
treated as a quotient with u = sin ax and v = cos ax =
4 cos2 t
du dv 2e2t [2t cos t + cos t + t sin t ]
dy v dx − u dx =
= 4 cos2 t
dx v2
(cos ax)(a cos ax) − (sin ax)(−a sin ax) dy e2t
= i.e. = (2t cos t + cos t +t sin t)
(cos ax)2 dx 2 cos2 t
a cos2 ax + a sin2 ax a(cos2 ax + sin2 ax) Problem 18. Determine0 the gradient of the curve
= = √ 1
(cos ax)2 cos2 ax 5x √ 3
a y= 2 at the point 3, .
= , sincecos2 ax + sin2 ax = 1 2x + 4 2
cos2 ax
(see Chapter 15)
Let y = 5x and v = 2x 2 + 4
dy 1
Hence = a sec2 ax since sec2 ax = (see du dv
dx cos2 ax v −u
Chapter 11). dy dx dx (2x 2 + 4)(5) − (5x)(4x)
= 2
=
dx v (2x 2 + 4)2
Problem 16. Find the derivative of y = sec ax. 10x 2 + 20 − 20x 2 20 − 10x 2
= =
(2x 2 + 4)2 (2x 2 + 4)2
1 0 √ 1
y = sec ax = (i.e. a quotient). Let u = 1 and √ 3 √
v = cos ax cos ax At the point 3, , x = 3,
2
du dv
√
dy v dx − u dx dy 20 − 10( 3)2
= hence the gradient = = √
dx v2 dx [2( 3)2 + 4]2
(cos ax)(0) − (1)(−a sin ax) 20 − 30 1
= = =−
(cos ax)2 100 10
" #" #
a sin ax 1 sin ax
= = a Now try the following exercise
cos2 ax cos ax cos ax
dy
i.e. = a sec ax tan ax Exercise 117 Further problems on
dx
differentiating quotients
t e2t
Problem 17. Differentiate y = In Problems 1 to 7, differentiate the quotients with
2 cost respect to the variable.
$ %
t e2t sin x x cos x − sin x
The function is a quotient, whose numerator is a 1.
2 cost x x2
product.
dy
$ % Rewriting u as (3x − 1) gives: = 27(3x −1)8
2 cos3x −6 dx
2. (x sin 3x + cos 3x)
x3 x4 Since y is a function of u, and u is a function of x, then
$ % y is a function of a function of x.
2x 2(1 − x 2 )
3.
x2 + 1 (x 2 + 1)2
Problem 19. Differentiate y = 3 cos(5x 2 + 2).
√ 2 cos x √ 3
√ + x sin x
x 2 x
4. Let u =5x 2 + 2 then y = 3 cosu
cos x cos2 x
√ 2 √ 3 du dy
3 θ3 3 θ(3 sin 2θ − 4θ cos 2θ) Hence = 10x and = −3 sinu.
5. dx du
2 sin2θ 4 sin2 2θ
Using the function of a function rule,
 1 
ln2t 1 − ln 2t dy dy du
 
6. √  √2  dx
= ×
du dx
= (−3 sin u)(10x) = −30x sin u
t t 3
$ % Rewriting u as 5x 2 + 2 gives:
2xe4x 2e4x
7. {(1 + 4x) sin x − x cos x}
sin x sin2 x dy
= −30x sin(5x2 + 2)
2x dx
8. Find the gradient of the curve y = at
x2 − 5
the point (2, −4). [−18]
Problem 20. Find the derivative of
dy y = (4t 3 − 3t )6 .
9. Evaluate at x = 2.5, correct to 3 significant
dx
2x 2 + 3 Let u =4t 3 − 3t , then y = u 6
figures, given y = .
ln 2x du dy
[3.82] Hence = 12t 2 − 3 and = 6u 5
dt du
dy dy du
27.7 Function of a function = × = (6u 5 )(12t 2 − 3)
dx du dx
It is often easier to make a substitution before differen- Rewriting u as (4t 3 − 3t ) gives:
tiating.
dy
= 6(4t 3 − 3t )5 (12t 2 − 3)
dy dy du dt
If y is a function of x then = ×
dx du dx = 18(4t 2 − 1)(4t 3 − 3t)5
This is known as the ‘function of a function’ rule (or Problem 21. Determine the differential
sometimes the chain rule). 4
coefficient of y = (3x 2 + 4x − 1).
For example, if y = (3x − 1)9 then, by making the sub-
stitution u = (3x − 1), y = u 9 , which is of the ‘standard’ 4 1
form. y = (3x 2 + 4x − 1) = (3x 2 + 4x − 1) 2
dy du 1
Hence = 9u 8 and =3 Let u =3x 2 + 4x − 1 then y = u 2
du dx
dy dy du du dy 1 − 1 1
Then = × = (9u 8 )(3) = 27u 8 Hence = 6x + 4 and = u 2= √
dx du dx dx du 2 2 u

" # 3. 2 sin(3θ − 2) [6 cos(3θ − 2)]
dy dy du 1 3x + 2
= × = √ (6x + 4) = √
dx du dx 2 u u 4. 2 cos5 α [−10 cos4 α sin α]
$ %
dy 3x + 2 1 5(2 − 3x 2 )
i.e. =4 5.
dx (3x2 + 4x − 1) (x 3 − 2x + 1)5 (x 3 − 2x + 1)6
Problem 22. Differentiate y = 3 tan4 3x. 6. 5e2t +1 [10e2t +1]
7. 2 cot(5t 2 + 3) [−20t cosec2 (5t 2 + 3)]

Let u = tan 3x then y = 3u 4
du 8. 6 tan(3y + 1) [18 sec2 (3y + 1)]
Hence = 3 sec2 3x, (from Problem 15), and
dx
dy 9. 2etan θ [2 sec2 θ etanθ ]
= 12u 3
du 5 π6
10. Differentiate θ sin θ − with respect to θ,
dy dy du 3
Then = × = (12u 3 )(3 sec2 3x) and evaluate, correct to 3 significant figures,
dx du dx π
when θ = . [1.86]
= 12(tan 3x)3 (3 sec2 3x) 2
dy
i.e. = 36 tan3 3x sec2 3x
dx
27.8 Successive differentiation
Problem 23. Find the differential coefficient of
2
y= 3 When a function y = f (x) is differentiated with respect
(2t − 5)4 dy
to x the differential coefficient is written as or f " (x).
2 dx
y= = 2(2t 3 − 5)−4 . Let u = (2t 3 − 5), then If the expression is differentiated again, the second dif-
(2t 3 − 5)4 d2 y
y = 2u −4 ferential coefficient is obtained and is written as
dx 2
(pronounced dee two y by dee x squared) or f "" (x)
du dy −8 (pronounced f double-dash x).
Hence = 6t 2 and = −8u −5 = 5
dt du u
" # By successive differentiation further higher derivatives
dy dy du −8 d3 y d4 y
Then = × = (6t 2 ) such as 3 and 4 may be obtained.
dt du dt u5 dx dx
−48t 2 dy d2 y
= Thus if y = 3x 4 , = 12x 3 , 2 = 36x 2 ,
(2t 3 − 5)5 dx dx
d3 y d4 y d5 y
= 72x, = 72 and = 0.
Now try the following exercise dx 3 dx 4 dx 5
Exercise 118 Further problems on the Problem 24. If f (x) = 2x 5 − 4x 3 + 3x − 5, find

function of a function f "" (x).
In Problems 1 to 9, find the differential coefficients

f (x) = 2x 5 − 4x 3 + 3x − 5
with respect to the variable.
1. (2x − 1)6 [12(2x − 1)5 ] f " (x) = 10x 4 − 12x 2 + 3
2. (2x 3 − 5x)5 [5(6x 2 − 5)(2x 3 − 5x)4 ] f !! (x) = 40x 3 − 24x = 4x(10x2 − 6)
Problem 25. If y = cos x − sin x, evaluate x, in d2 y

π d2 y Problem 27. Evaluate 2 when θ = 0 given
the range 0 ≤ x ≤ , when 2 is zero. dθ
2 dx y = 4 sec 2θ.
dy Since y = 4 sec 2θ,

Since y = cos x − sin x, = −sin x − cos x and
dx
d2 y dy
= −cos x + sin x. then = (4)(2) sec 2θ tan 2θ (from Problem 16)
dx 2 dθ
d2 y = 8 sec 2θ tan 2θ (i.e. a product)
When is zero, −cos x + sin x = 0,
dx 2
d2 y
sin x = (8 sec 2θ)(2 sec 2 2θ)
i.e. sin x = cos x or = 1. dθ 2
cos x + (tan 2θ)[(8)(2) sec 2θ tan 2θ]
π
Hence tan x = 1 and x =arctan1 =45◦ or rads in the
4 = 16 sec3 2θ + 16 sec 2θ tan2 2θ
π
range 0 ≤ x ≤ d2 y
2 When θ = 0, = 16 sec3 0 + 16 sec 0 tan2 0
dθ 2
Problem 26. Given y = 2xe−3x show that = 16(1) + 16(1)(0) = 16.
d2 y dy
+ 6 + 9y = 0.
dx 2 dx Now try the following exercise
y = 2xe−3x (i.e. a product) Exercise 119 Further problems on

successive differentiation
dy
Hence = (2x)(−3e−3x ) + (e −3x )(2) 1. If y = 3x 4 + 2x 3 − 3x + 2 find
dx
d2 y d3 y
= −6xe−3x + 2e−3x (a) (b) .
dx 2 dx 3
d2 y
= [(−6x)(−3e−3x ) + (e−3x )(−6)] [(a) 36x 2 + 12x (b) 72x + 12]
dx 2
+ (−6e−3x ) 2 1 3 √
2. (a) Given f (t ) = t 2 − 3 + − t + 1
5 t t
= 18xe−3x − 6e−3x − 6e−3x determine f "" (t ).
(b) Evaluate f "" (t ) when t = 1.
d2 y
i.e. = 18xe−3x − 12e−3x 
4 12 6 1

dx 2 (a) − 5 + 3 + √
 5 t t 4 t3 
 
d2 y dy
Substituting values into + 6 + 9y gives: (b) −4.95
dx 2 dx
In Problems 3 and 4, find the second differential
(18xe−3x − 12e−3x ) + 6(−6xe−3x + 2e−3x ) coefficient with respect to the variable.
+ 9(2xe−3x ) = 18xe−3x − 12e−3x − 36xe−3x 3. (a) 3 sin2t + cos t (b) 2 ln 4θ

$ %
−2
(a) −(12 sin 2t + cos t ) (b) 2
+ 12e−3x + 18xe−3x = 0 θ
4. (a) 2 cos2 x (b) (2x − 3)4

d2 y dy
Thus when y = 2xe−3x , 2 + 6 + 9y = 0 [(a) 4(sin2 x − cos2 x) (b) 48(2x − 3)2 ]
dx dx
5. Evaluate f "" (θ) when θ = 0 given

7. Show that, if P and Q are constants and
f (θ) = 2 sec 3θ. [18] y = P cos(ln t ) +Q sin(ln t ), then
6. Show that the differential equation
d2 y dy d2 y dy
− 4 + 4y = 0 is satisfied t2 +t +y=0
dx 2 dx dt 2 dt
when y = xe2x .
Some applications of differentiation 311
7. The power developed in a resistor R by a Problem 21. Find the equation of the tangent to
battery of emf E and internal resistance r is the curve y = x 2 − x − 2 at the point (1, −2).
E2 R
given by P = . Differentiate P with Gradient, m
(R + r)2
respect to R and show that the power is a dy
maximum when R = r. = = 2x − 1
dx
8. Find the height and radius of a closed cylin- At the point (1, −2), x = 1 and m = 2(1) − 1 =1.
der of volume 125 cm3 which has the least Hence the equation of the tangent is:
surface area. 2 3 y − y1 = m(x − x 1)
height = 5.42 cm;
i.e. y − (−2) = 1(x − 1)
radius = 2.71 cm
i.e. y +2 = x −1
9. Resistance to motion, F, of a moving vehi- or y = x−3
cle, is given by F = 5x + 100x. Determine the
minimum value of resistance. [44.72] The graph of y = x 2 − x − 2 is shown in Fig. 28.12. The
line AB is the tangent to the curve at the point C, i.e. (1,
10. An electrical voltage E is given by −2), and the equation of this line is y = x − 3.
E =(15 sin 50πt + 40 cos 50πt ) volts,
where t is the time in seconds. Determine the Normals
maximum value of voltage. The normal at any point on a curve is the line which
[42.72 volts] passes through the point and is at right angles to the
tangent. Hence, in Fig. 28.12, the line CD is the normal.
11. The fuel economy E of a car, in miles per
It may be shown that if two lines are at right angles
gallon, is given by:
then the product of their gradients is −1. Thus if m is the
E = 21 + 2.10 × 10−2v 2 gradient of the tangent, then the gradient of the normal
1
− 3.80 × 10−6v 4 is −
m
where v is the speed of the car in miles per Hence the equation of the normal at the point (x 1 , y1) is
hour. given by:
Determine, correct to 3 significant figures, 1
the most economical fuel consumption, and y − y1 = − (x − x1 )
m
the speed at which it is achieved.
[50.0 miles/gallon, 52.6 miles/hour]
y
2 y ! x2 x 2
28.5 Tangents and normals 1
2 1 0 1 2 3 x
Tangents B
1
The equation of the tangent to a curve y = f (x) at the
point (x 1, y1) is given by: C
2
y − y1 = m(x − x1) 3 A D
dy
where m = = gradient of the curve at (x 1, y1).
dx Figure 28.12
Problem 22. Find the equation of the normal to Multiplying each term by 15 gives:
the curve y = x 2 − x − 2 at the point (1, −2). 15y + 3 = −25x − 25
Hence equation of the normal is:
m = 1 from Problem 21, hence the equation of the
normal is 15y + 25x + 28 = 0
1
y − y1 = − (x − x 1 )
m Now try the following exercise
1
i.e. y − (−2) = − (x − 1)
1
i.e. y + 2 = −x + 1 tangents and normals
or y = −x − 1 For the curves in problems 1 to 5, at the points
Thus the line CD in Fig. 28.12 has the equation given, find (a) the equation of the tangent, and (b)
y = −x − 1. the equation of the normal.
2 3
2
(a) y = 4x − 2
Problem 23. Determine the equations of the 1. y = 2x at the point (1, 2)
(b) 4y + x = 9
x3
tangent and normal to the curve y = at the point
" # 5 2. y = 3x 2 − 2x at the point (2, 8)
1 2 3
−1, − (a) y = 10x − 12
5
(b) 10y + x = 82
x3 " #
Gradient m of curve y = is given by x3 1
5 3. y= at the point −1, −
dy 3x 2 2 2
m= = 2 3
dx 5 (a) y = 23 x + 1
- . 3(−1)2 3
At the point −1, − 15 , x = − 1 and m = = (b) 6y + 4x + 7 = 0
5 5
Equation of the tangent is: 4. y = 1 + x − x 2 at the point (−2, −5)
2 3
(a) y = 5x + 5
y − y1 = m(x − x 1 )
" # (b) 5y + x + 27 = 0
1 3
i.e. y − − = (x − (−1)) " #
5 5 1 1
5. θ = at the point 3,
t 3
1 3 2 3
i.e. y+ = (x + 1) (a) 9θ + t = 6
5 5
(b) θ = 9t − 26 32 or 3θ = 27t − 80
or 5y + 1 = 3x + 3
or 5y − 3x = 2
Equation of the normal is:
28.6 Small changes
1
y − y1 = − (x − x 1 )
m If y is a function of x, i.e. y = f (x), and the approxi-
" #
1 −1 mate change in y corresponding to a small change δx in
i.e. y − − = (x − (−1)) x is required, then:
5 (3/5)
1 5 δy d y
i.e. y+ = − (x + 1) ≈
5 3 δx dx
1 5 5 dy
i.e. y+ =− x− and δy ≈ · δx or δy ≈ f !(x) · δx
5 3 3 dx
Chapter 29
Differentiation of parametric
equations
29.1 Introduction to parametric 29.2 Some common parametric
equations equations
Certain mathematical functions can be expressed more The following are some of the most common parametric
simply by expressing, say, x and y separately in terms equations, and Fig. 29.1 shows typical shapes of these
of a third variable. For example, y =r sin θ, x =r cos θ. curves.
Then, any value given to θ will produce a pair of values
(a) Ellipse x = a cos θ, y = b sinθ
for x and y, which may be plotted to provide a curve of
y = f (x). (b) Parabola x = a t 2, y = 2a t
The third variable, θ, is called a parameter and the
two expressions for y and x are called parametric (c) Hyperbola x = a sec θ, y = b tan θ
equations. c
The above example of y =r sin θ and x =r cos θ are (d) Rectangular x = c t, y =
t
the parametric equations for a circle. The equation of hyperbola
any point on a circle, centre at the origin and of radius
(e) Cardioid x = a (2 cosθ − cos 2θ),
r is given by: x 2 + y 2 =r 2 , as shown in Chapter 13.
y = a (2 sinθ − sin2θ )
To show that y =r sin θ and x =r cos θ are suitable
parametric equations for such a circle: (f ) Astroid x = a cos3 θ, y = a sin3 θ
Left hand side of equation (g) Cycloid x = a (θ − sin θ ) , y = a (1− cos θ)
= x 2 + y2
= (r cos θ)2 + (r sin θ)2
= r 2 cos2 θ + r 2 sin2 θ 29.3 Differentiation in parameters
5 6
= r 2 cos2 θ + sin2 θ When x and y are given in terms of a parameter, say θ,
2 then by the function of a function rule of differentiation
= r = right hand side
(from Chapter 27):
(since cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1, as shown in
Chapter 15) dy dy dθ
= ×
dx dθ dx
Problem 1. Given x = 5θ − 1 and

dy
y = 2θ (θ − 1), determine in terms of θ.
dx
dy
x = 5θ − 1, hence =5
dθ
(a) Ellipse (b) Parabola
y = 2θ(θ − 1) = 2θ 2 − 2θ,
dy
hence = 4θ − 2 =2 (2θ − 1)
dθ
From equation (1),
dy
dy 2(2θ − 1) 2
(c) Hyperbola (d) Rectangular hyperbola = dθ = or (2θ − 1)
dx dx 5 5
dθ
Problem 2. The parametric equations of a

function are given by y = 3 cos2t , x = 2 sint .
dy d2 y
Determine expressions for (a) (b) 2 .
dx dx
(e) Cardioid (f) Astroid dy
(a) y = 3 cos 2t , hence = −6 sin2t
dt
dx
x = 2 sin t , hence = 2 cos t
dt
From equation (1),
(g) Cycloid
dy
dy −6 sin2t −6(2 sin t cos t )
Figure 29.1 = dt = =
dx dx 2 cos t 2 cos t
dt
from double angles, Chapter 17
It may be shown that this can be written as:
dy
i.e. = −6 sin t
dy dx
dy dθ (b) From equation (2),
= (1)
dx dx " #
d dy d
dθ (−6 sint) −6 cost
d 2 y dt dx dt
= = =
For the second differential, dx 2 dx 2 cost 2 cost
dt
" # " #
d2 y d dy d dy dθ d2 y
2
= = · i.e. = −3
dx dx dx dθ dx dx dx2
or Problem 3. The equation of a tangent drawn to a

" # curve at point (x 1, y1) is given by:
d dy
d2 y dθ dx dy1
= (2) y − y1 = (x − x 1 )
dx2 dx dx 1
dθ
Differentiation of parametric equations 317
cos θ − 1
Determine the equation of the tangent drawn to the =
4(1 − cos θ )3
parabola x = 2t 2, y = 4t at the point t .
−(1 − cos θ) −1
dx 1 = =
2
At point t , x 1 = 2t , hence = 4t 4(1 − cos θ )3 4(1 − cos θ)2
dt
dy1
and y1 = 4t , hence =4 Now try the following exercise
dt
From equation (1),
dy differentiation of parametric equations
dy 4 1
= dt = = 1. Given x = 3t − 1 and y = t (t − 1),
dx dx 4t t $ determine %
dy 1
dt in terms of t . (2t − 1)
dx 3
Hence, the equation of the tangent is:
1- . 2. A parabola has parametric equations: x = t 2 ,
y − 4t = x − 2t 2 dy
t y = 2t . Evaluate when t = 0.5. [2]
dx
Problem 4. The parametric equations of a cycloid
are x = 4(θ − sin θ), y = 4(1 − cosθ). Determine 3. The parametric equations for an ellipse
dy
dy d2 y are x = 4 cos θ, y = sin θ. Determine (a)
(a) (b) 2 $ dx%
dx dx d2 y 1 1
(b) 2 . (a) − cot θ (b) − cosec θ 3
dx 4 16
(a) x = 4(θ − sin θ),
dx dy π
hence = 4 −4 cos θ = 4(1 − cos θ) 4. Evaluate at θ = radians for the
dθ dx 6
hyperbola whose parametric equations are
dy
y = 4(1 − cos θ), hence = 4 sin θ x = 3 sec θ, y = 6 tanθ. [4]
dθ
From equation (1), 5. The parametric equations for a rectangular
2 dy
dy hyperbola are x = 2t , y = . Evaluate
t dx
dy 4 sin θ sin θ
= dθ = = when t = 0.40. [−6.25]
dx dx 4(1 − cos θ) (1 − cos θ)
dθ The equation of a tangent drawn to a curve at
point (x 1 , y1) is given by:
(b) From equation (2), dy1
y − y1 = (x − x 1)
" # " # dx 1
d dy d sin θ
d2 y dθ dx dθ 1 − cos θ Use this in Problems 6 and 7.
= =
dx 2 dx 4(1 − cos θ) 6. Determine the equation of the tangent drawn
dθ π
to the ellipse x = 3 cos θ, y = 2 sinθ at θ = .
(1 − cos θ)(cos θ) − (sin θ)(sin θ) 6
[y = −1.155x + 4]
(1 − cos θ)2
=
4(1 − cos θ) 7. Determine the equation of the tangent drawn
5
cos θ − cos2 θ − sin2 θ to the rectangular hyperbola x = 5t , y = at
= t
4(1 − cos θ)3 t = 2.
- . $ %
1
cos θ − cos2 θ + sin2 θ y =− x +5
= 4
4(1 − cos θ )3
From equation (1),

