ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY FINALS
REVIEWER 2024
1. How can the immune system activate the
humoral immunity?
- Humoral immunity is triggered by the
immune system's ability to identify foreign
substances, proliferate specialized cells,
generate antibodies, and generate memory
cells that provide protection in the future.
2. How can the immune system activate the
cell mediated immunity?
- By identifying antigens, the immune
system initiates cell-mediated immunity.
Cytotoxic T cells, which destroy cells
containing particular antigens to halt
infection, are stimulated by helper T cells.
The immune system becomes more
efficient when memory T cells are
produced for potential future reactions.
3. How can the antigen be presented using the
MHC I and MHC II?
- In order to destroy infected cells, MHC
class I antigens from inside cells are
presented to cytotoxic T lymphocytes. To
helper T cells coordinate the immune
response against the invaders, MHC class II
presents antigens from external infections.
Immune system recognition and
elimination of foreign threats depend on
these processes.
4. Describe the functions of antibodies.
- Antibodies are proteins. The variable
region is what gives antibodies their
specificity when it interacts with antigens.
The antibody is attached to cells or
complement is activated by the constant
region. The IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, and IgD
are the five types of antibodies.
5. Describe the actions of the innate
immunity.
- Your natural defense mechanism is called
innate immunity, or nonspecific immunity.
It shields you from every antigen. Your
body creates defenses against foreign
substances when you have innate
immunity. In the immunological response,
these barriers serve as the initial line of
protection.
6. Trace the mechanical and chemical
digestion of carbohydrates.
- Enzymes such as salivary amylase
mechanically break down carbohydrates in
the mouth and chemically digest them.
Simple sugars are produced in the small
intestine by pancreatic amylase and
absorbed for energy and other biological
purposes.
7. Trace the chemical and mechanical
digestion of proteins.
- Breaking down into smaller pieces,
proteins are mechanically digested through
chewing and peristalsis. Amino acids are
separated from proteins during chemical
digestion by enzymes like trypsin and
pepsin. A variety of physiological
processes in the small intestine result from
this process, which happens while food
passes through the digestive tract.
8. Trace the chemical and mechanical
digestion of fats.
- Enzymes like lingual lipase and gastric
lipase chemically breakdown fats after they
are physically broken down in the mouth
and stomach. Fats are further broken down
into fatty acids and glycerol in the small
intestine by pancreatic lipase and bile. The
body absorbs these end products to use
them for various processes, including the
creation of energy.
9. How can the urinary system affect the fluid
balance of the body?
- The kidneys regulate fluid balance in the
body by filtering the blood, reabsorbing
essential substances, and excreting waste in
the form of urine. This process helps
maintain proper hydration and electrolyte
balance, ensuring the body's overall fluid
volume is well-regulated.
10. How can the urinary system affect the acid-
base balance of the body?
- The urinary system keeps the body's acid-
base balance in check by managing levels
of hydrogen ions and bicarbonate in the
blood. It removes extra hydrogen ions,
retains bicarbonate, and produces ammonia
when needed. This balance is essential for
the body to function properly.
11. Trace the formation of urine throughout the
kidney tubules.
- Urine formation begins with blood
filtration in the glomerulus, followed by
reabsorption of essential substances in the
proximal and distal tubules. The loop of
Henle concentrates the fluid, and the
collecting duct fine-tunes water
reabsorption. The concentrated urine then
moves to the renal pelvis, ureter, and
bladder before being excreted through the
urethra. This process ensures fluid and
electrolyte balance while eliminating waste
from the body.
12. How can the urinary system affect the
blood pressure?
- The urinary system controls blood pressure
by regulating the balance of water and salt.
Hormones like aldosterone and ADH help
in this process. Retaining more salt and
water raises blood pressure, while releasing
more lowers it. The renin-angiotensin-
aldosterone system responds to low blood
pressure by instructing the body to retain
salt and water, helping to raise blood
pressure.
13. Compare and contrast the process of
filtration and tubular reabsorption.
- Filtration and tubular reabsorption are both
vital steps in urine formation. Filtration
happens in the kidney's glomerulus,
allowing substances to pass based on size
and charge. Tubular reabsorption occurs in
the renal tubules, selectively reclaiming
important substances like glucose and
water while leaving waste behind. While
filtration initiates the urine formation
process, tubular reabsorption modifies the
filtrate to keep essential elements and
regulate electrolyte balance.
14. Describe the hormones that influences the
urine production.
- Hormones like ADH save water in the
kidneys when we're thirsty. Aldosterone
helps keep sodium and water, supporting
blood pressure. RAAS responds to low
blood pressure, ANP helps remove excess
sodium and water, and PTH manages
calcium levels, indirectly affecting kidney
fluid balance.
15. What are the factors that could damage the
filtration membrane?
- The filtration membrane in the kidneys can
be damaged by factors such as high blood
pressure, uncontrolled diabetes,
glomerulonephritis, infections,
autoimmune diseases, exposure to toxins or
certain medications, genetic factors, age-
related changes, trauma, and persistent
proteinuria. It's essential to regularly
monitor and address these conditions for
optimal kidney health.