29.4 Further worked problems on dy
differentiation of parametric dy 4 sec2 θ 2 sec θ
equations = dθ = =
dx dx 2 sec θ tan θ tan θ
dθ
" #
1
Problem 5. The equation of the normal drawn to 2
cos θ 2
a curve at point (x 1, y1) is given by: = " # = or 2 cosec θ
sin θ sin θ
1
y − y1 = − (x − x 1 ) cos θ
dy1
dx 1 dy 2
When θ = 1 rad, = = 2.377, correct to 4
dx sin 1
Determine the equation of the normal drawn to the significant figures.
π
astroid x = 2 cos3 θ, y = 2 sin3 θ at the point θ = (b) From equation (2),
4
" #
d dy d
dx (2 cosec θ)
x = 2 cos3 θ, hence = −6 cos2 θ sin θ d2 y dθ dx dθ
dθ = =
dx 2 dx 2 sec θ tan θ
dy dθ
y = 2 sin3 θ, hence = 6 sin2 θ cos θ
dθ −2 cosec θ cot θ
=
From equation (1), 2 sec θ tan θ
" #" #
dy 1 cos θ
−
dy dθ 6 sin2 θ cos θ sin θ sin θ sin θ
= = =− = −tanθ = " #" #
dx dx −6 cos2 θ sin θ cos θ 1 sin θ
dθ cos θ cos θ
" #" 2 #
π dy π cos θ cos θ
When θ = , = −tan = −1 =− 2
4 dx 4 sin θ sinθ
π π cos3 θ
x 1 = 2 cos3 = 0.7071 and y1 = 2 sin3 = 0.7071 =− = − cot 3 θ
4 4
sin3 θ
Hence, the equation of the normal is:
d2 y 1
When θ = 1 rad, = − cot 3 1 =−
1 dx 2
(tan 1)3
y − 0.7071 = − (x − 0.7071) = −0.2647, correct to 4 significant figures.
−1
i.e. y − 0.7071 = x − 0.7071

i.e. y =x Problem 7. When determining the surface
tension of a liquid, the radius of curvature, ρ, of
part of the surface is given by:
Problem 6. The parametric equations for a
hyperbola are x = 2 sec θ, y = 4 tanθ. Evaluate 72
8
8 " #2 3 3
dy d2 y 9 1 + dy
(a) (b) 2 , correct to 4 significant figures,
dx dx dx
when θ = 1 radian. ρ=
d2 y
dx dx 2
(a) x = 2 sec θ, hence = 2 sec θ tan θ
dθ Find the radius of curvature of the part of the
dy surface having the parametric equations x = 3t 2,
y = 4 tan θ, hence = 4 sec2 θ y = 6t at the point t = 2.
dθ
Differentiation of parametric equations 319
dx
x = 3t 2, hence = 6t
dt
The equation of the normal drawn to a
dy
y = 6t , hence =6 curve at point (x 1 , y1) is given by:
dt 1
y − y1 = − (x − x 1)
dy dy1
d y dt 6 1 dx 1
From equation (1), = = =
dx dx 6t t Use this in Problems 2 and 3.
dt
From equation (2), 2. Determine the equation of the normal drawn
" # " # 1 1
d dy d 1 1 to the parabola x = t 2, y = t at t = 2.
− 2 4 2
d2 y dt dx dt t t 1
= = = =− 3 [y = −2x + 3]
dx 2 dx 6t 6t 6t
dt 72
8
8 " #2 3 3 3. Find the equation of the normal drawn to
9 1 + dy the cycloid x = 2(θ − sin θ), y = 2(1 − cos θ)
dx π
Hence, radius of curvature, ρ = at θ = rad. [y = −x + π]
2
d2 y
dx 2
72 d2 y
4. Determine the value of , correct to 4 sig-
8
8 " #2 3 3 dx 2
9 1+ 1 π
nificant figures, at θ = rad for the cardioid
t 6
= x = 5(2θ − cos 2θ), y = 5(2 sin θ − sin 2θ).
1
− 3 [0.02975]
6t
72 33
8 " #
8 2
9 1+ 1 5. The radius of curvature, ρ, of part of a sur-
4 face when determining the surface tension of
2 (1.25)3
When t = 2, ρ= = a liquid is given by:
1 1
− −
6 (2)3 48 2 " #2 3 3/2
dy
4 1+
= − 48 (1.25)3 = −67.08 dx
ρ=
d2 y
Now try the following exercise dx 2
Find the radius of curvature (correct to 4 sig-

Exercise 127 Further problems on nificant figures) of the part of the surface
differentiation of parametric equations having parametric equations
1. A cycloid has parametric equations 3 1
x = 2(θ − sin θ), y = 2(1 −cos θ). Evaluate, at (a) x = 3t , y = at the point t =
t 2
θ = 0.62 rad, correct to 4 significant figures, π
(b) x = 4 cos3 t, y = 4 sin3 t at t = rad.
dy d2 y 6
(a) (b) 2 .
dx dx
[(a) 3.122 (b) −14.43] [(a) 13.14 (b) 5.196]
Chapter 30
Differentiation of implicit
functions
A simple rule for differentiating an implicit function
30.1 Implicit functions is summarised as:
When an equation can be written in the form y = f (x) d d dy
[ f ( y)] = [ f ( y)] × (1)
it is said to be an explicit function of x. Examples of dx dy dx
explicit functions include
y = 2x 3 − 3x + 4, y = 2x ln x Problem 1. Differentiate the following functions

3ex with respect to x:
and y =
cos x (a) 2y 4 (b) sin 3t .
In these examples y may be differentiated with respect
to x by using standard derivatives, the product rule and (a) Let u =2y 4 , then, by the function of a function
the quotient rule of differentiation respectively. rule:
Sometimes with equations involving, say, y and x,
du du dy d dy
it is impossible to make y the subject of the formula. = × = (2y 4 ) ×
The equation is then called an implicit function and dx dy dx dy dx
examples of such functions include dy
= 8y3
y 3 + 2x 2 = y 2 − x and sin y = x 2 + 2x y. dx
(b) Let u = sin 3t , then, by the function of a function
30.2 Differentiating implicit rule:
functions du du dt d dt
= × = (sin 3t ) ×
dx dt dx dt dx
It is possible to differentiate an implicit function by
dt
using the function of a function rule, which may be = 3 cos 3t
stated as dx
du du dy Problem 2. Differentiate the following functions
= ×
dx dy dx with respect to x:
Thus, to differentiate y 3 with respect to x, the sub- 1
(a) 4 ln 5y (b) e3θ−2
du 5
stitution u = y 3 is made, from which, = 3y 2 . Hence,
dy
d 3 dy (a) Let u = 4 ln5y, then, by the function of a function
(y ) = (3y 2 ) × , by the function of a function rule.
dx dx rule:
Differentiation of implicit functions 321
du du dy d dy  
= × = (4 ln 5y) × −6 dx
dx dy dx dy dx (a)
 (3x + 1)2 du 
4 dy  
=  dθ 
 (b) 6 sec 2θ tan 2θ 
y dx  du 
 
 −1 dy 
1 (c) 4
(b) Let u = e3θ−2, then, by the function of a function y 3 du
5
rule:
" #
du du dθ d 1 3θ−2 dθ
= × = e ×
dx dθ dx dθ 5 dx 30.3 Differentiating implicit
3 dθ
functions containing products
= e3θ −2 and quotients
5 dx
The product and quotient rules of differentiation must
be applied when differentiating functions containing
Now try the following exercise products and quotients of two variables.
d 2 d d
For example, (x y) = (x 2 ) (y) + (y) (x 2 ),
Exercise 128 Further problems on dx dx dx
differentiating implicit functions by the product rule
" #
In Problems 1 and 2 differentiate the given func- 2 dy
tions with respect to x. = (x ) 1 + y(2x),
dx
√ by using equation (1)
1. (a) 3y 5 (b) 2 cos 4θ (c) k
  dy
4 dy (b) −8 sin4θ dθ
= x2 + 2xy
(a) 15y dx
 dx dx 
 
 1 dk 
(c) √ d
2 k dx Problem 3. Determine (2x 3 y 2 ).
dx
5 3
2. (a) ln 3t (b) e2y+1 (c) 2 tan 3y
2 4 In the product rule of differentiation let u = 2x 3 and
 5 dt 3 dy  v = y2 .
(a) (b) e2y+1
 2t dx 2 dx  d d d
  Thus (2x 3 y 2 ) = (2x 3 ) (y 2 ) + (y 2 ) (2x 3 )
dy
(c) 6 sec2 3y dx dx dx
dx " #
dy
= (2x 3 ) 2y + (y 2 )(6x 2 )
3. Differentiate the following with respect to y: dx
√ 2
(a) 3 sin2θ (b) 4 x 3 (c) t dy
e = 4x 3 y + 6x 2 y 2
  dx
dθ √ dx
 (a) 6 cos 2θ (b) 6 x " #
 dy dy 
 dy
 −2 dt  = 2x2 y 2x + 3y
(c) t dx
e dy
" #
d 3y
4. Differentiate the following with respect to u: Problem 4. Find .
dx 2x
2 2
(a) (b) 3 sec 2θ (c) √
(3x + 1) y In the quotient rule of differentiation let u = 3y and
v = 2x.
" # (2x) d (3y) − (3y) d (2x) 30.4 Further implicit differentiation

d 3y dx dx
Thus =
dx 2x (2x)2
" # An implicit function such as 3x 2 + y 2 − 5x + y = 2, may
dy be differentiated term by term with respect to x. This
(2x) 3 − (3y)(2)
dx gives:
=
4x 2
d d d d d
dy (3x 2 ) + (y 2 ) − (5x) + (y) = (2)
6x − 6y " # dx dx dx dx dx
dx 3 dy
= = x − y dy dy
4x 2 2x2 dx i.e. 6x + 2y − 5 + 1 = 0,
dx dx
Problem 5. Differentiate z = x 2 + 3x cos 3y with using equation (1) and standard derivatives.
respect to y. dy
An expression for the derivative in terms of x and
dx
y may be obtained by rearranging this latter equation.
dz d 2 d Thus:
= (x ) + (3x cos 3y)
dy dy dy dy
$ " #% (2y + 1) = 5 − 6x
dx dx dx
= 2x + (3x)(−3 sin3y) + (cos 3y) 3
dy dy dy 5 −6x
from which, =
dx dx dx 2y + 1
= 2x − 9x sin 3y +3 cos 3y
dy dy
Problem 6. Given 2y 2 − 5x 4 − 2 − 7y 3 = 0,
dy
Now try the following exercise determine
dx
Exercise 129 Further problems on Each term in turn is differentiated with respect to x:
differentiating implicit functions involving d d d d
products and quotients Hence (2y 2 ) − (5x 4 ) − (2) − (7y 3 )
dx dx dx dx
d d
1. Determine (3x 2 y 3 ). = (0)
dx $ " #% dx
dy
3x y 2 3x + 2y dy dy
dx i.e. 4y − 20x 3 − 0 − 21y 2 =0
dx dx
" # $ " #%
d 2y 2 dy Rearranging gives:
2. Find . x − y
dx 5x 5x 2 dx dy
(4y − 21y 2 ) = 20x 3
" # $ " #% dx
d 3u 3 dv
3. Determine . v −u dy 20x3
du 4v 4v 2 du i.e. =
dx (4y − 21y2 )
√ dz
4. Given z = 3 y cos 3x find .
dy
$ " #dx % Problem 7. Determine the values of when
cos 3x dy √ dx
3 √ − 9 y sin 3x x = 4 given that x 2 + y 2 = 25.
2 y dx
dz
5. Determine given z = 2x 3 ln y. Differentiating each term in turn with respect to x
dy $ " #% gives:
2 x dx
2x + 3 ln y
y dy d 2 d d
(x ) + (y 2 ) = (25)
dx dx dx
Differentiation of implicit functions 323
$ " # %
dy dy
i.e. 2x + 2y =0 i.e. 8x + (2x) 3y 2 + (y 3 )(2)
dx dx
dy 2x x dy
Hence =− =− − 10y =0
dx 2y y dx
4 dy dy
Since x 2 +y 2 = 25, when x = 4, y = (25 − 42 ) = ±3 i.e. 8x + 6x y 2 + 2y 3 − 10y =0
dx dx
dy 4 4
Thus when x = 4 and y = ±3, =− =± Rearranging gives:
dx ±3 3
dy
x 2 + y 2 = 25 is the equation of a circle, centre at the 8x + 2y 3 = (10y − 6x y 2 )
dx
origin and radius 5, as shown in Fig. 30.1. At x = 4, the
dy 8x + 2y 3 4x + y3
two gradients are shown. and = =
dx 10y − 6x y 2 y(5 − 3xy)
y (b) When x = 1 and y = 2,
Gradient
5 dy 4(1) + (2)3 12
x 2 1 y 2 5 25 52 4 = = = −6
3 dx 2[5 − (3)(1)(2)] −2
3
Problem 9. Find the gradients of the tangents

25 0 4 5 x drawn to the circle x 2 + y 2 − 2x − 2y = 3 at x = 2.
23 dy
Gradient The gradient of the tangent is given by
25 dx
54
3 Differentiating each term in turn with respect to x gives:
d 2 d d d d
Figure 30.1 (x ) + (y 2 ) − (2x) − (2y) = (3)
dx dx dx dx dx
Above, x 2 + y 2 = 25 was differentiated implicitly;
actually,
4 the equation could be transposed to dy dy
i.e. 2x + 2y −2−2 =0
y = (25 − x 2 ) and differentiated using the function of dx dx
a function rule. This gives
dy
Hence (2y − 2) = 2 − 2x,
dy 1 −1 x dx
= (25 − x 2 ) 2 (−2x) = − 4
dx 2 (25 − x 2 )
dy 2 − 2x 1−x
dy 4 4 from which = =
and when x = 4, =−4 = ± as obtained dx 2y − 2 y −1
dx 2
(25 − 4 ) 3
above. The value of y when x = 2 is determined from the
original equation.
Problem 8. Hence (2)2 + y 2 − 2(2) − 2y = 3
dy
(a) Find in terms of x and y given
dx i.e. 4 + y 2 − 4 − 2y = 3
4x 2 + 2x y 3 − 5y 2 = 0.
dy or y 2 − 2y − 3 = 0
(b) Evaluate when x = 1 and y = 2.
dx Factorizing gives: (y + 1)(y − 3) =0, from which
y = −1 or y = 3.
(a) Differentiating each term in turn with respect to x
When x = 2 and y = −1,
gives:
d d d d dy 1 − x 1−2 −1 1
(4x 2 ) + (2x y 3 ) − (5y 2 ) = (0) = = = =
dx dx dx dx dx y − 1 −1 − 1 −2 2
When x = 2 and y = 3, Now try the following exercise

dy 1 − 2 −1
= =
dx 3−1 2 Exercise 130 Further problems on implicit
1 differentiation
Hence the gradients of the tangents are ± dy
2 In Problems 1 and 2 determine
The circle having√the given equation has its centre at dx
(1, 1) and radius 5 (see Chapter 13) and is shown in $ %
2x + 4
Fig. 30.2 with the two gradients of the tangents. 1. x 2 + y 2 + 4x − 3y + 1 = 0
3 −2y
y $ %
Gradient 3
4 2. 2y 3 − y + 3x − 2 = 0
x 2 1y 2 2 2x 52 1 1 − 6y 2
2
22y 5 3 3
2 dy
3. Given x 2 + y 2 = 9 evaluate when
r5 5 dx : √ ;
1 √
x = 5 and y = 2. − 25
0 1 2 4 x
21
dy
Gradient In Problems 4 to 7, determine
dx
22 51
2 $ %
−(x + sin 4y)
4. x 2 + 2x sin 4y = 0
Figure 30.2 4x cos 4y
$ %
4x − y
5. 3y 2 + 2x y − 4x 2 = 0
Problem 10. Pressure p and volume v of a gas 3y + x
are related by the law pv γ = k, where γ and k are
$ %
constants. Show that the rate of change of pressure x(4y + 9x)
dp p dv 6. 2x 2 y + 3x 3 = sin y
= −γ cos y − 2x 2
dt v dt
$ %
k 1 − 2 ln y
Since pv γ = k, then p = γ = kv −γ 7. 3y + 2x ln y = y 4 + x
v 3 +(2x/y) − 4y 3
dp d p dv
= × 5 dy
dt dv dt 8. If 3x 2 + 2x 2 y 3 − y 2 = 0 evaluate when
4 dx
by the function of a function rule 1
x = and y = 1. [5]
2
dp d
= (kv −γ )
dv dv 9. Determine the gradients of the tangents
−γ −1 −γ k drawn to the circle x 2 + y 2 = 16 at the point
= −γ kv = γ +1
v where x = 2. Give the answer correct to 4
dp −γ k dv significant figures. [±0.5774]
= γ +1 ×
dt v dt
10. Find the gradients of the tangents drawn to
Since k = pv γ , x 2 y2
the ellipse + = 2 at the point where
dp −γ ( pv γ ) dv −γ pv γ dv 4 9
= γ +1
= γ 1 x = 2. [±1.5]
dt v dt v v dt
dp p dv 11. Determine the gradient of the curve
i.e. = −γ 3x y + y 2 = −2 at the point (1,−2). [−6]
dt v dt
Chapter 31
Logarithmic Differentiation
which may be simplified using the above laws of
31.1 Introduction to logarithmic logarithms, giving:
differentiation ln y = ln f (x) + ln g(x) − ln h(x)
With certain functions containing more complicated This latter form of the equation is often easier to
products and quotients, differentiation is often made differentiate.
easier if the logarithm of the function is taken before
differentiating. This technique, called ‘logarithmic 31.3 Differentiation of logarithmic
differentiation’ is achieved with a knowledge of (i) the
functions
laws of logarithms, (ii) the differential coefficients of
logarithmic functions, and (iii) the differentiation of
The differential coefficient of the logarithmic function
implicit functions.
ln x is given by:
d 1
31.2 Laws of logarithms (lnx) =
dx x
Three laws of logarithms may be expressed as: More generally, it may be shown that:
d f " (x)
(i) log(A × B) = log A + log B [ln f (x)] = (1)
" # dx f (x)
A
(ii) log = log A − log B For example, if y = ln(3x 2 + 2x − 1) then,
B
dy 6x + 2
(iii) log An = n log A = 2
dx 3x + 2x − 1
In calculus, Napierian logarithms (i.e. logarithms to a Similarly, if y = ln(sin 3x) then
base of ‘e’) are invariably used. Thus for two func- dy 3 cos 3x
tions f (x) and g(x) the laws of logarithms may be = = 3 cot 3x.
dx sin 3x
expressed as:
(i) ln[ f (x) · g(x)] = ln f (x) + ln g(x) Now try the following exercise
" #
f (x)
(ii) ln = ln f (x) − ln g(x)
g(x) Exercise 131 Further problems on
(iii) ln[ f (x)]n = n ln f (x) differentiating logarithmic functions
Taking Napierian logarithms of both sides of the equa- Differentiate the following using the laws for
f (x) · g(x) logarithms.
tion y = gives: $ %
h(x)
" # 4
f (x) · g(x) 1. ln(4x − 10)
ln y = ln 4x − 10
h(x)
i.e. ln y = 2 ln(1 + x) + 21 ln(x − 1)

2. ln(cos 3x) [−3 tan 3x]
$ 2 % − ln x − 12 ln(x + 2), by law (iii)
9x + 1
3. ln(3x 3 + x) of Section 31.2
3x 3 + x
$ %
10x + 10 (iii) Differentiate each term in turn with respect to x
4. ln(5x 2 + 10x − 7)
5x 2 + 10x − 7 using equations (1) and (2).
$ %
1 1 dy 2 1
1 1
5. ln 8x Thus = + 2
− − 2
x y dx (1 + x) (x − 1) x (x + 2)
$ %
2x dy
6. ln(x 2 − 1) (iv) Rearrange the equation to make the subject.
x2 − 1 dx
$ %
3 dy 2 1 1
7. 3 ln 4x Thus =y + −
x dx (1 + x) 2(x − 1) x
8. 2 ln(sin x) [2 cot x] !
1
$ 2 % −
12x − 12x + 3 2(x + 2)
9. ln(4x 3 − 6x 2 + 3x)
4x 3 − 6x 2 + 3x
(v) Substitute for y in terms of x.
√
dy (1 + x)2 (x − 1) 2
Thus = √
dx x (x + 2) (1 + x)
31.4 Differentiation of further !
logarithmic functions 1 1 1
+ − −
2(x − 1) x 2(x + 2)
As explained in Chapter 30, by using the function of a
function rule: Problem 1. Use logarithmic differentiation to
" # (x + 1)(x − 2)3
d 1 dy differentiate y =
(ln y) = (2) (x − 3)
dx y dx
Differentiation
√of an expression such as Following the above procedure:
(1 + x)2 (x − 1)
y= √ may be achieved by using the (x + 1)(x − 2)3
x (x + 2) (i) Since y=
product and quotient rules of differentiation; how- (x − 3)
ever the working would be rather complicated. With !
(x + 1)(x − 2)3
logarithmic differentiation the following procedure is then ln y = ln
adopted: (x − 3)
(i) Take Napierian logarithms of both sides of the (ii) ln y = ln(x + 1) + ln(x − 2)3 − ln(x − 3),
equation. by laws (i) and (ii) of Section 31.2,
√ ! i.e. ln y = ln(x + 1) + 3 ln(x − 2) − ln(x − 3),
(1 + x)2 (x − 1) by law (iii) of Section 31.2.
Thus ln y = ln √
x (x + 2)
(iii) Differentiating with respect to x gives:
< 1
=
(1 + x)2 (x − 1) 2 1 dy 1 3 1
= ln 1 = + − ,
x(x + 2) 2 y dx (x + 1) (x − 2) (x − 3)
(ii) Apply the laws of logarithms. by using equations (1) and (2)
1
Thus ln y = ln(1 + x)2 + ln(x − 1) 2 (iv) Rearranging gives:
1 !
− ln x − ln(x + 2) , by laws (i)
2 dy 1 3 1
=y + −
and (ii) of Section 31.2 dx (x + 1) (x − 2) (x − 3)
Logarithmic Differentiation 327
(v) Substituting for y gives: Using logarithmic differentiation and following the
procedure gives:
dy (x + 1)(x − 2)3 1
= 3e2θ sec 2θ
dx (x − 3) (x + 1) (i) Since y= √
! (θ − 2)
3 1
+ −
(x − 2) (x − 3) !
3e2θ sec 2θ
then ln y = ln √
4 (θ − 2)
(x − 2)3 < =
Problem 2. Differentiate y =
(x + 1)2 (2x − 1) 3e2θ sec 2θ
dy = ln 1
with respect to x and evaluate when x = 3. (θ − 2) 2
dx
1
Using logarithmic differentiation and following the (ii) ln y = ln 3e2θ + ln sec 2θ − ln(θ − 2) 2
above procedure:
4 i.e. ln y = ln 3 + lne2θ + ln sec 2θ
(x − 2)3
(i) Since y = − 12 ln(θ − 2)
(x + 1)2 (2x − 1)
< 4 = i.e. ln y = ln 3 + 2θ + ln sec 2θ − 12 ln(θ − 2)
(x − 2)3
then ln y = ln
(x + 1)2 (2x − 1) (iii) Differentiating with respect to θ gives:
< 3
=
(x − 2) 2 1
1 dy 2 sec 2θ tan 2θ 2
= ln = 0+2 + −
(x + 1)2 (2x − 1) y dθ sec 2θ (θ − 2)
3 from equations (1) and (2)
(ii) ln y = ln(x − 2) 2 − ln(x + 1)2 − ln(2x − 1)
3 (iv) Rearranging gives:
i.e. ln y = 2 ln(x − 2) − 2 ln(x + 1)
!
− ln(2x − 1) dy 1
= y 2 + 2 tan 2θ −
3 dθ 2(θ − 2)
1 dy 2 2 2
(iii) = − −
y dx (x − 2) (x + 1) (2x − 1) (v) Substituting for y gives:
!
dy 3 2 2
(iv) =y − − !
dx 2(x − 2) (x + 1) (2x − 1) dy 3e2θ sec 2θ 1
= √ 2 + 2 tan 2θ −
4 dθ (θ − 2) 2(θ − 2)
dy (x − 2)3 3
(v) =
dx (x + 1)2 (2x − 1) 2(x − 2)
x 3 ln2x
! Problem 4. Differentiate y = x with
2 2 e sin x
− − respect to x.
(x + 1) (2x − 1)
4 Using logarithmic differentiation and following the

" #
dy (1)3 3 2 2 procedure gives:
When x = 3, = − − !
dx (4)2 (5) 2 4 5 x 3 ln 2x
" # (i) ln y = ln x
1 3 3 e sin x
=± =± or ±0.0075
80 5 400 (ii) ln y = ln x 3 + ln(ln 2x) − ln(ex ) − ln(sin x)
i.e. ln y = 3 ln x + ln(ln 2x) − x − ln(sin x)
3e2θ sec 2θ dy 1
Problem 3. Given y = √ determine 1 dy 3 cos x
(θ − 2) dθ (iii) = + x −1−
y dx x ln2x sin x
!
dy 3 1
(iv) =y + − 1 − cot x
dx x x ln2x dy
7. Evaluate when x = 1 given
! dx
dy x3 ln 2x 3 1
(v) = x + − 1 − cot x √ $ %
dx e sin x x xln 2x (x + 1)2 (2x − 1) 13
y= 4
(x + 3)3 16
Now try the following exercise dy

8. Evaluate , correct to 3 significant figures,
dθ
π 2eθ sin θ
Exercise 132 Further problems on when θ = given y = √
4 θ5
differentiating logarithmic functions [−6.71]
In Problems 1 to 6, use logarithmic differentiation
to differentiate the given functions with respect to
the variable.
(x − 2)(x + 1)
31.5 Differentiation of [ f (x)]x
1. y =
(x − 1)(x + 3) Whenever an expression to be differentiated con-
 
(x − 2)(x + 1) 1 1 tains a term raised to a power which is itself a function
+
 (x − 1)(x + 3) (x − 2) (x + 1) 
 ! of the variable, then logarithmic differentiation must be
 1 1  used. For example, the
− − √ differentiation of expressions
(x − 1) (x + 3) such as x x , (x + 2)x , x (x − 1) and x 3x+2 can only be
achieved using logarithmic differentiation.
(x + 1)(2x + 1)3
2. y=
(x − 3)2 (x + 2)4
  dy
(x + 1)(2x + 1)3 1 6 Problem 5. Determine given y = x x .
+ dx
 
 (x − 3)2 (x + 2)4 (x + 1) (2x + 1) 
 !
 2 4  Taking Napierian logarithms of both sides of
− −
(x − 3) (x + 2) y = x x gives:
√
(2x − 1) (x + 2) ln y = ln x x = x ln x, by law (iii) of Section 31.2
3. y = 4 Differentiating both sides with respect to x gives:
(x − 3) (x + 1)3 " #
 √  1 dy 1
(2x − 1) (x + 2) 2 1 = (x) + (ln x)(1), using the product rule
4 + y dx x
 
 (x − 3) (x + 1)3 (2x − 1) 2(x + 2) 
 !  1 dy
 1 3  i.e. = 1 + ln x,
− − y dx
(x − 3) 2(x + 1)
dy
e2x cos 3x from which, = y(1 + ln x)
4. y= √ dx
(x − 4)
$ 2x !% dy
e cos 3x 1 i.e. = xx (1 + ln x)
√ 2 − 3 tan3x − dx
(x − 4) 2(x − 4)
5. y = 3θ sin θ cos θ dy
$ !% Problem 6. Evaluate when x = −1 given
1 dx
3θ sin θ cos θ + cot θ − tan θ y = (x + 2)x .
θ
$
2x 4 tan x 2x 4 tan x 4 1
6. y = 2x 2x
+ Taking Napierian logarithms of both sides of
e ln2x e ln 2x x sin x cos x
!% y = (x + 2)x gives:
1
−2 − ln y = ln(x + 2)x = x ln(x + 2), by law (iii)
x ln 2x
of Section 31.2
Logarithmic Differentiation 329
Differentiating both sides with respect to x gives: Let y = x 3x+2

" #
1 dy 1 Taking Napierian logarithms of both sides gives:
= (x) + [ln(x + 2)](1),
y dx x +2
ln y = ln x 3x+2
by the product rule.
" #
dy x i.e. ln y = (3x + 2) ln x, by law (iii) of Section 31.2.
Hence =y + ln(x + 2)
dx x +2 Differentiating each term with respect to x gives:
! " #
x 1 dy 1
= (x + 2) x
+ ln (x + 2) = (3x + 2) + (ln x)(3),
x+2 y dx x
by the product rule.
" #
dy −1 −1 !
When x = −1, = (1) + ln 1 dy 3x + 2
dx 1 Hence =y + 3 ln x
dx x
= (+1)(−1) = −1 !
3x + 2
= x 3x+2 + 3 ln x
x
!
Problem 7. Determine (a) the differential 2
√ =x 3x+2 3 + + 3 ln x
dy
coefficient of y = x (x − 1) and (b) evaluate x
dx
when x = 2.
√ 1
(a) y = x (x√− 1) = (x − 1) x , since by the laws of
m
indices n a m = a n Exercise 133 Further problems on
Taking Napierian logarithms of both sides gives: differentiating [ f (x)]x type functions
1 1 In Problems 1 to 4, differentiate with respect to x.

ln y = ln(x − 1) x = ln(x − 1),
x 1. y = x 2x [2x 2x (1 + ln x)]
by law (iii) of Section 31.2. 2. y = (2x −$ 1)x !%
Differentiating each side with respect to x gives: 2x
(2x − 1)x + ln(2x − 1)
" #" # " # 2x − 1
1 dy 1 1 −1 √
= + [ln(x − 1)] , 3. y= x
(x$+ 3)
y dx x x −1 x2 !%
√
x
1 ln(x + 3)
by the product rule. (x + 3) −
x(x + 3) x2
! $ !%
dy 1 ln(x − 1) 1
Hence =y − 4. y= 3x 4x+1 3x 4x+1 4 + + 4 ln x
dx x(x − 1) x2 x
!
dy √ x 1 ln(x − 1) dy
i.e. = (x − 1) − 5. Show that when y = 2x x and x = 1, = 2.
dx x(x − 1) x2 dx
! d >√
x
?
dy √ 1 ln(1) 6. Evaluate (x − 2) when x = 3.
(b) When x = 2, = 2 (1) − dx $ %
dx 2(1) 4 1
!
1 1 3
= ±1 −0 = ±
2 2 dy
7. Show that if y = θ θ and θ = 2, = 6.77,
dθ
correct to 3 significant figures.
Problem 8. Differentiate x 3x+2 with respect to x.
Revision Test 9
This Revision Test covers the material contained in Chapters 27 to 31. The marks for each question are shown in
brackets at the end of each question.
1. Differentiate the following with respect to the 8. A cycloid has parametric equations given by:
variable: x = 5(θ − sinθ) and y = 5(1 − cos θ). Evaluate
√ 1
(a) y = 5 +2 x 3 − 2 (b) s = 4e2θ sin3θ dy d2 y
x (a) (b) when θ = 1.5 radians. Give
dx dx 2
3 ln5t answers correct to 3 decimal places. (8)
(c) y =
cos 2t
2 9. Determine the equation of (a) the tangent, and (b)
(d) x = 4 (13) the normal, drawn to an ellipse x = 4 cos θ,
2
(t − 3t + 5)
π
2. If f (x) = 2.5x 2 − 6x + 2 find the co-ordinates at y = sin θ at θ = . (8)
3
the point at which the gradient is −1. (5)
dz
3. The displacement s cm of the end of a stiff spring 10. Determine expressions for for each of the
dy
at time t seconds is given by: following functions:
s = ae−kt sin2π f t . Determine the velocity and
(a) z =5y 2 cos x (b) z = x 2 + 4x y − y 2 . (5)
acceleration of the end of the spring after
2 seconds if a = 3, k = 0.75 and f = 20. (10) dy
11. If x 2 + y 2 + 6x + 8y + 1 = 0, find in terms of x
4. Find the co-ordinates of the turning points on dx
and y. (3)
the curve y = 3x 3 + 6x 2 + 3x − 1 and distinguish
between them. (7) 12. Determine the gradient of the tangents drawn to
the hyperbola x 2 − y 2 = 8 at x = 3. (3)
5. The heat capacity C of a gas varies with absolute
temperature θ as shown: 13. Use logarithmic
√ differentiation to differentiate
−3 −6 2 (x + 1)2 (x − 2)
C = 26.50 + 7.20 × 10 θ − 1.20 × 10 θ y= 4 with respect to x. (6)
(2x − 1) 3 (x − 3)4
Determine the maximum value of C and the
temperature at which it occurs. (5) 3eθ sin 2θ
14. Differentiate y = √ and hence evaluate
6. Determine for the curve y = 2x 2 − 3x at the point θ5
dy π
(2, 2): (a) the equation of the tangent (b) the , correct to 2 decimal places, when θ = .
dθ 3
equation of the normal. (6) (9)
7. A rectangular block of metal with a square cross- d ,√
t
/
section has a total surface area of 250 cm2 . Find 15. Evaluate (2t + 1) when t = 2, correct to 4
dt
the maximum volume of the block of metal. (7) significant figures. (5)
Chapter 32
Differentiation of hyperbolic
functions
" #
d d sh x
32.1 Standard differential coefficients (a) (th x) =
dx dx ch x
of hyperbolic functions
(ch x)(ch x) − (sh x)(sh x)
=
From Chapter 5, ch2 x
using the quotient rule
" # $ x %
d d ex − e−x e − (−e−x ) ch2 x − sh2 x 1
(sinh x) = = = = 2 = sech2 x
dx dx 2 2 2
ch x ch x
" # " #
e x + e−x d d 1
= = cosh x (b) (sech x) =
2 dx dx ch x
(ch x)(0) − (1)(sh x)
If y = sinh ax, where ‘a’ is a constant, then =
dy ch2 x
= a cosh ax " #" #
dx −sh x 1 sh x
= 2 =−
" # $ x % ch x ch x ch x
d d e x + e−x e + (−e −x )
(cosh x) = =
dx dx 2 2 = −sech x th x
" #
ex − e−x dy
= = sinh x Problem 2. Determine given
2 dθ
(a) y = cosech θ (b) y = coth θ.
If y = cosh ax, where ‘a’ is a constant, then
dy " #
= a sinh ax d d 1
dx (a) (cosec θ) =
dθ dθ sh θ
Using the quotient rule of differentiation the derivatives (sh θ)(0) − (1)(ch θ)
of tanh x, sech x, cosech x and coth x may be determined =
sh2 θ
using the above results.
" #" #
−ch θ 1 ch θ
= 2 =−
Problem 1. Determine the differential coefficient sh θ sh θ shθ
of: (a) th x (b) sech x.
= −cosech θ coth θ
" # x
d d ch θ (b) y = 5 th − 2 coth4x
(b) (coth θ) = 2
dθ dθ sh θ " #
dy 1 x
=5 sech2 − 2(−4 cosech2 4x)
(sh θ)(sh θ) − (ch θ)(ch θ) dx 2 2
=
sh2 θ 5 x
= sech2 + 8 cosech2 4x
2 2
sh2 θ − ch2 θ −(ch2 θ − sh2 θ)
= 2
=
sh θ sh2 θ Problem 4. Differentiate the following with
respect to the variable: (a) y = 4 sin3t ch 4t
−1
= = −cosech2 θ (b) y = ln(sh 3θ) − 4 ch2 3θ.
sh2 θ
(a) y = 4 sin3t ch4t (i.e. a product)
Summary of differential coefficients dy
= (4 sin3t )(4 sh 4t ) + (ch 4t )(4)(3 cos 3t )
dx
dy = 16 sin3t sh 4t + 12 ch4t cos 3t
y or f (x) or f ! (x)
dx
= 4(4 sin 3t sh 4t + 3 cos 3t ch 4t)
sinh ax a cosh ax
(b) y = ln(sh 3θ) − 4 ch 2 3θ
cosh ax a sinh ax
(i.e. a function of a function)
tanh ax a sech2 ax " #
dy 1
sech ax −a sech ax tanh ax = (3 ch 3θ) − (4)(2 ch 3θ)(3 sh 3θ)
dθ sh3θ
cosech ax −a cosech ax coth ax = 3 coth 3θ − 24 ch3θ sh3θ
coth ax −a cosech 2 ax = 3(coth 3θ − 8 ch 3θ sh 3θ)
Problem 5. Show that the differential coefficient

of
32.2 Further worked problems on 3x 2
differentiation of hyperbolic y= is: 6x sech 4x (1 − 2x th4x).
ch 4x
functions
3x 2
y= (i.e. a quotient)
Problem 3. Differentiate the following with ch 4x
respect to x: dy (ch 4x)(6x) − (3x 2 )(4 sh 4x)
3 =
(a) y = 4 sh 2x − ch 3x dx (ch 4x)2
7
x 6x(ch 4x − 2x sh 4x)
(b) y = 5 th − 2 coth4x. =
2 ch2 4x
$ %
ch 4x 2x sh 4x
= 6x −
3 ch2 4x ch2 4x
(a) y = 4 sh2x − ch 3x $ " #" #%
7 1 sh4x 1
= 6x − 2x
dy 3 ch 4x ch 4x ch 4x
= 4(2 cosh 2x) − (3 sinh3x)
dx 7 = 6x[sech 4x − 2x th4x sech 4x]
9 = 6x sech 4x (1 −2x th 4x)
= 8 cosh 2x − sinh 3x
7
Differentiation of hyperbolic functions 333

" " ##
3 θ
3. (a) 2 ln(sh x) (b) ln th
Exercise 134 Further problems on 4 2
$ %
differentiation of hyperbolic functions 3 θ θ
(a) 2 coth x (b) sech cosech
8 2 2
In Problems 1 to 5 differentiate the given functions
with respect to the variable: 4. (a) sh 2x ch 2x (b) 3e2x th2x
1. (a) 3 sh2x (b) 2 ch5θ (c) 4 th9t 2 3
: ; (a) 2(sh2 2x + ch2 2x)
(a) 6 ch2x (b) 10 sh5θ (c) 36 sech2 9t
(b) 6e2x (sech 2 2x + th 2x)
2 5 t
2. (a) sech 5x (b) cosech (c) 2 coth7θ 3 sh4x ch2t
3 5. (a) (b)
 8 2  2x 3 cos 2t
10  
 (a) − 3 sech 5x th5x  12x ch 4x − 9 sh4x
   (a) 
 5 t t   2x 4 
 (b) − cosech coth   
 16 2 2  2(cos 2t sh 2t + ch 2t sin 2t )
(b)
(c) −14 cosech2 7θ cos2 2t
Chapter 33
Differentiation of inverse
trigonometric and
hyperbolic functions
dx √
33.1 Inverse functions since cos2 y + sin2 y = 1, i.e. = 1 − x2
dy
y +2 dy 1
If y = 3x − 2, then by transposition, x = . The However =
3 dx dx
y +2
function x = is called the inverse function of dy
3
y = 3x − 2 (see page 188). Hence, when y = sin−1 x then
Inverse trigonometric functions are denoted by pre-
fixing the function with ‘arc’ or, more commonly, by dy 1
=√
using the −1 notation. For example, if y = sin x, then dx 1 −x2
x = arcsin y or x = sin−1 y. Similarly, if y = cos x, then
x = arccos y or x = cos−1 y, and so on. In this chapter (ii) A sketch of part of the curve of y = sin−1 x is
the −1 notation will be used. A sketch of each of the shown in Fig. 33.1(a). The principal value of
inverse trigonometric functions is shown in Fig. 33.1. sin−1 x is defined as the value lying between
Inverse hyperbolic functions are denoted by pre- −π/2 and π/2. The gradient of the curve between
fixing the function with ‘ar’ or, more commonly, by points A and B is positive for all values of x
using the −1 notation. For example, if y = sinh x, then and thus only the positive value is taken when
1
x = arsinh y or x = sinh−1 y. Similarly, if y = sech x, evaluating √
then x = arsech y or x = sech−1 y, and so on. In this chap- 1 − x2
ter the −1 notation will be used. A sketch of each of the x x
inverse hyperbolic functions is shown in Fig. 33.2. (iii) Given y = sin−1 then = sin y and
a a
x = a sin y
dx 4
33.2 Differentiation of inverse Hence = a cos y = a 1 − sin2 y
dy
trigonometric functions A$ A"
5 x 62% a2 − x 2
#
(i) If y = sin−1 x, then x = sin y. =a 1 − =a
a a2
Differentiating@
both sides with respect to y gives: √
dx a a2 − x 2 √ 2
= cos y = 1 − sin2 y = = a − x2
dy a
Differentiation of inverse trigonometric and hyperbolic functions 335
y y y
3!/2
3!/2 y 5sin21x y 5tan21x
! D ! y 5 cos21x
!/2
!/2 B !/2
C
21 0 11 x 21 0 11 x 0 x
A 2!/2 2!/2
2! 2!
2!/2
23!/2 23!/2
(a) (b) (c)
y y y
3!/2 3!/2 !
y 5cosec21x
! y 5sec21x !
!/2 y 5cot21x
!/2 !/2
21 0 11 x 21 0 11 x 0 x
2!/2 2!/2
2!/2
2! 2!
23!/2 23!/2 !
(d) (e) (f)
Figure 33.1
y y y
3 3
y 5sinh21x y 5cosh21x y 5tanh21x
2 2
1 1
23 22 21 01 2 3x 22 21 0 1 2 3x 21 0 11 x
21 21
22 22
23 23
(a) (b) (c)
y y y
3 y 5sech21x y 5 cosech21x y 5coth21x
2
1
0 1 x 0 x 21 0 11 x
21
22
23
(c) (e) (f)
Figure 33.2
dy 1 1 Table 33.1 Differential coefficients of inverse

Thus = =√
dx dx a2 − x 2 trigonometric functions
dy dy
x dy 1 y or f (x) or f " (x)
i.e. when y = sin−1 then =√ dx
a dx a − x2
2
x 1
(i) sin−1 √
Since integration is the reverse process of differ- a a − x2
2
entiation then:
f " (x)
B sin−1 f (x) 4
1 x 1 − [ f (x)]2
√ dx = sin−1 + c
2
a −x 2 a x −1
(ii) cos−1 √
a a2 − x 2
(iv) Given y = sin−1 f (x) the function of a function − f " (x)
dy cos−1 f (x) 4
rule may be used to find 1 − [ f (x)]2
dx
Let u = f (x) then y = sin−1 u x a
(iii) tan−1
a a2 + x 2
du dy 1
Then = f " (x) and =√ f " (x)
dx du 1 − u2 tan−1 f (x)
1 + [ f (x)]2
(see para. (i))
x a
dy dy du 1 (iv) sec−1 √
Thus = × =√ f " (x) a x x 2 − a2
dx du dx 1 − u2
f ! (x) f " (x)
=4 sec−1 f (x) 4
1 −[ f (x)]2 f (x) [ f (x)]2 − 1
(v) The differential coefficients of the remaining x −a

(v) cosec−1 √
inverse trigonometric functions are obtained in a x x 2 − a2
a similar manner to that shown above and a − f " (x)
summary of the results is shown in Table 33.1. cosec−1 f (x) 4
f (x) [ f (x)]2 − 1
dy x −a
Problem 1. Find given y = sin−1 5x 2 . (vi) cot −1
dx a a2 + x 2
From Table 33.1(i), if − f " (x)

cot −1 f (x)
1 + [ f (x)]2
dy f " (x)
y = sin−1 f (x) then =4
dx 1 − [ f (x)]2
(a) If y = cos−1 x then x = cos y.
Hence, if y = sin−1 5x 2 then f (x) = 5x 2 and
f " (x) = 10x. Differentiating with respect to y gives:
dy 10x 10x dx 4
Thus =4 =√ = −sin y = − 1 − cos2 y
dx 2
1 − (5x )2 1 −25x4 dy
√
=− 1 − x2
Problem 2.
(a) Show that if y = cos−1 x then dy 1 1
Hence = =−√
dy 1 dx dx 1 −x2
=√ dy
dx 1 − x2
The principal value of y = cos−1 x is defined as the
(b) Hence obtain the differential coefficient of
angle lying between 0 and π, i.e. between points C
y = cos−1 (1 − 2x 2 ).
and D shown in Fig. 33.1(b). The gradient of the curve
" #
is negative between C and D and thus the differential dy
i.e. between these two values is always positive
dy dx
coefficient is negative as shown above. (see Fig. 33.1(c)).
dx
(b) If y = cos−1 f (x) then by letting u = f (x), 2x x 3
Comparing tan −1 with tan−1 shows that a =
y = cos−1 u 3 a 2
2x
Hence if y = tan−1 then
dy 1 3
Then =−√ (from part (a))
du 1 − u2 3 3 3
du dy
and = f " (x) = " #22 = 2 = 2
dx dx 3 9 2 9 + 4x 2
+ x2 +x
From the function of a function rule, 2 4 4
dy dy du 1 3
= · = −√ f " (x) (4)
dx du dx 1−u 2 6
= 2 2=
9 + 4x 9 + 4x2
− f " (x)
=4
1 − [ f (x)]2 Problem 4. Find the differential coefficient of
−1
Hence, when y = cos (1 − 2x ) 2 y = ln (cos−1 3x).
dy −(−4x) Let u = cos−1 3x then y = ln u.

then =4
dx 1 − [1 − 2x 2 ]2 By the function of a function rule,
4x 4x dy dy du 1 d
=4 =4 = · = × (cos−1 3x)
2 4
1 − (1 − 4x + 4x ) (4x − 4x 4 )
2
dx du dx u dx
< =
4x 4x 2 1 −3
=4 = √ =√ = 4
2 2 2x 1 − x 2 1 − x2
[4x (1 − x )] cos−1 3x 1 − (3x)2
Problem 3. Determine the differential coefficient d −3

x i.e. [ln(cos−1 3x)]= √
of y = tan−1 and show that the differential dx 1 − 9x2 cos−1 3x
a
2x 6
coefficient of tan−1 is 3 dy
3 9 + 4x 2 Problem 5. If y = tan−1 find
t2 dt
x x
If y = tan−1 then = tan y and x = a tan y Using the general form from Table 33.1(iii),
a a
dx 3
= a sec2 y = a(1 + tan2 y) since f (t ) = = 3t −2,
dy t2
sec2 y = 1 + tan2 y −6
$ from which f " (t ) = 3
5 x 62 % " 2 #
a + x2 " #t
= a 1+ =a d 3 f " (t )
a a2 Hence tan −1 =
dt t 2 1 + [ f (t )]2
a2 + x 2 6 6
= − 3 − 3
a t t
=< " #2 = = 4
dy 1 a 3 t +9
Hence = = 2 1+ 2
dx dx a + x2 t4
t
dy
" #" 4 #
The principal value of y = tan−1 x is defined as 6 t 6t
π π = − 3 4
=− 4
the angle lying between − and and the gradient t t +9 t +9
2 2
−1
cot −1 2x
Problem 6. Differentiate y = cos t − 1
1 + 4x 2 =
(cos t − 1)2 + (sin t )2
Using the quotient rule: (cos t − 1)2
" # " #" #
−2 −1 (cos t − 1)2
(1 + 4x 2 ) − (cot −1 2x)(8x) =
dy 1 + (2x)2 cos t − 1 cos2 t − 2 cos t + 1 + sin2 t
=
dx (1 + 4x 2 )2
−(cos t − 1) 1 − cos t 1
from Table 33.1(vi) = = =
2 − 2 cos t 2(1 − cos t ) 2
−2(1 +4x cot−1 2x)
=
(1 +4x2 )2
−1
Problem 7. Differentiate y = x cosec x.
Using the product rule: differentiating inverse trigonometric
functions
$ %
dy −1
= (x) √ + (cosec −1 x) (1) In Problems 1 to 6, differentiate with respect to the
dx 2
x x −1 variable.
from Table 33.1(v) x
1. (a) sin−1 4x (b) sin−1
−1 2
=√ + cosec −1 x $ %
2
x −1 4 1
(a) √ (b) √
1 − 16x 2 4 − x2
Problem 8. Show that if 2 x
" # 2. (a) cos−1 3x (b) cos−1
−1 sin t dy 1 3 3
y = tan then = $ %
cos t − 1 dt 2 −3 −2
(a) √ (b) √
" # 1 − 9x 2 3 9 − x2
sint
If f (t ) = 1 √
cos t − 1 3. (a) 3 tan−1 2x (b) tan−1 x
2
(cos t − 1)(cos t ) − (sin t )(−sin t ) $ %
then f " (t ) = 6 1
(cos t − 1)2 (a) 2
(b) √
1 + 4x 4 x (1 + x)
cos2 t − cos t + sin2 t 1 − cos t 3
= 2
= 4. (a) 2 sec−1 2t (b) sec−1 x
(cos t − 1) (cos t − 1)2 4
$ %
since sin2 t + cos2 t = 1 2 4
(a) √ (b) √
t 4t 2 − 1 x 9x 2 − 16
−(cos t − 1) −1
= =
(cos t − 1)2 cos t − 1 5 θ
5. (a) cosec−1 (b) cosec−1 x 2
Using Table 33.1(iii), when 2 2
$ %
" # −5 −2
−1 sin t (a) √ (b) √
y = tan θ θ2 − 4 x x4 − 1
cos t − 1
√
−1 6. (a) 3 cot −1 2t (b) cot −1 θ 2 − 1
dy cos t − 1 $ %
then = " #2 −6 −1
dt sin t (a) (b) √
1+ 1 + 4t 2 θ θ2 − 1
cos t − 1
4
Hence e y = 1 + sinh2 y + sinh y
7. Show"that the# differential coefficient of
x 1 + x2 A$ A"
tan−1 is . 5 x 62 % x a2 + x 2
#
x
1 − x2 1 − x2 + x4 = 1+ + = +
a a a 2 a
In Problems 8 to 11 differentiate with respect to
the variable. √ √
a2 + x 2 x x + a2 + x 2
= + or
8. (a) 2x sin−1 3x (b) t 2 sec−1 2t a a a
  Taking Napierian logarithms of both sides gives:
6x
(a) √ + 2 sin−1 3x < =
 1 − 9x 2  √
  x + a2 + x 2
 t  y = ln
(b) √ + 2t sec−1 2t a
4t 2 − 1
< 4 =
9. (a) θ 2 cos−1 (θ 2 − 1) (b) (1 − x 2 ) tan−1 x x x + a 2 + x2
  Hence, sinh−1 = ln (1)
2 a a
(a) 2θ cos−1 (θ 2 − 1) − √ 2θ
 
 2 − θ2  3
 " #  Thus to evaluate sinh−1 , let x = 3 and a = 4 in
 1 − x2 −1
 4
(b) − 2x tan x equation (1).
1 + x2
< √ =
√ √ −1 3 3 + 42 + 32
10. (a) 2 t cot −1 t (b) x cosec−1 x Then sin h = ln
4 4
 √  " #
−2 t 1 −1 3+5
 (a) 1 + t 2 + √t cot t  = ln = ln2 = 0.6931
  4
 √ 1 
(b) cosec −1 x− √
2 (x − 1) By similar reasoning to the above it may be shown that:
< √ =
−1 x x + x2 − a2
sin−1 3x cos−1 x cosh = ln
11. (a) (b) √ a a
x2 1 − x2 " #
 ! x 1 a+x
1 3x and tanh−1 = ln
−1 a 2 a−x
 (a) x 3 √ − 2 sin 3x 
 1 − 9x 2 
 
  Problem 9. Evaluate, correct to 4 decimal places,
 x 
 −1 + √ cos−1 x  sinh−1 2.
 1−x 2 
(b) 2
< √ =
(1 − x ) x x + a 2 + x2
From above, sinh−1 = ln
a a
With x = 2 and a = 1,
< √ =
−1 2 + 12 + 22
33.3 Logarithmic forms of inverse sinh 2 = ln
1
hyperbolic functions
√
= ln(2 + 5) = ln 4.2361
Inverse hyperbolic functions may be evaluated most
conveniently when expressed in a logarithmic = 1.4436, correct to 4 decimal places
form.
x x
For example, if y = sinh−1 then = sinh y. Using a calculator,
a a
From Chapter 5, e y = cosh y + sinh y and (i) press hyp
cosh2 y −4sinh2 y = 1, from which,
(ii) press 4 and sinh−1 ( appears
cosh y = 1 + sinh2 y which is positive since cosh y is
always positive (see Fig. 5.2, page 43). (iii) type in 2
x x
(iv) press ) to close the brackets If y = cosh−1 then = cos y
a a
(v) press = and 1.443635475 appears 4
e y = cosh y + sinh y = cosh y ± cosh2 y − 1
Hence, sinh−1 2 = 1.4436, correct to 4 decimal places. A$ √
5 x 62 %
x x x 2 − a2
= ± −1 = ±
Problem 10. Show that a a a a
" #
x 1 a+x √
tanh−1 = ln and evaluate, correct
a 2 a−x x± x 2 − a2
=
3 a
to 4 decimal places, tanh −1
5 Taking Napierian logarithms of both sides gives:
x x < √ =
If y = tanh−1 then = tanh y. x ± x 2 − a2
a a y = ln
a
From Chapter 5,
Thus, assuming the principal value,
1 y
sinh x (e − e−y ) e2y − 1 < √ =
tanh y = = 21 = 2y −1 x x + x2 − a2
cosh x y −y
2 (e + e )
e +1 cosh = ln
a a
by dividing each term by e−y
14 7
cosh−1 1.4 = cosh−1 = cosh−1
x e2y − 1 10 5
Thus, = x
a e2y + 1 In the equation for cosh−1 , let x = 7 and a = 5
a
from which, x(e2y + 1) = a(e2y − 1) < √ =
−1 7 7 + 72 − 52
Hence x + a = ae2y − xe2y = e2y (a − x) Then cosh = ln
" # 5 5
a+x
from which e2y = = ln 2.3798 = 0.8670,
a−x
correct to 4 decimal places.
Taking Napierian logarithms of both sides gives:
" #
a+x
2y = ln Now try the following exercise
a−x
" #
1 a+x
and y = ln
2 a−x Exercise 136 Further problems on
" # logarithmic forms of the inverse hyperbolic
x 1 a+x functions
Hence, tanh−1 = ln
a 2 a−x
In Problems 1 to 3 use logarithmic equivalents of
Substituting x = 3 and a = 5 gives:
inverse hyperbolic functions to evaluate correct to
" # 4 decimal places.
−1 3 1 5+3 1
tanh = ln = ln 4 1
5 2 5−3 2 1. (a) sinh−1 (b) sinh−1 4 (c) sinh−1 0.9
= 0.6931, correct to 4 decimal places. 2
[(a) 0.4812 (b) 2.0947 (c) 0.8089]
5
Problem 11. Prove that 2. (a) cosh−1 (b) cosh−1 3 (c) cosh−1 4.3
< √ = 4
−1 x x + x 2 − a2 [(a) 0.6931 (b) 1.7627 (c) 2.1380]
cosh = ln
a a 1 5
3. (a) tanh−1 (b) tanh−1 (c) tanh−1 0.7
and hence evaluate cosh−1 1.4 correct to 4 8
4 decimal places. [(a) 0.2554 (b) 0.7332 (c) 0.8673]
Table 33.2 Differential coefficients of inverse

33.4 Differentiation of inverse hyperbolic functions
hyperbolic functions dy
y or f (x) or f " (x)
x x dx
If y = sinh−1 then = sinh y and x = a sinh y
a a x 1
dx (i) sinh−1 √
= a cosh y (from Chapter 32). a x 2 + a2
dy
Also cosh2 y − sinh2 y = 1, from which, f " (x)
A$ sinh−1 f (x) 4
4 5 x 62 % [ f (x)]2 + 1
2
cosh y = 1 + sinh y = 1+
a x 1
√ (ii) cosh−1 √
a2 + x 2 a x 2 − a2
=
a f " (x)
√ cosh−1 f (x) 4
dx a a2 + x 2 √ 2 [ f (x)]2 − 1
Hence = a cosh y = = a + x2
dy a
x a
dy 1 1 (iii) tanh−1
Then = =4 a a2 − x 2
dx dx a2 + x2 f " (x)
dy tanh−1 f (x)
x 1 − [ f (x)]2
[An alternative method of differentiating sinh−1
a x −a
is to
< differentiate the
= logarithmic form (iv) sech−1 √
√
2
x + a +x 2 a x a2 − x 2
ln with respect to x.]
a − f " (x)
sech−1 f (x) 4
From the sketch of y = sinh −1
x shown in Fig. 33.2(a) f (x) 1 − [ f (x)]2
" #
dy
it is seen that the gradient i.e. is always positive. x −a
dx (v) cosech−1 √
a x x 2 + a2
It follows from above that
B − f " (x)
1 x cosech−1 f (x) 4
√ dx = sinh−1 + c f (x) [ f (x)]2 + 1
2
x +a 2 a
< √ = x a
(vi) coth−1
x + a2 + x 2 a a2 − x 2
or ln +c
a
f " (x)
coth−1 f (x)
It may be shown that 1 − [ f (x)]2
d 1
(sinh−1 x)= 4 Problem 12. Find the differential coefficient
dx x2 + 1
of y = sinh−1 2x.
or more generally
From Table 33.2(i),
d f ! (x)
[sinh−1 f (x)] = @ d f " (x)
dx [sinh−1 f (x)] = 4
[ f (x)]2 + 1 dx [ f (x)]2 + 1
d 2
by using the function of a function rule as in Hence (sinh−1 2x) = 4
Section 33.2(iv). dx [(2x)2 + 1]
The remaining inverse hyperbolic functions are dif- 2
=4
ferentiated in a similar manner to that shown above and [4x2 + 1]
the results are summarized in Table 33.2.
Problem 13. Determine Problem 15. Differentiate cosech−1 (sinh θ).

d : 4 ;
cosh−1 (x 2 + 1)
dx From Table 33.2(v),
dy f " (x) d − f " (x)

If y = cosh−1 f (x), =4 [cosech−1 f (x)] = 4
dx [ f (x)]2 − 1 dx f (x) [ f (x)]2 + 1
4 4
If y = cosh−1 (x 2 + 1), then f (x) = (x 2 + 1) and
1 x d
f " (x) = (x + 1)−1/2 (2x) = 4 Hence [cosech−1 (sinh θ)]
2 2
dθ
(x + 1)
: ; −cosh θ
d 4 = 4
Hence, cosh−1 (x 2 + 1) sinh θ [sinh2 θ + 1]
dx
x x
4 4
2
(x + 1) 2
(x + 1) −cosh θ
= √ since cosh2 θ − sinh2 θ = 1
= A$
54 62 %=4 2 sinh θ cosh2 θ
(x + 1 − 1)
(x 2 + 1) − 1
−cosh θ −1
x = = = −cosech θ
4 sinh θ cosh θ sinhθ
(x 2 + 1) 1
= =4
x (x2 + 1) Problem 16. Find the differential coefficient of
y = sech−1 (2x − 1).
d : x;
Problem 14. Show that tanh−1 =
dx a From Table 33.2(iv),
a
and hence determine the differential
a2 − x 2
4x d − f " (x)
coefficient of tanh−1 [sech−1 f (x)] = 4
3 dx f (x) 1 − [ f (x)]2
x x
If y = tanh−1 then = tanh y and x = a tanh y d
a a Hence, [sech −1 (2x − 1)]
dx
dx −2
= a sech2 y = a(1 − tanh2 y), since = 4
dy
1 − sech2 y = tanh2 y (2x − 1) [1 − (2x − 1)2 ]
$ 5 x 62 % " 2 # −2
a − x2 a2 − x 2 = 4
=a 1 − =a 2
= (2x − 1) [1 − (4x 2 − 4x + 1)]
a a a
dy 1 a −2 −2
Hence = = 2 = 4 = √
dx dx a − x2 2
(2x − 1) (4x − 4x ) (2x −1) [4x(1−x)]
dy
4x x 3 −2 −1
Comparing tanh−1 with tanh−1 shows that a = = √ = √
3 a 4 (2x − 1)2 [x(1 − x)] (2x − 1) [x(1 −x)]
$ % 3 3
d 4x
Hence tanh−1 = " #42 = 4
Problem 17. Show that
dx 3 3 9
− x2 − x2 d
4 16 [coth−1 (sin x)] = sec x.
dx
3
4 3 16 12 From Table 33.2(vi),
= 2
= · 2
=
9 − 16x 4 (9 − 16x ) 9 −16x2
16 d f " (x)
[coth−1 f (x)] =
dx 1 − [ f (x)]2
d cos x x a
Hence [coth−1 (sin x)] = Since tanh−1 =
dx [1 − (sin x)2 ] a a2 − x 2
B
cos x a x
= since cos2 x + sin2 x = 1 then dx = tanh−1 + c
cos2 x a2 − x 2 a
1 B
1 1 x
= = sec x i.e. dx = tanh−1 + c
cos x a2 − x 2 a a
B B
Problem 18. Differentiate 2 1
y = (x 2 − 1) tanh−1 x. Hence dx = 2 - . dx
(9 − 4x 2 ) 4 94 − x 2
B
Using the product rule, 1 1
" # = :- . ; dx
2 3 2 2
dy 1 2 −x
= (x 2 − 1) + (tanh−1 x)(2x)
dx 1 − x2 2 3
1 1 x
−(1 − x 2 ) = −1
- . tanh - 3 . + c
= + 2x tanh−1 x = 2x tanh−1 x − 1 2 32
(1 − x 2 ) 2
B
B 2 1 2x
dx i.e. 2
dx = tanh−1 +c
Problem 19. Determine 4 . (9 − 4x ) 3 3
(x 2 + 4)
d 5 x6 1
Since sinh−1 =4 Now try the following exercise
dx a (x 2 + a 2)
B
dx x
then 4 = sinh−1 +c Exercise 137 Further problems on
(x 2 + a 2 ) a
differentiation of inverse hyperbolic
B B functions
1 1
Hence 4 dx = 4 dx
(x 2 + 4) (x 2 + 22 ) In Problems 1 to 11, differentiate with respect to
the variable.
x x
= sinh−1 +c 1. (a) sinh−1 (b) sinh−1 4x
2 3
2 3
B 1 4
4
Problem 20. Determine 4 dx. (a) 4 (b) 4
(x 2 − 3) (x 2 + 9) (16x 2 + 1)
t 1
d 5 x6 1 2. (a) 2 cosh−1 (b) cosh−1 2θ
Since cosh−1 =4 2
3 2
3
dx a (x 2 − a 2 )
2 1
B (a) 4 (b) 4
1 x (t 2 − 9) (4θ 2 − 1)
then 4 dx = cosh−1 + c
(x 2 − a 2 ) a 2x
B B 3. (a) tanh−1 (b) 3 tanh−1 3x
4 1 5
Hence 4 dx = 4 @ dx $ %
2 √ 10 9
(x − 3) [x 2 − ( 3)2 ] (a) (b)
25 − 4x 2 (1 − 9x 2 )
x 3x 1
= 4 cosh−1 √ + c 4. (a) sech−1 (b) − sech −1 2x
3 4 2
2 3
B −4 1
2 (a) 4 (b) 4
Problem 21. Find dx. x (16 − 9x 2 ) 2x (1 − 4x 2 )
(9 − 4x 2 )
x 1 √
5. (a) cosech−1 (b) cosech−1 4x 2 sec h−1 t tan h−1 x
4 2 11. (a) 2
(b)
2 3 t (1 − x 2 )
 !
−4 −1 −1 1 √ 
(a) 4 (b) 4 (a) 3 √ + 4 sech −1
t
x (x 2 + 16) 2x (16x 2 + 1)  t (1 − t ) 
 
 
 1 + 2x tanh x−1 
2x 1
6. (a) coth−1 (b) coth−1 3t (b)
7 4 (1 − x 2 )2
$ %
14 3 d
(a) (b) 12. Show that [x cosh−1 (cosh x)] = 2x.
49 − 4x 2 4(1 − 9t 2) dx
4 In Problems 13 to 15, determine the given
7. (a) 2 sinh−1 (x 2 − 1)
integrals.
4 B
1 1
(b) cosh−1 (x 2 + 1) 13. (a) 4 dx
2 2
(x + 9)
2 3
2 1 B
3
(a) 4 (b) 4 (b) 4 dx
(x 2 − 1) 2 (x 2 + 1) 2
(4x + 25)
$ %
−1 x 3 −1 2x
8. (a) sech−1 (x − 1) (b) tanh−1(tanh x) (a) sinh + c (b) sinh +c
$ % 3 2 5
−1 B
(a) √ (b) 1 1
(x − 1) [x(2 − x)] 14. (a) 4 dx
2
(x − 16)
" # B
−1 t 1
9. (a) cosh (b) coth−1 (cos x) (b) 4 dt
t −1 2
(t − 5)
$ % $ %
−1 −1 x −1 t
(a) √ (b) −cosec x (a) cosh + c (b) cosh √ + c
(t − 1) (2t − 1) 4 5
B B
√ dθ 3
10. (a) θ sinh−1 θ (b) x cosh−1 x 15. (a) 4 (b) dx
(36 + θ ) 2 (16 − 2x 2 )
 θ 
(a) 4 + sinh−1 θ  
1 θ
 (θ 2 + 1)  (a) tan−1 + c
   6 6 
 √ −1
  
 x cosh x   3 x 
(b) 4 + √ −1
(b) √ tanh √ + c
(x 2 − 1) 2 x 2 8 8
Chapter 37
Standard integration
37.1 The process of integration 37.2 The general solution of integrals
of the form ax n
The process of integration reverses the process of C
differentiation. In differentiation, if f (x) = 2x 2 then The general solution of integrals of the form ax n dx,
f " (x) = 4x. Thus the integral of 4x is 2x 2 , i.e. integra- where a and n are constants is given by:
tion is the process of moving from f " (x) to f (x). By B
similar reasoning, the integral of 2t is t 2. ax n+1
ax n dx = +c
Integration is a process of summation orCadding parts n+1
together and an elongated S, shown as , is used to
replace
C the words
C ‘the integral of’. Hence, from above, This rule is true when n is fractional, zero, or a positive
4x = 2x 2 and 2t is t 2. or negative integer, with the exception of n = −1.
dy
In differentiation, the differential coefficient indi- Using this rule gives:
dx B
cates that a function of x is being differentiated with 3x 4+1 3
respect to x, the dx indicating that it is ‘with respect (i) 3x 4 dx = + c = x5 + c
4+1 5
to x’. In integration the variable of integration is shown
B B
by adding d (the variable) after the function to be 2 −2 2x −2+1
integrated. (ii) dx = 2x dx = +c
x2 −2 +1
B 2x −1 −2
= +c= + c, and
Thus 4x dx means ‘the integral of 4x −1 x
with respect to x’,
B B 1 3
B √ 1 x 2 +1 x2
(iii) x dx = x2 dx = +c= +c
and 2t dt means ‘the integral of 2t 1 3
+1
with respect to t ’. 2 2
As stated Cabove, the differential coefficient of 2x 2 is 2√ 3
= x +c
4x, hence 4x dx = 2x 2 . However, the 3
C differential coef-
ficient of 2x 2 + 7 is also 4x. Hence 4x dx is also equal Each of these three results may be checked by differen-
to 2x 2 + 7. To allow for the possible presence of a con- tiation.
stant, whenever the process of integration is performed,
(a) The integral of a constant k is kx + c. For
a constant ‘c’ is added to the result.
example,
B B B
Thus 4x dx = 2x 2 + c and 2t dt = t 2 + c 8 dx = 8x + c
‘c’ is called the arbitrary constant of integration. (b) When a sum of several terms is integrated the result
is the sum of the integrals of the separate terms.
Standard integration 369
For example, (b) When a = 2 and n = 3 then

B
(3x + 2x 2 − 5) dx B
2t 3+1 2t 4 1
B B B 2t 3 dt = +c= +c= t4 +c
2 3+1 4 2
= 3x dx + 2x dx − 5 dx
3x 2 2x 3 Each of these results may be checked by differentiating

= + − 5x + c them.
2 3
Problem 2. Determine
37.3 Standard integrals B" #
3
4 + x − 6x 2 dx.
Since integration is the reverse process of differentia- 7
tion the standard integrals listed in Table 37.1 may be
deduced and readily checked by differentiation. C
(4 + 37 x − 6x 2 ) dx may be written as
C C C
Table 37.1 Standard integrals 4 dx + 37 x dx − 6x 2 dx, i.e. each term is integrated
separately. (This splitting up of terms only applies,
B however, for addition and subtraction.)
ax n+1
(i) ax n dx = +c B" #
n +1 3 2
Hence 4 + x − 6x dx
(except when n =−1) 7
B " # 1+1
1 3 x x 2+1
(ii) cos ax dx = sin ax + c = 4x + − (6) +c
a 7 1+1 2+1
B " # 2
1 3 x x3
(iii) sin ax dx = − cos ax + c = 4x + − (6) + c
a
7 2 3
B
1
(iv) sec 2 ax dx = tan ax + c 3 2
a = 4x + x − 2x 3 + c
B 14
1
(v) cosec 2 ax dx = − cot ax + c Note that when an integral contains more than one term
a there is no need to have an arbitrary constant for each;
B just a single constant at the end is sufficient.
1
(vi) cosec ax cot ax dx = − cosec ax + c
a
B Problem 3. Determine
1 B B
(vii) sec ax tan ax dx = sec ax + c 2x 3 − 3x
a (a) dx (b) (1 − t )2 dt.
B 4x
1
(viii) eax dx = eax + c
a
B (a) Rearranging into standard integral form gives:
1
(ix) dx = ln x + c B
x 2x 3 − 3x
dx
4x
B B 2
C C 2x 3 3x x 3
Problem 1. Determine (a) 5x 2 dx (b) 2t 3 dt . = − dx = − dx
4x 4x 2 4
" # 2+1
C ax n+1 1 x 3
The standard integral, ax n dx = +c = − x +c
n +1 2 2+1 4
(a) When a = 5 and n =2 then " # 3
B 1 x 3 1 3
5x 2+1 5x 3 = − x + c = x3 − x + c
5x 2 dx = +c= +c 2 3 4 6 4
2+1 3
B
" # 1 " #" #
(b) Rearranging (1 − t )2 dt gives: 5 t4 5 4 1
= − +c = − t4 +c
B 9 14 9 1
2t 1+1 t 2+1
(1 − 2t + t 2) dt = t − + +c 20 √
4
1+1 2+1 =− t+c
9
2t 2 t 3 B
=t− + +c (1 + θ)2
2 3 Problem 7. Determine √ dθ.
θ
1
= t −t 2 + t 3 +c B B
3 (1 + θ)2 (1 + 2θ + θ 2 )
√ dθ = √ dθ
This problem shows that functions often θ θ
C have to be
rearranged into the standard form of ax n dx before B " #
1 2θ θ2
it is possible to integrate them. = 1
+ 1
+ 1
dθ
θ2 θ2 θ2
B B" 5 6 5 6#
3 −1 1− 1 2− 1
Problem 4. Determine dx. = θ 2 + 2θ 2 + θ 2 dθ
x2
B B B 5 6
3 −1 1 3
2
dx = 3x −2 dx. Using the standard integral, = θ 2 + 2θ 2 + θ 2 dθ
B x
ax n dx when a = 3 and n =−2 gives: 5
−1
6
+1
5 6
1
+1
5 6
3
2 +1
θ 2
2θ 2
θ
B = + + +c
3x −2+1 3x −1 − 12 +1 1
+1 3
+1
3x −2 dx = +c = +c 2 2
−2 + 1 −1 1 3 5
−3 θ2 2θ 2 θ2
= −3x −1 + c = +c = 1
+ 3
+ 5
+c
x 2 2 2
C √ 1 4 3 2 5
Problem 5. Determine 3 x dx. = 2θ 2 + θ 2 + θ 2 + c
3 5
For
√ fractional powers it is necessary to appreciate √ 4 3 24 5
4
n m
a =a n
m = 2 θ+ θ + θ +c
3 5
B B 1
√ 1 3x 2 +1 Problem 8. Determine
3 x dx = 3x 2 dx = +c C C
1 (a) 4 cos3x dx (b) 5 sin2θ dθ.
+1
2
3
3x 2 3 4 (a) From Table 37.1(ii),
= + c = 2x 2 + c = 2 x 3 + c B " #
3 1
2 4 cos3x dx = (4) sin3x + c
3
B
−5 4
Problem 6. Determine √
4
dt . = sin 3x + c
9 t3 3
B B B " # (b) From Table 37.1(iii),
−5 −5 5 −3 " #
√ dt = dt = − t 4 dt B
4
9 t3
3
9 1
9t 4 5 sin2θ dθ = (5) − cos 2θ + c
2
3
" # − +1
5 t 4 5
= − +c = − cos 2θ + c
9 3 2
− +1
4
Problem 9. Determine 2m 2
C C = + ln m + c
2
(a) 7 sec2 4t dt (b) 3 cosec 2 2θ dθ.
= m 2 + ln m + c
(a) From Table 37.1(iv),
B " #
1 Now try the following exercise
7 sec2 4t dt = (7) tan 4t + c
4
7
= tan 4t + c Exercise 145 Further problems on standard
4 integrals
(b) From Table 37.1(v), In Problems 1 to 12, determine the indefinite

integrals.
B # " B B
2 1
3 cosec 2θ dθ = (3) − cot 2θ + c 1. (a) 4 dx (b) 7x dx
2
3 $ %
= − cot 2θ + c 7x 2
2 (a) 4x + c (b) +c
2
B B
Problem 10. Determine 2 2 5 3
B B 2. (a) x dx (b) x dx
2 5 6
(a) 5 e3x dx (b) dt. $ %
3 e4t 2 3 5 4
(a) x + c (b) x +c
15 24
(a) From Table 37.1(viii), B" 2 # B
" # 3x − 5x
B 3. (a) dx (b) (2 + θ)2 dθ
3x 1 3x 5 x
5 e dx = (5) e + c = e3x + c
3 3  
3x 2
 (a) − 5x + c 
B B " #" #  2 
2 2 −4t 2 1 −4t  θ 3 
(b) dt = e dt = − e +c 2
(b) 4θ + 2θ + + c
3 e4t 3 3 4 3
1 1 B B
= − e−4t + c = − 4t + c 4 3
6 6e 4. (a) dx (b) dx
3x 2 4x 4
$ %
Problem 11. Determine −4 −1
B B" 2 # (a) + c (b) 3 + c
3 2m + 1 3x 4x
(a) dx (b) dm.
5x m B4 B
144
5. (a) 2 x 3 dx (b) x 5 dx
B B " #" # 4
3 3 1 3 $ %
(a) dx = dx = ln x +c 4√ 5 1√4 9
5x 5 x 5 (a) x + c (b) x +c
5 9
(from Table 37.1(ix))
B" # B" 2 # B B
2m 2 + 1 2m 1 −5 3
(b) dm = + dm 6. (a) √ dt (b) √5
dx
m m m t3 7 x4
$ %
B " # 10 15 √
5
1 (a) √ + c (b) x +c
= 2m + dm t 7
m
B B limit and ‘a’ the lower limit. The operation of applying

the limits is defined as [x]ba = (b) − (a).
7. (a) 3 cos2x dx (b) 7 sin 3θ dθ
The increase in the value of the integral x 2 as x increases
  C3
3 from 1 to 3 is written as 1 x 2 dx.
 (a) 2 sin 2x + c  Applying the limits gives:
 
 7  B $ %3 " # " 3 #
3
(b) − cos 3θ + c x3 33 1
3 x 2 dx = +c = +c − +c
B B 1 3 1 3 3
3 " #
8. (a) sec2 3x dx (b) 2 cosec 2 4θ dθ 1 2
4 = (9 + c) − + c =8
$ % 3 3
1 1
(a) tan 3x +c (b) − cot 4θ +c
4 2 Note that the ‘c’ term always cancels out when limits are
B applied and it need not be shown with definite integrals.
9. (a) 5 cot 2t cosec 2t dt
B Problem 12. Evaluate
4 C2 C3
(b) sec 4t tan4t dt (a) 1 3x dx (b) −2 (4 − x 2 ) dx.
3
 
5 B 2 $ %2 ! !
 (a) − cosec 2t + c  3x 2 3 2 3 2
 2  (a) 3x dx = = (2) − (1)
  1 2 1 2 2
1
(b) sec 4t + c
3 1 1
=6 − 1 =4
B B 2 2
3 2x 2 dx
10. (a) e dx (b)
4 3 e5x B 3 $ %3
$ % 2 x3
3 −2 (b) (4 − x ) dx = 4x −
(a) e2x + c (b) + c −2 3 −2
8 15 e5x ! !
B B" 2 # (3)3 (−2)3
2 u −1 = 4(3) − − 4(−2) −
11. (a) dx (b) du 3 3
3x u !
$ % −8
2 u2 = {12 − 9} − −8 −
(a) ln x + c (b) − ln u + c 3
3 2
!
B B" #2 1 1
(2+3x)2 1 = {3} − −5 =8
12. (a) √ dx (b) + 2t dt 3 3
x t
 
B 4" #
√ √ 18 √ 5 θ +2
(a) 8 x + 8 x 3 + x +c Problem 13. Evaluate √ dθ, taking
 5  1 θ
  positive square roots only.
 1 4t 3 
(b) − + 4t + +c
t 3 B 4" # B 4" #
θ +2 θ 2
√ dθ = 1
+ 1
dθ
1 θ 1 θ2 θ2
B 4" 1 #
37.4 Definite integrals =
−1
θ 2 + 2θ 2 dθ
1
Integrals containing an arbitrary constant c in their
 5 6 5 6 4
results are called indefinite integrals since their precise 1 −1
2 +1 2 +1
value cannot be determined without further information. θ 2θ 
= + 
Definite integrals are those in which limits are applied. 1 1
+1 − +1
If an expression is written as [x]ba, ‘b’ is called the upper 2 2 1
 4
3 1 $ 4 % Problem 16. Evaluate
θ2 2θ 2 2 3 √ 4
= 3
+ 1
 = θ +4 θ B 2 B 4
3 3
2 2
1
1 (a) 4 e2x dx (b) du,
1 1 4u
! 4 !
24 3 √ 24 3 each correct to 4 significant figures.
= (4) + 4 4 − (1) + 4 (1)
3 3
! ! B $ %2
16 2 2
4 2x
= +8 − +4 (a) 4 e2x dx = e = 2[ e2x ]21 = 2[ e4 − e2 ]
3 3 2
1 1
1 2 2 = 2[54.5982 −7.3891] =94.42
= 5 +8− −4 = 8
3 3 3 B $ %4
4 3 3 3
(b) du = ln u = [ln 4 − ln1]
B π 1 4u 4 1 4
2
Problem 14. Evaluate 3 sin2x dx. 3
0 = [1.3863 −0] =1.040
4
B π
2
3 sin2x dx
$ " # %π $ %π
1 2 3 2
= (3) − cos 2x = − cos 2x
2 0 2 0
Exercise 146 Further problems on definite
! ! integrals
3 5π 6 3
= − cos 2 − − cos 2(0) In problems 1 to 8, evaluate the definite integrals
2 2 2
(where necessary, correct to 4 significant figures).
! ! B 4 B 1
3 3 3
= − cos π − − cos 0 1. (a) 2
5x dx (b) − t 2 dt
2 2
1 −1 4
! ! $ %
3 3 3 3 1
= − (−1) − − (1) = + = 3 (a) 105 (b) −
2 2 2 2 2
B 2 B 3
B 2 2. (a) (3 − x 2 ) dx (b) (x 2 − 4x + 3) dx
Problem 15. Evaluate 4 cos 3t dt. −1 1
1 $ %
1
B 2 $ " # %2 $ %2 (a) 6 (b) −1
1 4 3
4 cos3t dt = (4) sin 3t = sin3t
1 3 1 3 1 B B π
π 3 2
! ! 3. (a) cos θ dθ (b) 4 cos θ dθ
4 4 2
= sin6 − sin 3 0 0
3 3
[(a) 0 (b) 4]
Note that limits of trigonometric functions are always B π B
3 2
expressed in radians—thus, for example, sin 6 means 4. (a) 2 sin 2θ dθ (b) 3 sin t dt
the sine of 6 radians= −0.279415 . . . π
6 0
B 2 [(a) 1 (b) 4.248]
Hence 4 cos 3t dt
1 B 1 B π
! ! 6
4 4 5. (a) 5 cos3x dx (b) 3 sec2 2x dx
= (−0.279415 . . .) − (0.141120 . . .) 0 0
3 3
[(a) 0.2352 (b) 2.598]
= (−0.37255) − (0.18816) = −0.5607
B 2 1 litre to 3 litres for a temperature rise from

6. (a) cosec 2 4t dt 100 K to 400 K given that:
1
B π
2 Cv = 45 + 6 × 10−3 T + 8 × 10−6 T 2 .
(b) (3 sin 2x − 2 cos3x) dx
π [55.65]
4
[(a) 0.2527 (b) 2.638]
10. The p.d. between boundaries a and b of an
B B B b
1 2
2 Q
7. (a) 3 e3t dt (b) dx electric field is given by: V = dr
3 e2x a 2πrε 0 εr
0 −1
[(a) 19.09 (b) 2.457] If a = 10, b = 20, Q =2 × 10−6 coulombs,
B 3 B 3
ε0 = 8.85 ×10−12 and εr = 2.77, show that
2 2x 2 + 1 V = 9 kV.
8. (a) dx (b) dx
2 3x 1 x
[(a) 0.2703 (b) 9.099] 11. The average value of a complex voltage wave-
form is given by:
9. The entropy change &S, for an ideal gas is
B
given by: 1 π
V AV = (10 sinωt + 3 sin3ωt
B T2 B V2 π 0
dT dV
&S = Cv −R
T1 T V1 V + 2 sin 5ωt) d(ωt)
where T is the thermodynamic temperature,
Evaluate V AV correct to 2 decimal places.
V is the volume and R = 8.314. Determine
the entropy change when a gas expands from [7.26]
Chapter 39
Integration using algebraic
substitutions
39.1 Introduction 39.3 Worked problems on integration
using algebraic substitutions
Functions which require integrating are not always in
the ‘standard form’ shown in Chapter 37. However, it is
often possible to change a function into a form which C
Problem 1. Determine cos(3x + 7) dx.
can be integrated by using either:
C
(i) an algebraic substitution (see Section 39.2), cos(3x + 7) dx is not a standard integral of the form
shown in Table 37.1, page 369, thus an algebraic
(ii) a trigonometric or hyperbolic substitution (see
substitution is made.
Chapter 40), du
Let u = 3x + 7 then = 3 and rearranging gives
(iii) partial fractions (see Chapter 41), dx
du
dx = . Hence,
(iv) the t = tan θ/2 substitution (see Chapter 42), 3
B B B
(v) integration by parts (see Chapter 43), or du 1
cos(3x + 7) dx = (cos u) = cos u du,
(vi) reduction formulae (see Chapter 44). 3 3
which is a standard integral
39.2 Algebraic substitutions 1

= sin u + c
3
With algebraic substitutions, the substitution usually Rewriting u as (3x + 7) gives:
made is to let u be equal to f (x) such that f (u) du B
is a standard integral. It is found that integrals of the 1
cos(3x + 7) dx = sin(3x+ 7)+ c,
forms, 3
B B which may be checked by differentiating it.
n " f " (x)
k [ f (x)] f (x) dx and k dx C
[ f (x)]n Problem 2. Find (2x − 5)7 dx.
(where k and n are constants) can both be integrated by
substituting u for f (x). (2x − 5) may be multiplied by itself 7 times and then
each term of the result integrated. However, this would
Integration using algebraicsubstitutions 393
be a lengthy process, and thus an algebraic substitution C

is made. Problem 5. Determine 3x(4x 2 + 3)5 dx.
du du
Let u =(2x − 5) then = 2 and dx = du du
dx 2 Let u =(4x 2 + 3) then = 8x and dx =
Hence dx 8x
Hence
B B B
7 du 1
7 7
(2x − 5) dx = u = u du B B
2 2 du
3x(4x 2 + 3)5 dx = 3x(u)5
8x
" #
1 u8 1 8 B
= +c = u +c 3
2 8 16 = u 5 du, by cancelling
8
Rewriting u as (2x − 5) gives:
The original variable ‘x’ has been completely removed
B and the integral is now only in terms of u and is a
1
(2x − 5)7 dx = (2x −5)8 + c standard integral.
16
B " #
B 3 3 u6
4 Hence u 5 du = +c
Problem 3. Find dx. 8 8 6
(5x − 3)
1 6 1
du du = u + c = (4x2 + 3)6 + c
Let u =(5x − 3) then = 5 and dx = 16 16
dx 5
Hence
B B B B π
4 4 du 4 1 6
dx = = du Problem 6. Evaluate 24 sin5 θ cos θ dθ.
(5x − 3) u 5 5 u 0
4 4 du du
= lnu + c = ln(5x −3)+ c Let u = sin θ then = cos θ and dθ =
5 5 dθ cos θ
B B
C1 du
Problem 4. Evaluate 2e6x−1 dx, correct to Hence 24 sin5 θ cos θ dθ = 24u 5 cos θ
0 cos θ
4 significant figures. B
= 24 u 5 du, by cancelling
du du
Let u =6x − 1 then = 6 and dx =
dx 6 u6
= 24 + c = 4u 6 + c = 4(sin θ)6 + c
Hence 6
B B B = 4 sin6 θ + c
6x−1 du
u 1 u
2e dx = 2e = e du
6 3 B π π
6
1 1 Thus 24 sin5 θ cos θ dθ = [4 sin6 θ]06
= eu + c = e6x−1 + c 0
3 3
$5 %
π 66
Thus =4 sin − (sin 0)6
6
B 1 2" # 3
1 1
2e6x−1 dx = [e6x−1 ]10 = [e5 − e−1 ] = 49.35, 1 6 1
0 3 3 =4 −0 = or 0.0625
2 16
Now try the following exercise Hence

B B B
x x du 1 1
Exercise 153 Further problems on dx = = du,
2 + 3x 2 u 6x 6 u
integration using algebraic substitutions
by cancelling
In Problems 1 to 6, integrate with respect to the
variable. 1 1
$ % = ln u + c = ln(2 + 3x2) + c
1 6 6
1. 2 sin(4x + 9) − cos(4x + 9) +c
2 B
$ % 2x
3 Problem 8. Determine 4 dx.
2. 3 cos(2θ − 5) sin(2θ − 5) +c (4x 2 − 1)
2
$ % du du
4 Let u = 4x 2 − 1 then = 8x and dx =
3. 4 sec2 (3t + 1) tan(3t + 1) +c dx 8x
3 B B
2x 2x du
$ % Hence 4 dx = √
1 1 (4x 2 − 1) u 8x
4. (5x − 3)6 (5x − 3)7 + c
2 70 B
1 1
$ % = √ du, by cancelling
−3 3 4 u
5. − ln(2x − 1) +c  5 6 
(2x − 1) 2 B −1 −1
+1
1 1 u 2 
= u 2 du =  +c
6. 3e3θ+5 [e3θ + 5 + c] 4 4 1
− +1
  2
In Problems 7 to 10, evaluate the definite integrals 1
1 u 2  1√
correct to 4 significant figures. =  +c = u +c
4 1 2
B 1
2
7. (3x + 1)5 dx [227.5]
0
14 2
B 2 4 = (4x − 1)+ c
2
8. x (2x 2 + 1) dx [4.333]
0
Problem 9. Show that
B π
5
3 π6 B
9. 2 sin 3t + dt [0.9428] tan θ dθ = ln(sec θ) + c.
0 4
B 1 B B
10. 3 cos(4x − 3) dx [0.7369] sin θ
0 tan θ dθ = dθ. Let u = cos θ
cos θ
du −du
then = −sin θ and dθ =
dθ sin θ
39.4 Further worked problems on Hence

integration using algebraic B B " #
sin θ sin θ −du
substitutions dθ =
cos θ u sin θ
B
B 1
x =− du = − lnu + c
Problem 7. Find dx. u
2 + 3x 2
= − ln(cos θ) + c = ln(cos θ)−1 + c,
du du
Let u = 2 +3x 2 then = 6x and dx =
dx 6x by the laws of logarithms.
Integration using algebraicsubstitutions 395
B
du du
Hence tan θ dθ = ln(sec θ)+ c, Let u =2x 2 + 1 then = 4x and dx =
dx 4x
1 B B
since (cos θ)−1 = = sec θ 2
3x x=2
3x du
cos θ Hence 4 dx = √
0 (2x 2 + 1) x=0 u 4x
39.5 Change of limits B x=2

3 −1
= u 2 du
When evaluating definite integrals involving substi- 4 x=0
tutions it is sometimes more convenient to change
the limits of the integral as shown in Problems 10 Since u = 2x 2 + 1, when x = 2, u =9 and when
and 11. x = 0, u =1.
C3 4 B B
Problem 10. Evaluate 1 5x (2x 2 + 7) d x, 3 x=2 −1 3 u=9 −1
taking positive values of square roots only. Thus u 2 du = u 2 du,
4 x=0 4 u=1
du du i.e. the limits have been changed

Let u =2x 2 + 7, then = 4x and dx =
dx 4x
It is possible in this case to change the limits of inte-  9
1
gration. Thus when x = 3, u =2(3)2 + 7 =25 and when 3 u2  3 :√ √ ;
x = 1, u = 2(1)2 + 7 = 9. =  1  = 9 − 1 = 3,
4 2
Hence 2 1
B B taking positive values of square roots only.

x=3 4 u=25 √ du
5x (2x 2 + 7) dx = 5x u
x=1 u=9 4x
B 25 √
5
= u du
4 9 Exercise 154 Further problems on
integration using algebraic substitutions
B 25
5 1
= u 2 du
4 9 variable.
$ %
1
Thus the limits have been changed, and it is unnecessary 1. 2x(2x 2 − 3)5 (2x 2 − 3)6 + c
12
to change the integral back in terms of x.
 3 25 $ %
B 5
x=3 4 5 u2  2. 5 cos5 t sint − cos6 t + c
Thus 5x (2x 2 + 7) dx =  6
x=1 4 3/2
9
3. 3 sec2 3x tan 3x
5 :4 3 ;25 5 :√ 3 √ 3 ; $
1 1 2
%
= u = 25 − 9 2
sec 3x + c or tan 3x + c
6 9 6 2 2
5 2 $ 4 %
= (125 − 27) = 81 4 2
6 3 4. 2t (3t 2 − 1) 2 3
(3t − 1) + c
9
B 2 3x $ %
Problem 11. Evaluate 4 dx, lnθ 1
0 (2x 2 + 1) 5. (ln θ)2 + c
taking positive values of square roots only. θ 2
$ %
3
6. 3 tan2t ln(sec 2t ) + c Solve the equation by determining the integral.
2 : D4 E;
V = 2πσ (92 + r 2 ) − r
2et , √ /
7. √ t 4 (et + 4) + c
(e + 4) 12. In the study of a rigid rotor the following
integration occurs:
In Problems 8 to 10, evaluate the definite integrals B ∞ −J (J +1) h 2
Zr = (2J + 1)e 8π 2 I k T dJ
B 1
0
2 −1)
8. 3x e(2x dx [1.763] Determine Z r for constant temperature T
0
assuming h, I and k are constants.
$ 2 %
B π 8π I kT
2
9. 3 sin4 θ cos θ dθ [0.6000] h2
0
13. In electrostatics,
B 1 3x  
10. dx [0.09259] B π 
0 (4x − 1)5
2
a2 σ sin θ
E= @- dθ
. 
0  2ε a2 − x 2 − 2ax cos θ
11. The electrostatic potential on all parts of a
conducting circular disc of radius r is given
by the equation: where a, σ and ε are constants, x is greater
B 9 than a, and x is independent of θ. Show that
R a2 σ
V = 2πσ √ dR E=
0 R 2 + r2 εx
Revision Test 11
B 4 B
5
2 theorem of Pappus to determine the volume of
1. Determine: (a) 3 t dt (b) √ dx
3 2
x material removed, in cm3 , correct to 3 significant
B figures. (8)
(c) (2 + θ)2 dθ (9)
2. Evaluate the following integrals, each correct to

4 significant figures:
B π B 2" #
3 2 1 3
(a) 3 sin2t dt (b) + + dx 400 mm
0 1 x2 x 4
B 1
3
(c) 2t
dt (15) 50 mm
0 e
3. Calculate the area between the curve 200 mm
y = x 3 − x 2 − 6x and the x-axis. (10)
4. A voltage v = 25 sin50πt volts is applied across
an electrical circuit. Determine, using integration,
its mean and r.m.s. values over the range t = 0 to
t = 20 ms, each correct to 4 significant figures.
(12) Figure RT11.1
5. Sketch on the same axes the curves x 2 = 2y and

y 2 = 16x and determine the co-ordinates of the 8. A circular door is hinged so that it turns about
points of intersection. Determine (a) the area a tangent. If its diameter is 1.0 m find its second
enclosed by the curves, and (b) the volume of the moment of area and radius of gyration about the
solid produced if the area is rotated one revolution hinge. (5)
about the x-axis. (13) 9. Determine the following integrals:
B B
6. Calculate the position of the centroid of the 7 3 ln x
sheet of metal formed by the x-axis and the part of (a) 5(6t + 5) dt (b) dx
x
the curve y = 5x − x 2 which lies above the x-axis. B
2
(9) (c) √ dθ (9)
(2θ − 1)
7. A cylindrical pillar of diameter 400 mm has a
groove cut around its circumference as shown in 10. Evaluate the following definite integrals:
Fig. RT11.1. The section of the groove is a semi- B π 5 B 1
2 π6 2
circle of diameter 50 mm. Given that the centroid (a) 2 sin 2t + dt (b) 3x e4x −3 dx
4r 0 3 0
of a semicircle from its base is , use the (10)
3π
Chapter 40
Integration using
trigonometric and
hyperbolic substitutions
 5π 6
sin 8 $ %
40.1 Introduction π 4  − 0 + sin0
= + 
4 8 8
Table 40.1 gives a summary of the integrals that require
the use of trigonometric and hyperbolic substitutions π
and their application is demonstrated in Problems 1 = or 0.7854
4
to 27. C
Problem 2. Determine sin 2 3x dx.
40.2 Worked problems on integration Since cos 2x = 1 − 2 sin 2 x (from Chapter 17),
of sin2 x, cos2 x, tan2 x and cot2 x 1
then sin 2 x = (1 − cos 2x) and
2
B π 2 1
4 sin 3x = (1 − cos 6x)
Problem 1. Evaluate 2 cos 2 4t dt. 2
B B
0 2 1
Hence sin 3x dx = (1 − cos 6x) dx
2
Since cos 2t = 2 cos 2 t − 1 (from Chapter 17), " #
1 sin 6x
= x− +c
1 2 6
then cos 2 t = (1 + cos 2t ) and
2 C
1 Problem 3. Find 3 tan 2 4x dx.
cos 2 4t = (1 + cos 8t )
2
B π Since 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x, then tan2 x = sec2 x − 1 and
Hence
4
2 cos 2 4t dt tan2 4x = sec2 4x − 1.
0 B B
B π
4 1 Hence 3 tan2 4x dx = 3 (sec 2 4x − 1) dx
=2 (1 + cos 8t ) dt
0 2 " #
$ %π tan 4x
sin 8t 4 =3 −x +c
= t+ 4
8 0
Integration using trigonometric and hyperbolic substitutions 399
Table 40.1 Integrals using trigonometric and hyperbolic substitutions

C
f (x) f (x)dx Method See problem
" #
1 sin 2x
1. cos 2 x x+ +c Use cos 2x = 2 cos 2 x − 1 1
2 2
" #
2 1 sin 2x
2. sin x x− +c Use cos 2x = 1 − 2 sin 2 x 2
2 2
3. tan2 x tan x − x + c Use 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x 3

4. cot 2 x − cot x − x + c Use cot 2 x + 1 = cosec2 x 4
5. cos m x sin n x (a) If either m or n is odd (but not both), use
cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1 5, 6
(b) If both m and n are even, use either
cos 2x = 2 cos 2 x − 1 or cos 2x = 1 − 2 sin 2 x 7, 8
6. sin A cos B Use 12 [ sin(A + B) + sin(A − B)] 9
1
7. cos A sin B Use 2 [ sin(A + B) − sin(A − B)] 10
1
8. cos A cos B Use 2 [ cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)] 11
9. sin A sin B Use − 12 [ cos(A + B) − cos(A − B)] 12
1 x
10. 4 sin−1 +c Use x = a sin θ substitution 13, 14
(a 2 − x 2 ) a
4 a 2 −1 x x 4 2
11. (a 2 − x 2 ) sin + (a − x 2 ) + c Use x = a sin θ substitution 15, 16
2 a 2
1 1 −1 x
12. tan +c Use x = a tan θ substitution 17–19
a2 + x 2 a a
1 x
13. 4 sinh−1 +c Use x = a sinh θ substitution 20–22
(x 2 + a 2 ) a
< 4 =
x + (x 2 + a 2 )
or ln +c
a
4 a2 x x4 2
14. (x 2 + a 2 ) sinh−1 + (x + a 2 ) + c Use x = a sinh θ substitution 23
2 a 2
1 x
15. 4 cosh−1 +c Use x = a cosh θ substitution 24, 25
(x − a 2 )
2 a
< 4 =
x + (x 2 − a 2 )
or ln +c
a
4 x4 2 a2 x
16. (x 2 − a 2 ) (x − a 2 ) − cosh−1 + c Use x = a cosh θ substitution 26, 27
2 2 a
B π
3 1 2 40.3 Worked problems on powers of
Problem 4. Evaluate cot 2θ dθ.
π 2 sines and cosines
6
C
Since cot 2 θ +1 = cosec2 θ, then cot 2 θ = cosec2 θ−1 Problem 5. Determine sin 5 θ dθ.
and cot 2 2θ = cosec 2 2θ − 1.
B π Since cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1 then sin 2 θ = (1 − cos 2 θ).
3 1 B
Hence π cot 2 2θ dθ
2 Hence sin 5 θ dθ
6
B π $ %π B B
1 3 1 −cot 2θ 3
= 2
(cosec 2θ − 1) dθ = −θ = sin θ(sin θ) dθ = sin θ(1 − cos 2 θ)2 dθ
2 2
2 π 2 2 π

6 5π 6   5π 6 6 B
−cot 2 −cot 2 = sin θ(1 − 2 cos 2 θ + cos 4 θ) dθ
1  3 − π− 6 − π
=     B
2 2 3 2 6
= (sin θ − 2 sin θ cos 2 θ + sin θ cos 4 θ) dθ
1 2 cos3 θ cos5 θ
= [(0.2887 − 1.0472) − (−0.2887 − 0.5236)] = −cos θ + − +c
2 3 5
= 0.0269
Whenever a power of a cosine is multiplied by a sine of
power 1, or vice-versa, the integral may be determined
by inspection as shown.
Now try the following exercise B
−cos n+1 θ
In general, cos n θ sinθ dθ = +c
(n + 1)
Exercise 155 Further problems on B
sin n+1 θ
integration of sin2 x, cos2 x, tan2 x and cot2 x and sin n θ cos θ dθ = +c
(n + 1)
variable. B π
$ " # % 2
1 sin 4x Problem 6. Evaluate sin 2 x cos 3 x dx.
2
1. sin 2x x− +c 0
2 4
$ " # % B π B π
3 sin 2t 2 2
2. 3 cos 2 t t+ +c sin 2 x cos 3 x dx = sin 2 x cos 2 x cos x dx
2 2 0 0
$ " # % B π
1 2
2
3. 5 tan 3θ 5 tan 3θ − θ + c = (sin 2 x)(1 − sin 2 x)(cos x) dx
3 0
B π
4. 2 cot 2 2t [−(cot 2t + 2t ) + c] =
2
(sin 2 x cos x − sin 4 x cos x) dx
0
In Problems 5 to 8, evaluate the definite integrals, 2 3π
correct to 4 significant figures. sin 3 x sin 5 x 2
= −
B π :π ; 3 5
3 0
5. 3 sin 2 3x dx or 1.571 5
0 2
6
π 3 5 π 65 
sin sin
B π :π ;  2 − 2  − [0 − 0]
4 = 
6. cos 2 4x dx or 0.3927 3 5
0 8
B 1 1 1 2
= − = or 0.1333
7. 2 tan2 2t dt [−4.185] 3 5 15
0
B π B π
3 4
8. 2
cot θ dθ [0.6311] Problem 7. Evaluate 4 cos 4 θ dθ, correct to 4
π 0
6 significant figures.
B π B π
4 4 4
4 cos θ dθ = 4 (cos 2 θ)2 dθ
0 0
B π $ %2 Exercise 156 Further problems on
4 1
=4 (1 + cos 2θ) dθ integration of powers of sines and cosines
0 2
B π In Problems 1 to 6, integrate with respect to the
4 2 variable.
= (1 + 2 cos 2θ + cos 2θ) dθ
$ %
0
3 cos 3 θ
$
B π % 1. sin θ (a)−cos θ + +c
4 1 3
= 1 + 2 cos 2θ + (1 + cos 4θ) dθ
0 2 $ %
sin 3 2x
B π" # 2. 2 cos 3 2x sin 2x − +c
4 3 1 3
= + 2 cos 2θ + cos 4θ dθ
0 2 2
3. 2 sin 3 t cos 2 t $ %
$ %π −2 2
3θ sin 4θ 4 cos 3 t + cos 5 t + c
= + sin 2θ + 3 5
2 8 0
$ 5 6 % 2 3
3 π 2π sin 4(π/4) − cos 5 x cos 7 x
= + sin + − [0] 4. sin 3 x cos 4 x + +c
2 4 4 8 5 7
3π
= + 1 = 2.178, 5. 2 sin 4 2θ $ %
8 3θ 1 1
correct to 4 significant figures. − sin 4θ + sin 8θ + c
4 4 32
$ %
C t 1
Problem 8. Find sin 2 t cos 4 t dt. 6. sin 2 t cos 2 t − sin 4t + c
8 32
B B
sin 2 t cos 4 t dt = sin 2 t (cos 2 t )2 dt
B "
1 − cos 2t
#"
1 + cos 2t
#2 40.4 Worked problems on integration
= dt of products of sines and cosines
2 2
B C
1
= (1 − cos 2t )(1 + 2 cos 2t + cos 2 2t ) dt Problem 9. Determine sin 3t cos 2t dt.
8
B B
1
= (1 + 2 cos 2t + cos 2 2t − cos 2t sin 3t cos 2t dt
8
− 2 cos 2 2t − cos 3 2t ) dt B
B 1
1 = [sin (3t + 2t ) + sin (3t − 2t )] dt,
= (1 + cos 2t − cos 2 2t − cos 3 2t ) dt 2
8
B $ " #
from 6 of Table 40.1, which follows from Section 17.4,
1 1 + cos 4t
= 1 + cos 2t − page 170,
8 2 %
2
− cos 2t (1 − sin 2t ) dt B
1
= (sin 5t + sin t ) dt
B " # 2
11 cos 4t " #
= − + cos 2t sin 2 2t dt 1 −cos 5t
82 2 = − cos t + c
0 1 2 5
1 t sin 4t sin3 2t
= − + +c B
8 2 8 6 1
Problem 10. Find cos 5x sin2x dx.
3
B
cos 5x sin 2x dx
3 B
1 1
= [sin (5x + 2x) − sin (5x − 2x)] dx, Exercise 157 Further problems on
3 2
from 7 of Table 40.1 integration of products of sines and cosines
B In Problems 1 to 4, integrate with respect to the
1
= (sin 7x − sin 3x) dx variable.
6 $ " # %
" # 1 cos 7t cos 3t
1 −cos 7x cos 3x 1. sin 5t cos 2t − + +c
= + +c 2 7 3
6 7 3
$ %
sin2x sin 4x
B 2. 2 sin3x sin x − +c
1 2 4
Problem 11. Evaluate 2 cos 6θ cos θ dθ,
0 3. 3 cos 6x cos x $ " # %
correct to 4 decimal places. 3 sin 7x sin 5x
+ +c
2 7 5
B 1
1
2 cos 6θ cos θ dθ 4. cos 4θ sin 2θ
0 2
B 1 $ " # %
1 1 cos 2θ cos 6θ
=2 [ cos (6θ + θ) + cos (6θ − θ)] dθ, − +c
0 2 4 2 6
from 8 of Table 40.1
In Problems 5 to 8, evaluate the definite integrals.
B 1 $ %
sin 7θ sin 5θ 1 B π $ %
= (cos 7θ + cos 5θ) dθ = + 2 3
0 7 5 0 5. cos 4x cos 3x dx (a) or 0.4286
" # " # 0 7
sin 7 sin 5 sin 0 sin 0 B 1
= + − +
7 5 7 5 6. 2 sin7t cos 3t dt [0.5973]
0
‘sin 7’ means ‘the sine of 7 radians’ (≡401◦4" ) and
B π
sin 5 ≡286◦29" . 3
B 1 7. −4 sin 5θ sin2θ dθ [0.2474]
0
Hence 2 cos 6θ cos θ dθ B
0 2
8. 3 cos 8t sin 3t dt [−0.1999]
= (0.09386 + (−0.19178)) − (0) 1
= −0.0979, correct to 4 decimal places.

B
40.5 Worked problems on integration
Problem 12. Find 3 sin 5x sin 3x dx.
using the sin θ substitution
B B
3 sin5x sin 3x dx 1
Problem 13. Determine 4 dx.
B (a − x 2 )
2
1
= 3 − [ cos (5x + 3x) − cos (5x − 3x)] dx,
2 dx
from 9 of Table 40.1 Let x = a sin θ, then = a cos θ and dx = a cos θ dθ.
B B dθ
3 1
=− ( cos 8x − cos 2x) dx Hence 4 dx
2 (a − x 2 )
2
" # B
3 sin 8 sin 2x 1
=− − + c or = 4 a cos θ dθ
2 8 2 (a − a 2 sin 2 θ)
2
3 B
(4 sin 2x −sin 8x) + c a cos θ dθ
16 = 4
[a 2(1 − sin 2 θ)]
B x x
a cos θ dθ Since x = a sin θ, then sin θ = and θ = sin−1
= 4 , since sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1
(a 2 cos 2 θ) a a
B B Also, cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1, from which,
a cos θ dθ
= = dθ = θ + c A$
a cos θ @ 5 x 62 %
x x cos θ = (1 − sin θ) =2 1−
Since x = a sinθ, then sin θ = and θ = sin−1 . a
B a a
1 x A" # 4
Hence 4 dx = sin−1 + c a2 − x 2 (a 2 − x 2 )
(a 2 − x 2 ) a = =
a2 a
B 3 1 B 4
Problem 14. Evaluate 4 dx. a2
0 (9 − x 2 ) Thus (a 2 − x 2 ) dx = [θ + sin θ cos θ]
2
B 2 4 3
3 1 a2 5 x 6 (a 2 − x 2 )
From Problem 13, 4 dx −1 x
= sin + +c
0 (9 − x 2 ) 2 a a a
: x ;3 a2 x x4 2
= sin−1 , since a = 3 = sin−1 + (a − x2 ) + c
3 0 2 a 2
π B 44
= (sin−1 1 − sin−1 0) = or 1.5708
2 Problem 16. Evaluate (16 − x 2 ) dx.
0
B 4
Problem 15. Find (a 2 − x 2 ) dx. B 44
From Problem 15, (16 − x 2 ) dx
0
dx $ %4
Let x = a sinθ then = a cos θ and dx = a cos θ dθ. 16 x x4
dθ = sin−1 + (16 − x 2 )
B 4 2 4 2 0
Hence (a 2 − x 2 ) dx : 4 ;
−1 −1
= 8 sin 1 + 2 (0) − [8 sin 0 + 0]
B @
5π 6
= (a 2 − a 2 sin 2 θ) (a cos θ dθ) = 8 sin−11 = 8 = 4π or 12.57
B @ 2
= [a 2 (1 − sin 2 θ)] (a cos θ dθ)
B 4 Now try the following exercise
= (a 2 cos 2 θ) (a cos θ dθ)
B
= (a cos θ)(a cos θ dθ) integration using the sine θ substitution
B B " # B
1 + cos 2θ 5
= a2 2
cos θ dθ = a 2
dθ 1. Determine 4 dt .
2 (4 − t 2) : ;
x
(since cos 2θ = 2 cos 2 θ − 1) 5 sin−1 + c
2
" # B
a2 sin2θ 3
= θ+ +c 2. Determine 4 dx.
2 2 (9 − x 2 ) : ;
" # x
a2 2 sin θ cos θ 3 sin−1 + c
= θ+ +c 3
2 2 B 4
since from Chapter 17, sin 2θ = 2 sinθ cos θ 3. Determine (4 − x 2 ) dx.
: x x4 ;
a2 2 sin−1 + (4 − x 2 ) + c
= [θ + sin θ cos θ] + c 2 2
2
B 4 B 1
5
4. Determine (16 − 9t 2) dt . Problem 19. Evaluate dx, correct
0 (3 + 2x 2 )
$ % to 4 decimal places.
8 3t t 4
sin−1 + (16 − 9t 2 ) + c B B 1
3 4 2 1
5 5
B 4 :π ; dx = dx
1 0 (3 + 2x 2 ) 0 2[(3/2) + x2]
5. Evaluate 4 dx. or 1.571
(16 − x 2 ) 2 B
0 5 1 1
B 14 = √ dx
2 0 [ (3/2)]2 + x 2
6. Evaluate (9 − 4x 2 ) dx. [2.760]
0 $ %1
5 1 −1 x
= √ tan √
2 (3/2) (3/2) 0
A" # 2 A" # 3
40.6 Worked problems on integration 5 2 −1 2 −1
= tan − tan 0
using tan θ substitution 2 3 3
B = (2.0412)[0.6847 − 0]
1
Problem 17. Determine dx. = 1.3976, correct to 4 decimal places.
(a + x 2 )
2
dx
Let x = a tan θ then = a sec 2 θ and dx = a sec2 θ dθ. Now try the following exercise
dθ
B
1
Hence dx
(a 2 + x 2 ) Exercise 159 Further problems on
B
1 integration using the tan θ substitution
= (a sec2 θ dθ) B $ %
(a + a 2 tan2 θ)
2
3 3
B 1. Determine dt . tan −1 t + c
a sec2 θ dθ 4 + t2 2 2
=
a (1 + tan2 θ)
2
B
B 5
a sec 2 θ dθ 2. Determine dθ.
= , since 1+tan2 θ = sec 2 θ 16 + 9θ 2
a 2 sec2 θ $ %
B 5 3θ
1 1 tan−1 +c
= dθ = (θ) + c 12 4
a a
x B 1
Since x = a tan θ, θ = tan−1 3
a 3. Evaluate dt . [2.356]
B 0 1 + t2
1 1 x B
Hence dx = tan−1 + c 3
5
(a2 + x2 ) a a 4. Evaluate dx. [2.457]
0 4 + x2
B 2 1
Problem 18. Evaluate dx.
0 (4 + x 2 )
B 2
1 40.7 Worked problems on integration
From Problem 17, dx
2
0 (4 + x ) using the sinh θ substitution
1 : −1 x ;2
= tan since a = 2 B
2 2 0 1
1 1 5π 6 Problem 20. Determine 4 dx.
= (tan−1 1 −tan−1 0) = −0 (x + a 2 )
2
2 2 4
π dx
= or 0.3927 Let x = a sinh θ, then = a cosh θ and
8 dθ
dx = a cosh θ dθ
B
1 Since the integral contains a term of the form
Hence 4 dx 4
(x 2 + a 2 ) (a + x 2 ), then let x = sinhθ, from which
2
B dx
1 = cosh θ and dx = cosh θ dθ
= 4 (a cosh θ dθ) dθ
(a sinh2 θ + a 2 )
2
B
2
B Hence 4 dx
a cosh θ dθ x (1 + x 2 )
2
= 4 ,
(a 2 cosh2 θ) B
2(cosh θ dθ)
= 4
since cosh2 θ − sinh2 θ = 1 sinh θ (1 + sinh2 θ)
2
B B
a cosh θ B
= dθ = dθ = θ + c cosh θ dθ
a cosh θ =2 ,
sinh2 θ cosh θ
x
= sinh−1 + c, since x = a sinh θ since cosh2 θ − sinh2 θ = 1
a B B
It is shown on page 339 that dθ
=2 = 2 cosech 2 θ dθ
< = sinh2 θ
4
−1 x x + (x 2 + a 2 )
sinh = ln , = −2 coth θ + c
a a 4 4
cosh θ (1 + sinh2 θ) (1 + x 2 )
coth θ = = =
which provides an alternative solution to sinh θ sinhθ x
B 2
B 2
1 Hence 4 dx
4 dx 1 x 2 1 + x2)
(x 2 + a 2 ) 24 32
2 (1 + x 2 )
= −[2 cothθ]1 = −2
B 2 x
1 2√ √ 3 1
Problem 21. Evaluate 4 dx, correct 5 2
0 (x 2 + 4) = −2 − = 0.592,
to 4 decimal places. 2 1
correct to 3 significant figures
B :
2 1 x ;2 B 4
4 dx = sinh−1 or
0 (x 2 + 4) 2 0 Problem 23. Find (x 2 + a 2 ) dx.
2 < 4 =32
x + (x 2 + 4)
ln dx
2 Let x = a sinh θ then = a cosh θ and
0 dθ
dx = a cosh θ dθ
from Problem 20, where a = 2 B 4
Hence (x 2 + a 2 ) dx
Using the logarithmic form,
B 2 B @
1
4 dx = (a 2 sinh2 θ + a 2 )(a cosh θ dθ)
0 (x 2 + 4) B @
2 0 √ 1 0 √ 13
2+ 8 0+ 4 = [a 2(sinh2 θ + 1)](a cosh θ dθ)
= ln − ln B @
2 2
= (a 2 cosh2 θ) (a cosh θ dθ),
= ln2.4142 − ln 1 = 0.8814, since cosh2 θ − sinh2 θ = 1
correct to 4 decimal places. B B
B 2
= (a cosh θ)(a cosh θ) dθ = a 2 cosh2 θ dθ
2
Problem 22. Evaluate 4 dx, B " #
1 x 2 (1 + x 2 ) 1 + cosh 2θ
correct to 3 significant figures. = a2 dθ
2
" #
a2 sinh2θ B
= θ+ +c 3 4
2 2 5. Evaluate 4 dt . [3.525]
a2 0 (t 2 + 9)
= [θ + sinh θ cosh θ] + c,
2 B 14
since sinh 2θ = 2 sinh θ cosh θ 6. Evaluate (16 + 9θ 2 ) dθ. [4.348]
0
x x
Since x = a sinh θ, then sinh θ = and θ = sinh−1
a a
Also since cosh2 θ − sinh2 θ = 1
4 40.8 Worked problems on integration
then cosh θ = (1 + sinh2 θ) using the cosh θ substitution
A$ A"
5 x 62 % a2 + x 2
#
B
= 1+ = 1
a a2 Problem 24. Determine 4 dx.
4 (x − a 2 )
2
(a 2 + x 2 )
= dx
a Let x = a cosh θ then = a sinh θ and
B 4 dθ
Hence (x 2 + a 2 ) dx dx = a sinh θ dθ
B
1
2 4 3 Hence 4 dx
a2 −1 x 5 x 6 (x 2 + a 2 ) (x 2 − a 2 )
= sinh + +c B
2 a a a 1
= 4 (a sinh θ dθ)
a2 x x4 2 (a cosh2 θ − a 2 )
2
= sinh−1 + (x + a2) + c B
2 a 2 a sinhθ dθ
= 4
[a 2 (cosh2 θ − 1)]
B
Now try the following exercise a sinh θ dθ
= 4 ,
(a 2 sinh2 θ)
Exercise 160 Further problems on since cosh2 θ − sinh2 θ = 1
integration using the sinh θ substitution B B
B : ; a sinhθ dθ
2 x = = dθ = θ + c
1. Find 4 dx. 2 sinh−1 + c a sinh θ
(x 2 + 16) 4
x
B = cosh−1 + c, since x = a cosh θ
3 a
2. Find 4 dx.
(9 + 5x 2 ) 2 It is shown on page 339 that
√ 3
3 5 < 4 =
√ sinh−1 x +c
5 3 x x + (x2 − a2 )
cosh−1 = ln
a a
B 4
3. Find (x 2 + 9) dx.
$ % which provides as alternative solution to
9 x x4 2
sinh−1 + (x + 9) + c B
2 3 2 1
4 dx
B 4 (x − a 2 )
2
4. Find (4t 2 + 25) dt .
$ % B
25 2t t4 2 2x − 3
sinh−1 + (4t + 25) + c Problem 25. Determine 4 dx.
4 5 2 (x 2 − 9)
B B @
2x − 3 2x
4 dx = 4 dx sinh θ = (cosh 2 θ − 1)
(x 2 − 9) (x 2 − 9)
B A$ % 4 2
3 5 x 62 (x − a 2 )
− 4 dx
2
(x − 9) = −1 =
a a
The first integral is determined using the algebraic sub- B 4
2
stitution
B u =(x − 9), and the second integral is of the Hence (x 2 − a 2 ) dx
1
form 4 dx (see Problem 24) 24 3
(x 2 − a 2 ) a2 (x 2 − a 2 ) 5 x 6 x
B B = − cosh−1 +c
2x 3 2 a a a
Hence 4 dx − 4 dx
2 2
(x − 9) (x − 9) x4 2 a2 x
= (x − a2 ) − cosh−1 + c
4 x 2 2 a
= 2 (x2 − 9)− 3 cosh−1 + c
3 B 34
B 4 Problem 27. Evaluate (x 2 − 4) dx.
2
Problem 26. (x 2 − a 2 ) dx.
B 34 $ 4 %
x 4 x 3
dx (x 2 − 4) dx = (x 2 − 4) − cosh−1
Let x = a cosh θ then = a sinh θ and 2 2 2 2 2
dθ
dx = a sinhθ dθ from Problem 26, when a = 2,
B 4 " #
3√ 3
Hence (x 2 − a 2 ) dx = 5 − 2 cosh−1
5 2
B @ − (0 − 2 cosh−1 1)
= (a 2 cosh2 θ − a 2 ) (a sinh θ dθ) < 4 =
−1 x x + (x 2 − a 2 )
B @ Since cosh = ln then
a a
= [a 2 (cosh2 θ − 1)] (a sinh θ dθ)
< 4 =
B @ −1 3 3 + (32 − 22 )
cosh = ln
= (a 2 sinh2 θ) (a sinh θ dθ) 2 2
B B " # = ln 2.6180 = 0.9624

cosh 2θ − 1
= a2 sinh2 θ dθ = a 2 dθ Similarly, cosh−11 = 0
2
B 34
since cosh 2θ = 1 + 2 sinh2 θ Hence (x 2 − 4) dx
2
from Table 5.1, page 45, $ %
3√
$ % = 5 − 2(0.9624) − [0]
a 2 sinh 2θ 2
= −θ +c
2 2 = 1.429, correct to 4 significant figures.
a2
= [sinh θ cosh θ − θ] + c,
since sinh2θ = 2 sinh θ cosh θ
x Exercise 161 Further problems on
Since x = a cosh θ then cosh θ = and integration using the cosh θ substitution
a
x B : ;
θ = cosh−1 1 x
a 1. Find 4 dt . cosh−1 + c
(t 2 − 16) 4
Also, since cosh2 θ − sinh2 θ = 1, then
B $ % B 2
3 3 2x 2
2. Find 4 dx. cosh−1 +c 5. Evaluate 4 dx. [2.634]
(4x 2 − 9) 2 3 1 (x 2 − 1)
B 4
B 34
3. Find (θ 2 − 9) dθ.
$ % 6. Evaluate (t 2 − 4) dt . [1.429]
θ4 2 9 −1 θ 2
(θ − 9) − cosh +c
2 2 3
B 4
4. Find (4θ 2 − 25) dθ.
2 A" # 3
2
25 25 −1 2θ
θ θ − − cosh +c
4 4 5
Chapter 41
Integration using
partial fractions
(by algebraic substitutions — see Chapter 39)
41.1 Introduction < =
(x −1)2
The process of expressing a fraction in terms of simpler or ln + c by the laws of logarithms
(x +3)5
fractions—called partial fractions—is discussed in
Chapter 2, with the forms of partial fractions used being
summarized in Table 2.1, page 13. Problem 2. Find
Certain functions have to be resolved into partial frac- B
2x 2 − 9x − 35
tions before they can be integrated as demonstrated in dx.
the following worked problems. (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
It was shown in Problem 2, page 14:

41.2 Worked problems on
integration using partial 2x 2 − 9x − 35 4 3 1
fractions with linear factors ≡ − +
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3) (x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 3)
B B
11 −3x 2x 2 − 9x − 35
Problem 1. Determine dx. Hence dx
x 2 + 2x − 3 (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
B !
As shown in Problem 1, page 13: 4 3 1
≡ − + dx
(x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 3)
11 − 3x 2 5
≡ − = 4 ln(x+ 1)− 3 ln(x− 2) + ln(x+ 3)+ c
x 2 + 2x − 3 (x − 1) (x + 3)
B < =
11 − 3x (x + 1)4 (x + 3)
Hence dx or ln +c
x2 + 2x − 3 (x −2)3
B !
2 5
= − dx B
(x − 1) (x + 3) x2 + 1
Problem 3. Determine dx.
x 2 − 3x + 2
= 2 ln(x −1)− 5 ln(x + 3)+ c
By dividing out (since the numerator and denomina- Now try the following exercise
tor are of the same degree) and resolving into partial
fractions it was shown in Problem 3, page 14:
x2 + 1 2 5 integration using partial fractions with
≡ 1− + linear factors
x 2 − 3x + 2 (x − 1) (x − 2)
B In Problems 1 to 5, integrate with respect to x.
x2 + 1 B
Hence dx 12
x 2 − 3x + 2 1. dx
(x 2 − 9)
B !  
2 5 2 ln(x − 3) − 2 ln(x + 3) + c
≡ 1− + dx  ! 
(x − 1) (x − 2)  x −3 2 
or ln +c
x +3
= (x −2) ln(x − 1)+ 5 ln(x −2) + c
B
4(x − 4)
< = 2. dx
5
(x −2) (x 2 − 2x − 3)
or x + ln +c  
(x −1)2 5 ln(x + 1) − ln(x − 3) + c
 < = 
 5 
 or ln (x + 1) + c 
(x − 3)
Problem 4. Evaluate
B 3 3 B
x − 2x 2 − 4x − 4 3(2x 2 − 8x − 1)
dx, 3. dx
2 x2 + x − 2 (x + 4)(x + 1)(2x − 1)
correct to 4 significant figures.  
7 ln(x + 4) − 3 ln(x + 1)
 
 − ln(2x − 1) + c or 
 
By dividing out and resolving into partial fractions it  ! 
 (x + 4)7 
was shown in Problem 4, page 15: ln +c
(x + 1)3 (2x − 1)
x 3 − 2x 2 − 4x − 4 4 3
≡ x −3+ − B
2
x +x −2 (x + 2) (x − 1) x 2 + 9x + 8
4. dx
B x2 + x − 6
3 x 3 − 2x 2 − 4x − 4 2 3
Hence dx x + 2 ln(x + 3) + 6 ln(x − 2) + c
2 x2 + x − 2
or x + ln{(x + 3)2 (x − 2)6 } + c
B 3 !
4 3 B
≡ x −3+ − dx 3x 3 − 2x 2 − 16x + 20
2 (x + 2) (x − 1) 5. dx
(x − 2)(x + 2)
$ %3  2 
x2 3x
= − 3x + 4 ln(x + 2) − 3 ln(x − 1)  2 − 2x + ln(x − 2) 
2 2
−5 ln(x + 2) + c
" #
9 In Problems 6 and 7, evaluate the definite integrals
= − 9 + 4 ln5 − 3 ln2
2 correct to 4 significant figures.
− (2 − 6 + 4 ln4 − 3 ln1) B 4 x 2 − 3x + 6
6. dx [0.6275]
= −1.687, correct to 4 significant figures. 3 x(x − 2)(x − 1)
Integration usingpartial fractions 411
B B
6 x 2 − x − 14 5x 2 − 2x − 19
7. dx [0.8122] Problem 6. Find dx.
x 2 − 2x − 3 (x + 3)(x − 1)2
4

8. Determine the value of k, given that:
B $ % 5x 2 − 2x − 19 2 3 4
1 (x − k) 1 2
≡ + −
dx = 0 (x + 3)(x − 1) (x + 3) (x − 1) (x − 1)2
0 (3x + 1)(x + 1) 3
B
5x 2 − 2x − 19
Hence dx
9. The velocity constant k of a given chemical (x + 3)(x − 1)2
reaction is given by:
B !
B " # 2 3 4
1 ≡ + − dx
kt = dx (x + 3) (x − 1) (x − 1)2
(3 − 0.4x)(2 − 0.6x)
4
where x = 0 when t = 0. Show that: = 2 ln (x +3) + 3 ln (x −1)+ +c
(x − 1)
!
2(3 − 0.4x) D E
kt = ln 4
3(2 − 0.6x) or ln (x +3)2 (x −1)3 + +c
(x − 1)
Problem 7. Evaluate
B 1 2
3x + 16x + 15
41.3 Worked problems on dx,
integration using partial −2 (x + 3)3
fractions with repeated linear correct to 4 significant figures.
factors
B
2x + 3
Problem 5. Determine dx. 3x 2 + 16x + 15 3 2 6
(x − 2)2 3
≡ − 2
−
(x + 3) (x + 3) (x + 3) (x + 3)3
It was shown in Problem 5, page 16: B

3x 2 + 16x + 15
Hence dx
(x + 3)3
2x + 3 2 7
≡ +
(x − 2)2 (x − 2) (x − 2)2 B 1 !
3 2 6
B B ! ≡ − − dx
2x + 3 2 7 −2 (x + 3) (x + 3)2 (x + 3)3
Thus dx ≡ + dx
(x − 2)2 (x − 2) (x − 2)2
$ %1
2 3
7 = 3 ln(x + 3) + +
= 2 ln(x −2) − +c (x + 3) (x + 3)2 −2
(x −2)
" # " #
B  2 3 2 3
7 = 3 ln4 + + − 3 ln1 + +
dx is determined using the algebraic 4 16 1 1
 (x − 2)2 
substitution u = (x − 2) — see Chapter 39. = −0.1536, correct to 4 significant figures.

3 + 6x + 4x 2 − 2x 3
Thus dx
x 2 (x 2 + 3)
Exercise 163 Further problems on B " #
integration using partial fractions with 2 1 (3 − 4x)
≡ + 2+ 2 dx
repeated linear factors x x (x + 3)
In Problems 1 and 2, integrate with respect B !
2 1 3 4x
to x. = + + − dx
B x x 2 (x 2 + 3) (x 2 + 3)
4x − 3
1. dx B B
(x + 1)2 3 1
$ %
7 dx = 3 √ dx
4 ln(x + 1) + +c (x 2 + 3) x2 + ( 3)2
(x + 1)
3 x
B = √ tan−1 √ , from 12, Table 40.1, page 399.
5x 2 − 30x + 44 3 3
2. dx
(x − 2)3
  B
10 4x
5 ln(x − 2) + dx is determined using the algebraic substi-
 (x − 2)  x2 + 3
 
 2  tution u =(x 2 + 3).
− + c B !
(x − 2)2 2 1 3 4x
Hence + + − dx
x x 2 (x 2 + 3) (x 2 + 3)
In Problems 3 and 4, evaluate the definite integrals
correct to 4 significant figures. 1 3 x
= 2 ln x − + √ tan−1 √ − 2 ln(x 2 + 3) + c
B x 3 3
2 x 2 + 7x + 3
3. [1.663] " #2
x 2 (x + 3) x 1 √ x
1 = ln 2 − + 3 tan−1 √ + c
x +3 x 3
B 7 18 + 21x − x 2
4. dx [1.089]
6 (x − 5)(x + 2)2 B
1
Problem 9. Determine dx.
B 1" # (x 2 − a2)
4t 2 + 9t + 8
5. Show that dt = 2.546,
0 (t + 2)(t + 1)2
1 A B
correct to 4 significant figures. Let ≡ +
(x 2 − a 2 ) (x − a) (x + a)
A(x + a) + B(x − a)
≡
(x + a)(x − a)
41.4 Worked problems on
integration using partial Equating the numerators gives:
fractions with quadratic factors 1 ≡ A(x + a) + B(x − a)
1
Let x = a, then A = , and let x = −a, then
B 2a
3 + 6x + 4x 2 − 2x 3 1
Problem 8. Find dx. B =−
x 2 (x 2 + 3) 2a
B
1
It was shown in Problem 9, page 18: Hence dx
(x 2 − a 2 )
B $ %
3 + 6x + 4x 2 − 2x 3 2 1 3 − 4x 1 1 1
2 2
≡ + 2+ 2 ≡ − dx
x (x + 3) x x (x + 3) 2a (x − a) (x + a)
Integration usingpartial fractions 413
1
= [ln(x − a) − ln(x + a)] + c Problem 12. Evaluate
2a B 2
" # 5
1 x −a dx,
= ln +c (9 − x 2 )
2a x +a 0

Problem 10. Evaluate
B 4
3 From Problem 11,
dx,
3 (x 2 − 4) B $ " #%
2 5 1 3+x 2
correct to 3 significant figures. dx = 5 ln
0 (9 − x 2 ) 2(3) 3−x 0
From Problem 9, $ %
5 5
B 4 $ " #% = ln − ln1
3 1 x −2 4 6 1
2
dx = 3 ln
3 (x − 4) 2(2) x +2 3
$ % = 1.3412, correct to 4 decimal places.
3 2 1
= ln − ln
4 6 5
3 5 Now try the following exercise
= ln = 0.383, correct to 3
4 3
significant figures.
B integration using partial fractions with
1
Problem 11. Determine dx. quadratic factors
(a 2 − x 2)
B
x 2 − x − 13
1. Determine dx.
Using partial fractions, let (x 2 + 7)(x − 2)
 
2 3 −1 x
1 1 A B  ln(x + 7) + √7 tan √7 
≡ ≡ +
(a 2 − x 2 ) (a − x)(a + x) (a − x) (a + x) − ln(x − 2) + c
A(a + x) + B(a − x)
≡ In Problems 2 to 4, evaluate the definite integrals
(a − x)(a + x)
Then 1 ≡ A(a + x) + B(a − x) B 6
1 1 6x − 5
Let x = a then A = . Let x = −a then B = 2. dx [0.5880]
2a 2a 5 (x − 4)(x 2 + 3)
B B
1 2 4
Hence dx 3. dx [0.2939]
(a − x 2 )
2
(16 − x 2 )
1
B $ %
1 1 1 B
= + dx 5 2
2a (a − x) (a + x) 4. dx [0.1865]
4 (x 2 − 9)
1
= [−ln(a − x) + ln(a + x)] + c B 2" #
2a 2 +θ + 6θ 2 − 2θ 3
" # 5. Show that dθ
1 a+x 1 θ 2 (θ 2 + 1)
= ln +c
2a a−x = 1.606, correct to 4 significant figures.
Chapter 42
θ
The t = tan 2 substitution
2t
42.1 Introduction i.e. sin θ =
(1 + t2 )
(1)
B
1
Integrals of the form dθ, where θ θ
a cos θ + b sin θ + c Since cos 2x = cos2 − sin2
a, b and c are constants, may be determined by using the 2 2
θ
substitution t = tan . The reason is explained below. " #2 " #2
2 1 t
If angle A in the right-angled triangle ABC shown in = √ − √
θ 1 + t2 1 + t2
Fig. 42.1 is made equal to then, since tangent =
2
opposite θ
, if BC = t and AB = 1, then tan = t .
adjacent √ 2 1 −t 2
i.e. cos θ = (2)
By Pythagoras’ theorem, AC = 1 +t 2 1 +t 2
C θ
Also, since t = tan ,
2
" #
11t2 dt 1 θ 1 θ
t = sec = 2 1 + tan 2 from trigonometric
dθ 2 2 2 2
" identities,
A 2 B
1
dt 1
i.e. = (1 + t 2 )
Figure 42.1 dθ 2
θ t θ 1
Therefore sin =√ and cos = √ Since
2 1 +t 2 2 1 +t 2 2 dt
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x (from double angle formulae, from which, dθ = (3)
1 +t 2
Chapter 17), then
θ θ Equations (1), (2) Band (3) are used to determine
sin θ = 2 sin cos 1
2 2 integrals of the form dθ where
a cos θ + b sin θ + c
" #" # a, b or c may be zero.
t t
=2 √ √
1 + t2 1 + t2
The t = tan θ2 substitution 415
When t = −1, 2 = 2B, from which, B = 1

42.2 Worked problems on the B B
θ 2 dt 1 1
t = tan substitution Hence 2
= + dt
1−t (1 − t ) (1 + t )
2
= −ln(1 − t ) + ln(1 + t ) + c
B !
dθ (1 + t )
Problem 1. Determine = ln +c
sin θ (1 − t )
θ 2t 2 dt  
B  x
If t = tan then sin θ = and dθ = from  1 +tan 
2 1+t2 1 +t 2 dx 2 +c
equations (1) and (3). Thus = ln x
cos x 
 1 −tan  
2
B B
dθ 1 π
Thus = dθ Note that since tan = 1, the above result may be
sin θ sin θ 4
1 " written as:
B #  
2t 2 dt π x 
= B 
 tan + tan 
1 + t2 1 + t2 dx 4 2
B = ln π x +c
1 cos x  1 − tan tan 
 
= dt = lnt + c 4 2
t
B " # D 5 π x 6E
dθ θ
Hence = ln tan +c = ln tan + +c
sin θ 2 4 2
from compound angles, Chapter 17.
B
dx
Problem 2. Determine B
cos x dx
1 +cos x
x 1 − t2 2 dt
If tan then cos x = and dx = from
2 1+t 2 1 + t2 x 1 −t 2 2 dt
equations (2) and (3). If tan then cos x = 2
and dx = from
2 1 +t 1 +t 2
equations (2) and (3).
1
B B " #
dx 1 − t2 2 dt B B
Thus = dx 1
cos x 1 + t2 1 + t2 Thus = dx
B 1 + cos x 1 + cos x
2 B " #
= dt 1 2 dt
1 − t2 =
1 − t2 1 + t2
2 1+
may be resolved into partial fractions (see 1 + t2
1 − t2 B " #
Chapter 2). 1 2 dt
=
(1 + t 2 ) + (1 − t 2 ) 1 + t 2
2 2 1 +t 2
Let 2
= B
1−t (1 − t )(1 + t )
= dt
A B
= +
(1 − t ) (1 + t ) B
dx x
A(1 + t ) + B(1 − t ) Hence = t + c = tan + c
= 1 +cos x 2
(1 − t )(1 + t )
B
Hence 2 = A(1 + t ) + B(1 − t ) dθ
5 +4 cos θ
When t = 1, 2 = 2A, from which, A = 1
θ 1 −t 2 2 dt
If t = tan then cos θ = and dx = 42.3 Further worked problems on the
2 1 +t 2 1+t2
from equations (2) and (3).
" #
θ
2 dt t =tan substitution
B B 2
dθ 1 + t2
Thus = " #
5 + 4 cosθ 1 − t2 B
5+4 dx
1 + t2 Problem 5. Determine
" # sin x + cos x
2 dt
B
1 + t2 x 2t 1 − t2
= If tan then sin x = , cos x = and
5(1 + t ) + 4(1 − t 2 )
2
2 1 + t2 1 + t2
(1 + t 2) 2 dt
B B dx = from equations (1), (2) and (3).
dt dt 1 + t2
=2 2
= 2 Thus
t +9 t + 32
2
" # 2 dt
1 −1 t B B
=2 tan + c, dx 1 + t2
3 3 = " # " #
sin x + cos x 2t 1 − t2
from 12 of Table 40.1, page 399. Hence +
1 + t2 1 + t2
B " # 2 dt
dθ 2 −1 1 θ B B
= tan tan +c 1 + t2 = 2 dt
5 +4 cos θ 3 3 2 =
2t + 1 − t 2 1 + 2t − t 2
1 + t2
Now try the following exercise B B
−2 dt −2 dt
= =
t 2 − 2t − 1 (t − 1)2 − 2
B
Exercise 165 Further problems on the 2 dt
θ = √
t =tan substitution ( 2) − (t − 1)2
2
2 2 <√ =3
Integrate the following with respect to the variable: 1 2 + (t − 1)
  = 2 √ ln √ +c
2 2 2 − (t − 1)
B
dθ  −2 
1.  + c (see Problem 11, Chapter 41, page 413),
1 + sin θ θ
1 + tan B
2 dx
B i.e.
dx sin x + cos x
2. √ 
1 − cos x + sin x  x
  x 
   2 − 1 +tan 
 1 2 +c
 tan  = √ ln √ x
 2  2   2 + 1 −tan  
ln x  + c

 1 + tan  2
2
B Problem
B 6. Determine
dα dx
3.
3 + 2 cosα 7 − 3 sin x + 6 cos x
$ " # %
2 1 α
√ tan−1 √ tan +c
5 5 2 From equations (1) and (3),
B B
dx
4. dx
3 sin x − 4 cos x 7 − 3 sin x + 6 cos x
   
 x 
 2 tan − 1  2 dt
1 2  B
 ln x + c 1 + t2
5  tan + 2   = " # " #
2 2t 1 − t2
7−3 +6
1 + t2 1 + t2
The t = tan θ2 substitution 417
  " # 
2 dt  5 3 
 + t−
 
B
1 + t2 1 1 4 4  +c
= =  " # ln " # 
7(1 + t ) − 3(2t ) + 6(1 − t 2 )
2 2 5 
 5 3  
2  − t− 
1 + t2 4 4 4
B from Problem 11, Chapter 41, page 413
2 dt
=  
7 + 7t 2 − 6t + 6 − 6t 2  1 
1  + t 
B B 2
2 dt 2 dt = ln +c
= = 5   2−t  
2
t − 6t + 13 (t − 3)2 + 22
$ " #% B
dθ
1 −1 t − 3 Hence
=2 tan +c 4 cos θ + 3 sinθ
2 2
 
 1 θ
1  + tan 
from 12, Table 40.1, page 399. Hence = ln 2 2 +c
5   2 − tan θ 
B 2
dx  
 θ
7 − 3 sin x + 6 cos x 1  1 +2 tan 
  or ln 2 +c
x
tan − 3 5   4 − 2 tan θ  
 2 
= tan−1  +c 2
2
B
dθ
4 cosθ + 3 sin θ Exercise 166 Further problems on the
θ
t = tan substitution
From equations (1) to (3), 2
B
dθ variable.
B
4 cos θ + 3 sin θ dθ
1.
5 + 4 sinθ
2 dt    
B θ
1 + t2 5 tan + 4
= " # " #  2 −1  2  
1 − t2 2t  tan   + c
4 + 3 3 3
1 + t2 1 + t2
B B B
2 dt dt dx
= = 2.
2
4 − 4t + 6t 2 + 3t − 2t 2 1 + 2 sin x
  √  
B  x 
1 dt  tan + 2 − 3 
 1 2 
=−  √ ln x √  + c
2 3 
3  tan + 2 + 3 
t2 − t − 1
2 2
B B
1 dt dp
=− " # 3.
2 3 2 25 3 − 4 sin p +2 cos p
t− −
4 16   √  
 p 
B  tan − 4 − 11 
1 dt  1 2 
= " #2 " #  √ ln p √ + c
2 5 3 2 11  tan − 4 + 11  
− t− 2
4 4
B
dθ B π/3
4. 3 dθ
3 − 4 sin θ 6. Show that = 3.95, correct to 3
 cos θ
 θ √   0

 3 tan − 4 − 7 
 significant figures.
 1 2 
 √ ln θ √ + c

7  3 tan − 4 + 7  
7. Show that
2
B π/2
5. Show that √  dθ π
B  t = √ .
dt 1  2+ tan  0 2 + cos θ 3 3
= √ ln √ 2 + c.
1 + 3 cost 2 2   2− tan t  
2
Revision Test 12
1. Determine the following integrals: 3. Determine:

B B B
2 x − 11
3 2
(a) cos x sin x dx (b) 4 dx (a) 2
dx
(9 − 4x 2 ) x −x −2
B
B 3−x
2 (b) dx (21)
(c) 4 dx (14) (x 2 + 3)(x + 3)
(4x 2 − 9) B 2
3
4. Evaluate 2
dx correct to 4 significant
2. Evaluate the following definite integrals, correct to 1 x (x + 2)
4 significant figures: figures. (12)
B
B π B π dx
2
2
3 5. Determine: (8)
(a) 3 sin t dt (b) 3 cos5θ sin 3θ dθ 2 sin x + cos x
0 0 B π
B 2 dx
2
5 6. Evaluate correct to 3 decimal
(c) dx (15) π
3
3 − 2 sin x
0 4 + x2 places. (10)
Chapter 43
Integration by parts
43.1 Introduction 43.2 Worked problems on integration
by parts
From the product rule of differentiation:
d du dv C
(uv) = v +u , Problem 1. Determine x cos x dx.
dx dx dx
where u and v are both functions of x. From the integration by parts formula,
dv d du B B
Rearranging gives: u = (uv) − v
dx dx dx u dv = uv − v du
Integrating both sides with respect to x gives:
B B B du
dv d du Let u = x, from which = 1, i.e. du = dx and let
u dx = (uv) dx − v dx dx C
dx dx dx dv = cos x dx, from which v = cos x dx = sin x.
Expressions for u, du and v are now substituted into
B B
dv du the ‘by parts’ formula as shown below.
i.e. u dx = uv− v dx
dx dx
B B u dv u v ! v du
or u dv = uv − v du
x cos x dx (x) (sin x) ! (sin x) (dx)
This is known as the integration by parts formula B

and provides a method of integrating such prod- i.e. x cos x dx = x sin x − (−cos x) + c
C x C
ucts
C θ of simple C functions as xe dx, t sin t dt ,
e cos θ dθ and x ln x dx. = x sin x +cos x + c
Given a product of two terms to integrate the initial [This result may be checked by differentiating the right
choice is: ‘which part to make equal to u’ and ‘which hand side,
part to make equal to v’. The choice must be such that the
‘u part’ becomes a constant after successive differenti- d
i.e. (x sin x + cos x + c)
ation and the ‘dv part’ can be integrated from standard dx
integrals. Invariably, the following rule holds: If a prod- = [(x)(cos x) + (sin x)(1)] − sin x + 0
uct to be integrated contains an algebraic term (such as using the product rule
x, t 2 or 3θ) then this term is chosen as the u part. The one
exception to this rule is when a ‘ln x’ term is involved; = x cos x, which is the function
in this case ln x is chosen as the ‘u part’. being integrated]
Integration by parts 421
C B
Problem 2. Find 3t e2t dt . 1
Problem 4. Evaluate 5xe4x dx, correct to
0
du 3 significant figures.
Let u =3t , from which, = 3, i.e. du = 3 dt and
dt
C 1 du
let dv = e2t dt , from which, v = e2t dt = e2t Let u =5x, from which = 5, i.e. du = 5 dx and
C C 2 dx
C
Substituting into u dv = uv − v du gives: let dv = e4x dx, from which, v = e4x dx = 14 e4x .
B " # B " # C C
1 2t 1 2t Substituting into u dv = uv − v du gives:
2t
3t e dt = (3t ) e − e (3 dt )
2 2 B " # B " #
B 4x e4x e4x
3 2t 3 5xe dx = (5x) − (5 dx)
= te − e2t dt 4 4
2 2 B
5 5
" # = xe4x − e4x dx
3 2t 3 e2t 4 4
= te − +c
2 2 2 " #
5 5 e4x
Hence = xe4x − +c
B 4 4 4
5 6
" #
3t e2t dt = 32 e2t t − 12 + c, 5 1
= e4x x − +c
4 4
which may be checked by differentiating.
B 1
B π Hence 5xe4x dx
2 0
Problem 3. Evaluate 2θ sin θ dθ.
$" #%
0
5 4x 1 1
= e x−
du 4 4 0
Let u = 2θ, from which, = 2, i.e. du =2 dθ and let
dθ $ " #% $ " #%
dv = sin θ dθ, from which, 5 4 1 5 0 1
B = e 1− − e 0−
4 4 4 4
v = sinθ dθ = −cos θ " # " #
15 4 5
C C = e − −
Substituting into u dv = uv − v du gives: 16 16
B B
2θ sin θ dθ = (2θ)(−cos θ) − (−cos θ)(2 dθ) = 51.186 + 0.313 = 51.499 = 51.5,
correct to 3 significant figures
B
= −2θ cos θ + 2 cos θ dθ C
Problem 5. Determine x 2 sin x dx.
= −2θ cos θ + 2 sin θ + c
du
B π Let u = x 2 , from which, = 2x, i.e. du =2x dx, and
2 dx
Hence 2θ sin θ dθ let dv = sin x dx, from which,
0
B
π
v = sin x dx = −cos x
= [−2θ cos θ + 2 sin θ]02
: 5π 6 π π; C C
= −2 cos + 2 sin − [0 + 2 sin0] Substituting into u dv = uv − v du gives:
2 2 2
B B
= (−0 + 2) − (0 + 0) = 2 2 2
x sin x dx = (x )(−cos x) − (−cos x)(2x dx)
π π
sincecos = 0 and sin = 1 $B %
2 2
= −x 2 cos x + 2 x cos x dx
C
The integral, x cos x dx, is not a ‘standard integral’
and it can only be determined by using the integration B π
2 2
by parts formula again. 8. t cos t dt [0.4674]
C 0
From Problem 1, x cos x dx = x sin x + cos x
B B 2 x
Hence x 2 sin x dx 9. 3x 2 e 2 dx [15.78]
1
= −x 2 cos x + 2{x sin x + cos x} + c
= −x 2 cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x + c 43.3 Further worked problems on

integration by parts
= (2 −x2 )cos x +2x sin x +c
C
In general, if the algebraic term of a product is of power Problem 6. Find x ln x dx.
n, then the integration by parts formula is applied n
times. The logarithmic function is chosen as the ‘u part’.
du 1 dx
Thus when u = ln x, then = , i.e. du =
Now try the following exercise dx x x
C x 2
Letting dv = x dx gives v = x dx =
Exercise 167 Further problems on C C 2
Substituting into u dv = uv − v du gives:
B " 2# B " 2#
Determine the integrals in Problems 1 to 5 using x x dx
x ln x dx = (ln x) −
integration by parts. 2 2 x
B $$ 2x " #% % 2 B
e 1 x 1
1. 2x
xe dx x− +c = ln x − x dx
2 2 2 2
" #
B $ " # % x2 1 x2
4x 4 1 = ln x − +c
2. dx − e−3x x + +c 2 2 2
e3x 3 3 B " #
x2 1
B Hence x ln x dx = lnx − + c or
2 2
3. x sin x dx [−x cos x + sin x + c] x2
(2 ln x −1)+ c
4
B
4. 5θ cos 2θ dθ C
Problem 7. Determine ln x dx.
: - . ;
5 1
2 θ sin 2θ + 2 cos 2θ + c C C
ln x dx is the same as (1) ln x dx
B : 5 6 ; du 1 dx
Let u = ln x, from which, = , i.e. du =
5. 3t 2e2t dt 3 2t
2e t 2 − t + 12 + c dx x C x
and let dv = 1dx, from which, v = 1 dx = x
C C
Evaluate the integrals in Problems 6 to 9, correct Substituting into u dv = uv − v du gives:
to 4 significant figures. B B
dx
B 2 ln x dx = (ln x)(x) − x
x
6. 2xex dx [16.78] B
0 = x ln x − dx = x ln x − x + c
B π B
4
7. x sin2x dx [0.2500] Hence ln x dx = x(ln x −1)+ c
0
C C
C9√ Substituting into u dv = uv − v du gives:
Problem 8. Evaluate 1 x ln x dx, correct to
3 significant figures. B
eax cos bx dx
dx
Let u = ln x, from which du = " # B " #
x ax 1 1
√ 1 = (e ) sin bx − sin bx (aeax dx)
and let dv = x dx = x 2 dx, from which, b b
B $B %
1 2 3 1 a
v= x 2 dx = x 2 = eax sin bx − eax sin bx dx (1)
3 b b
C C C
Substituting into u dv = uv − v du gives: eax sin bx dx is now determined separately using inte-
gration by parts again:
B " # B " #" #
√ 2 3 2 3 dx Let u = eax then du =aeax dx, and let dv = sin bx dx,
x ln x dx = (ln x) x 2 − x 2
3 3 x from which
B 1
24 3 2 B
= x ln x − x 2 dx 1
3 3 v= sin bx dx = − cos bx
" # b
24 3 2 2 3
= x ln x − x 2 +c
3 3 3 Substituting into the integration by parts formula gives:
$ %
24 3 2 B " #
= x ln x − +c 1
3 3 eax sin bx dx = (eax ) − cos bx
b
C 9√
Hence 1 x ln x dx B " #
1
− − cos bx (aeax dx)
$ 4 " #% b
2 3 2 9 B
= x ln x − 1 a
3 3 1 = − eax cos bx + eax cos bx dx
b b
$ √ " #% $ √ " #%
2 3 2 2 3 2
= 9 ln 9 − − 1 ln1 − Substituting this result into equation (1) gives:
3 3 3 3
$
" #% $ " #% B $
2 2 2 1 a 1
= 18 ln9 − − 0− eax cos bx dx = eax sin bx − − eax cos bx
3 3 3 b b b
B %
a ax
= 27.550 + 0.444 = 27.994 = 28.0, + e cos bx dx
b
1 a
= eax sin bx + 2 eax cos bx
b b
C B
Problem 9. Find eax cos bx dx. a2
− 2 eax cos bx dx
b
When integrating a product of an exponential and a sine
or cosine function it is immaterial which part is made The integral on the far right of this equation is the same
equal to ‘u’. as the integral on the left hand side and thus they may
be combined.
du
Let u =eax , from which = aeax ,
dx B B
a2
i.e. du =aeax dx and let dv = cos bx dx, from which, eax cos bx dx + eax cos bx dx
b2
B
1 1 a
v= cos bx dx = sin bx = eax sinbx + 2 eax cos bx
b b b
" #B π2 3 $ % π
a2 e4 1 e4 2
i.e. 1 + 2 eax cos bx dx = (1 − 0) − (0 − 2) = +
b 5 5 5 5
1 a
= eax sin bx + 2 eax cos bx
b b = 0.8387, correct to 4 decimal places.
" 2 #B
b2 + a
i.e. eax cos bx dx
b2
eax
= 2 (b sin bx + a cos bx)
b
B
Hence eax cos bx dx
Determine the integrals in Problems 1 to 5 using
" #" # integration by parts.
b2 eax
= (b sin bx + a cos bx)
b2 + a 2 b2 B $ " # %
2 3 1
1. 2x 2 ln x dx x ln x − +c
eax 3 3
= (b sin bx+ a cos bx) + c
a2 + b2 B
2. 2 ln 3x dx [2x(ln 3x − 1) + c]
Using a similar method to above, that is, integrating by
parts twice, the following result may be proved: B
B 3. x 2 sin 3x dx
eax sin bxdx $ %
cos 3x 2
(2 − 9x 2 ) + x sin 3x + c
27 9
eax
= (a sin bx− b cos bx)+ c (2)
a2 + b2 B
4. 2e5x cos 2x dx
B π
4 $ %
Problem 10. Evaluate et sin2t dt , correct to 2 5x
0 e (2 sin 2x + 5 cos 2x) + c
4 decimal places. 29
B
C C
Comparing et sin 2t dt with eax sin bx dx shows that 5. 2θ sec 2 θ dθ [2[θ tan θ − ln(sec θ)] + c]
x = t , a = 1 and b = 2.
Hence, substituting into equation (2) gives: Evaluate the integrals in Problems 6 to 9, correct
to 4 significant figures.
B π
4 B
et sin 2t dt 2
0 6. x ln x dx [0.6363]
1
$ %π B
et 4 1
= 2 2
(1 sin 2t − 2 cos 2t ) 7. 2e3x sin 2x dx [11.31]
1 +2 0 0
π 2 3 B π
e4 5 5π 6 5 π 66
8.
2
et cos 3t dt [−1.543]
= sin 2 − 2 cos2
5 4 4 0
B 44
$ % 9. x 3 ln x dx [12.78]
e0
− (sin 0 − 2 cos 0) 1
5
B 1
10. In determining a Fourier series to repre-
sent f (x) = x in the range −π to π, Fourier 11. The equation C = e−0.4θ cos 1.2θ dθ
0
coefficients are given by:
B B
1 π 1
an = x cos nx dx and S= e−0.4θ sin 1.2θ dθ
π −π
0
B
1 π
and bn = x sin nx dx are involved in the study of damped
π −π
oscillations. Determine the values of C
where n is a positive integer. Show by and S.
using integration by parts that an = 0 and
2 [C = 0.66, S = 0.41]
bn = − cos nπ.
n
Chapter 44
Reduction formulae
B
44.1 Introduction then x n−1 ex dx = In−1
B B
When using integration
C by parts in Chapter 43, an Hence x n ex dx = x n ex − n x n−1 e x dx
integral such as x 2 e x Cdx requires integration by
parts twice. Similarly, x 3 e x dx requires integra- can be written as:
tion
C 5 by parts
C three times.C Thus, integrals such as
x e x dx, x 6 cos x dx and x 8 sin2x dx for example, In = xn ex − nIn−1 (1)
would take a long time to determine using integra-
tion by parts. Reduction formulae provide a quicker Equation (1) is an example of a reduction formula since
method for determining such integrals and the method it expresses an integral in n in terms of the same integral
is demonstrated in the following sections. in n −1.
C
Problem 1. Determine x 2 e x dx using a
reduction formula.
44.2 Using reduction formulae
C n xfor
integrals of the form x e dx Using equation (1) with n = 2 gives:
C B
To determine x n e x dx using integration by parts,
x 2 ex dx = I2 = x 2 ex − 2I1
let u = x n from which,
and I1 = x 1 ex − 1I0
du B B
= nx n−1 and du =nx n−1 dx I0 = x e dx = e x dx = ex + c1
0 x
dx
and dv = ex dx from which, Hence I2 = x 2 ex − 2[xex − 1I0 ]
B
v = e x dx = ex = x 2 ex − 2[xex − 1(e x + c1 )]
B B B
Thus, x e dx = x e − e x nx n−1 dx
n x n x
i.e. x2 ex dx = x 2 ex − 2xex + 2e x + 2c1
using the integration by parts formula, = ex (x2 − 2x +2) + c
B
= x e − n x n−1 ex dx
n x (where c = 2c1 )
As with integration by parts, in the following examples
The integral on the far right is seen to be of the same
the constant of integration will be added at the last step
form as the integral on the left-hand side, except that n
with indefinite integrals.
has been replaced by n −1.
Thus, if we let,
B Problem
C 3 x 2. Use a reduction formula to determine
x n ex dx = In , x e dx.
Reduction formulae 427
B
From equation (1), In = x n ex − n In−1 Hence In = x n sin x − (sin x)nx n−1 dx
B
Hence x 3 e x dx = I3 = x 3 ex − 3I2 B
= x n sin x − n x n−1 sin x dx
I2 = x 2 e x − 2I1
1 x Using integration by parts again, this time with
BI1 = x e − 1I
B0 u = x n−1 :
and I0 = x e dx = e x dx = ex
0 x
du
B = (n − 1)x n−2 , and dv = sin x dx,
dx
Thus x 3 e x dx = x 3 ex − 3[x 2e x − 2I1 ]
from which,
= x 3 ex − 3[x 2e x − 2(xe x − I0 )] B
= x 3 ex − 3[x 2e x − 2(xe x − ex )] v= sin x dx = −cos x
= x 3 ex − 3x 2 ex + 6(xe x − ex ) $
Hence In = x sin x − n x n−1 (−cos x)
n
= x 3 ex − 3x 2 ex + 6xe x − 6e x
B B %
i.e. x3ex dx = ex (x3 − 3x2 + 6x −6)+ c − (−cos x)(n − 1)x n−2
dx
= x n sin x + nx n−1 cos x

− n(n − 1) x n−2 cos x dx
Exercise 169 Further problems on using
reduction
C n x formulae for integrals of the form I n = xn sin x + nxn−1 cos x
x e dx i.e. (2)
− n(n −1)In−2
1. Use
C 4 xa reduction formula to determine
x e dx.
Problem
C 2 3. Use a reduction formula to determine
[ex (x 4 − 4x 3 + 12x 2 − 24x + 24) + c] x cos x dx.
C
2. Determine t 3e2t dt using a reduction for-
mula. Using the reduction formula of equation (2):
, 2t - 1 3 3 2 3 . /
e 2 t − 4 t + 4 t − 83 + c B
x 2 cos x dx = I2
3. Use
C 1 3the2t result of Problem 2 to evaluate
0 5t e dt, correct to 3 decimal places. = x 2 sin x + 2x 1 cos x − 2(1)I0
[6.493] B
and I0 = x 0 cos x dx
B
44.3 Using reduction formulae
C n for = cos x dx = sin x
integrals
C n of the form x cos x dx
and x sin x dx Hence
C B
(a) xn cos xdx x2 cos x dx = x2 sin x +2x cos x − 2 sin x +c
C
Let In = x n cos x dx then, using integration by parts:
C2
du Problem 4. Evaluate 4t 3 cos t dt , correct to 4
if u = x n then = nx n−1 1
dx significant figures.
and if dv = cos x dx then
B
CLet3 us firstly find a reduction formula for
v = cos x dx = sin x t cos t dt .
From equation (2), When n =2,

B B π
t 3 cos t dt = I3 = t 3 sin t + 3t 2 cos t − 3(2)I1 x 2 cos x dx = I2 = −2π 1 − 2(1)I0
0
B π
and and I0 = x 0 cos x dx
0
I1 = t 1 sin t + 1t 0 cos t − 1(0)In−2 B π
= cos x dx
= t sin t + cos t 0
Hence = [sin x]π0 = 0

B
Hence
t 3 cos t dt = t 3 sin t + 3t 2 cos t B π
− 3(2)[t sin t + cos t ] x 4 cos x dx = −4π 3 − 4(3)[−2π − 2(1)(0)]
0
3 2
= t sin t + 3t cos t − 6t sin t − 6 cost = −4π 3 + 24π or −48.63,
Thus
B 2
4t 3 cos t dt C
1 (b) xn sin x dx
C
= [4(t 3 sin t + 3t 2 cos t − 6t sin t − 6 cost )]21 Let In = x n sin x dx
Using integration by parts, if u = x n then
= [4(8 sin2 +12 cos 2 −12 sin2 − 6 cos 2)] du
= nx n−1 and if dv = sin x dx then
− [4(sin 1 +3 cos 1 − 6 sin1 −6 cos 1)] dx C
v = sin x dx = −cos x. Hence
= (−24.53628) −(−23.31305) B
= −1.223 x n sin x dx
B
Problem
C π 5. Determine a reduction formula = In = x n (−cos x) − (−cos x)nx n−1 dx
for 0 x n cos x dx and hence evaluate
Cπ 4 B
0 x cos x dx, correct to 2 decimal places. n
= −x cos x + n x n−1 cos x dx
From equation (2),
Using integration by parts again, with u = x n−1 , from
In = x n sin x + nx n−1 cos x − n(n − 1)In−2 . du
B π which, = (n − 1)x n−2 and dv = cos x, from which,
C dx
hence x n cos x dx = [x n sin x + nx n−1 cos x]π0 v = cos x dx = sin x. Hence
0
− n(n − 1)In−2 $
In = −x n cos x + n x n−1 (sin x)
= [(π n sin π + nπ n−1 cos π)
B %
n−2
− (0 + 0)] − n(n − 1)In−2 − (sin x)(n − 1)x dx
= − nπ n−1 − n(n − 1)In−2 = −x n cos x + nx n−1 (sin x)

B
Hence
B π − n(n − 1) x n−2 sin x dx
x 4 cos x dx = I4
0
= −4π 3 − 4(3)I2 since n = 4 i.e. In = −xn cos x + nxn−1 sin x − n(n − 1)In−2 (3)

Engineering Mathematics John Bird

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Chapter 27

(ii) the gradient of chord AC

(iii) the gradient of chord AD

27.3 Differentiation from ﬁrst Problem 1. Differentiate from ﬁrst principle

Substituting (x + δx) for x gives y

= limit [2x + δx] C

(i) At 0, the gradient is positive and is at its steepest.

Differentiation of common functions is demonstrated in 3 3

Problem 2. Find the differential coefﬁcients of 5 5 4

√ Using the product rule:

3x 2 sin 2x is a product of two terms 3x 2 and sin 2x dv 1

Using the function of a function rule,

Problem 22. Differentiate y = 3 tan4 3x. 6. 5e2t +1 [10e2t +1]

7. 2 cot(5t 2 + 3) [−20t cosec2 (5t 2 + 3)]

Exercise 118 Further problems on the Problem 24. If f (x) = 2x 5 − 4x 3 + 3x − 5, ﬁnd

In Problems 1 to 9, ﬁnd the differential coefﬁcients

Problem 25. If y = cos x − sin x, evaluate x, in d2 y

dy Since y = 4 sec 2θ,

Problem 26. Given y = 2xe−3x show that = 16(1) + 16(1)(0) = 16.

y = 2xe−3x (i.e. a product) Exercise 119 Further problems on

+ 9(2xe−3x ) = 18xe−3x − 12e−3x − 36xe−3x 3. (a) 3 sin2t + cos t (b) 2 ln 4θ

4. (a) 2 cos2 x (b) (2x − 3)4

5. Evaluate f "" (θ) when θ = 0 given

28.5 Tangents and normals 1

Problem 1. Given x = 5θ − 1 and

Problem 2. The parametric equations of a

or Problem 3. The equation of a tangent drawn to a

From equation (1),

i.e. y − 0.7071 = x − 0.7071

Find the radius of curvature (correct to 4 sig-

y = 2x 3 − 3x + 4, y = 2x ln x Problem 1. Differentiate the following functions

" # (2x) d (3y) − (3y) d (2x) 30.4 Further implicit differentiation

Problem 9. Find the gradients of the tangents

When x = 2 and y = 3, Now try the following exercise

i.e. ln y = 2 ln(1 + x) + 21 ln(x − 1)

4 Using logarithmic differentiation and following the

Now try the following exercise dy

Differentiating both sides with respect to x gives: Let y = x 3x+2

1 1 In Problems 1 to 4, differentiate with respect to x.

Problem 5. Show that the differential coefﬁcient

Now try the following exercise

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(a) (b) (c)

(c) (e) (f)

dy 1 1 Table 33.1 Differential coefﬁcients of inverse

(v) The differential coefﬁcients of the remaining x −a

From Table 33.1(i), if − f " (x)

dy −(−4x) Let u = cos−1 3x then y = ln u.

Problem 3. Determine the differential coefﬁcient d −3

Table 33.2 Differential coefﬁcients of inverse

Problem 13. Determine Problem 15. Differentiate cosech−1 (sinh θ).

dy f " (x) d − f " (x)

For example, (b) When a = 2 and n = 3 then

3x 2 2x 3 Each of these results may be checked by differentiating

(b) From Table 37.1(v), In Problems 1 to 12, determine the indeﬁnite

B B limit and ‘a’ the lower limit. The operation of applying

B 2 1 litre to 3 litres for a temperature rise from

39.2 Algebraic substitutions 1

be a lengthy process, and thus an algebraic substitution C

Now try the following exercise Hence

39.4 Further worked problems on Hence

39.5 Change of limits B x=2

du du i.e. the limits have been changed