ENGN 2360 Mechanics, Materials, Manufacturing Winter 2024

Laboratory 1: Defects and Materials Strengthening

Instructor: Dr. Amy Hsiao

Introduction

Dislocations are linear defects that affect the crystalline order of a lattice, in that some atoms along a
crystallographic direction are misaligned, meaning that the atomic bonds in the misalignment are
relatively easier to break. Thus in the presence of an applied stress, dislocations will move through a
lattice until the energy associated with the stress is relieved or dissipated. Figure 1 shows a transmission
electron micrograph of a titanium (Ti) alloy in which the dark lines are dislocations.

Fig. 1: Dislocations moving through a Ti-alloy lattice. [Callister]

Thus, the permanent deformation of most crystalline materials is by the motion of dislocations. The
strain energy associated with each dislocation is either compressive or tensile in the regions surrounding
a dislocation, and these lattice strains can either magnify or cancel each other out on the microscale, in
response to an externally applied load. During plastic deformation, the accumulation of dislocations
moving through a metallic structure can result in the strengthening of that metal, until an external stress
with enough energy is applied to fracture the material. The dislocation density of a highly deformed
metal may be as high as 1010 mm-2.

Strain hardening is the phenomenon by which a ductile metal becomes stronger as it is plastically
deformed due to the activation and accumulation of dislocations. While most strain hardening occurs
during a cold working process, in this lab, we will capture the effects of strain hardening through the
observation of elastic recovery after the initiation of plastic deformation for metallic specimen. This can
be seen in Figure 2, and it will be observed experimentally in this lab. We will also review the key
components of mechanical behavior as captured by a stress-strain curve, including the yield strength,
tensile strength, ductility, and toughness.

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Fig. 2: Tensile stress-strain diagram showing the phenomena of elastic strain recovery and strain
hardening. The yield strength y is increased to i after elastic strain recovery. [Callister]

Procedure

The objective of this lab is to perform two tensile tests of a metallic specimen and to observe the elastic
and plastic behavior of this alloy as it deforms. Namely, the test that you will complete is:

• Sample 1: pulled in tension to failure

• Sample2: pulled in tension, unloaded at an extension determined by your group based on the
first run (e.g. 4.8 mm), reloaded to failure

Measure the dimensions of each sample you will be tested. You are interested in the length of the
reduced section and the cross-sectional area of the reduced section.

Place a specimen in the tensile testing load frame, making sure that the ends of each sample are
positioned equally on each end of the grips. Secure one end of the sample first, then move the
crosshead so that the sample slips into the other end securely. Sketch the set-up in your lab notebook.

Zero the extensometer and make sure the load is zero. Start the tensile test and watch the real-time
increase of load vs. elongation for your sample and observe what is happening to your sample.

Watch carefully for when the sample leaves the elastic region, note the yield point phenomenon that is
characteristic of steels (review stress-strain figures in Callister), and be ready for each of the following
variations in the next steps:

Sample 1
• Note the load at which a neck begins to form. Sketch how the necking changes.
• Note the maximum load.
• Note the load at which the sample fails.

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Sample 2
• Watch carefully as the sample deforms to the extension you determined from Test 1, it should
be in the plastic zone.
• Remove the load.
• Resume the loading.
• Note the load at which a neck begins to form. Sketch how the necking changes.
• Note the maximum load.
• Note the load at which the sample fails.

In summary, in your lab notebook there should be these observations:

1. Measurements of your samples’ dimensions
2. Sketch of equipment set-up
3. Loads at which plastic deformation begins, maximum plastic deformation occurs, and the
sample breaks.
4. Sketches of the neck formation
5. Sketches or photos and descriptions of what the samples look like at the failure point
6. File name of data recorded

All lab notebooks are to be handed in at the end of lab.

THE WRITE-UP: A MEMORANDUM

Your write-up for this lab will be a technical memorandum. A memorandum is a common form of
written communication in the professional environment that facilitates communication in a clear and
concise manner. It is characterized by a detailed and succinct description of a subject (restricted to 1,400
words or less, not counting key figures or charts in a short appendices), typically written for a decision-
maker or a person of authority in the organization. A memorandum includes three sections: an
introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

Introduction: explains why the memorandum has been written and what topic the memorandum will
discuss. This section also presents a few key points/conclusions from the analysis/discussion. A brief
summary of the key points or observations of the experiment can be described here.

Body: discusses the topic in detail and addressing all the points requested with substantial support. For
this lab, the body of your memo should include the following:
• A stress-strain curve for each of your two samples, plotted on the same graph.
• Labeled on the graph, the experimentally determined value for yield strength y, the yield
strength after elastic-strain-recovery i, tensile strength TS, fracture strength fracture.
• Calculated estimation for ductility and toughness, using your stress-strain data.
• Linear fits through the “unloading” region of your stress-strain curves. Compare the value of the
slope in this region with the value of the slope in the initial elastic loading region for each of
your samples. What is the significance of these two values being comparable (or not)? What is
this phenomenon called and what is happening microstructurally when a sample is unloaded
after plastic deformation?
• Define yield strength y and what is happening microstructurally at the point of yielding. How
does i improve the structure or strength of this material and what is the trade-off of an

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increased yi, with repeatedly unloading and loading? Incorporate your calculated values for
ductility and toughness into this discussion.
• Compare your experimentally determined values with reference values your samples. If
applicable, suggest reasons for why your value is different from the referenced values.

Conclusion: explains the key recommendations of the discussion (imagine you are writing to your team
leader or engineering manager), what will or should happen next (additional tests?), if a follow-up
should occur, and offering your contact information for that follow-up to occur. Describe any factors
that may have influenced your experiments. Be sure to reference all sources that you use.

Please use 11-point font, single-spaced formatting, with 1” margins for your memorandum. Remember
that what makes an excellent memo is the analysis of the information provided, as well as the use of
additional information (a reference section should be included and will not count towards the 1,400
word limitation). Please hand in all lab notebooks after lab. An electronic copy of your team’s
memorandum is due at the date and time indicated in the course syllabus to me at ahsiao@upei.ca.
My email response will be the only official acknowledgement that your group’s memo was submitted on
time.

References

1. Callister, Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 9th Edition, Wiley & Sons, 2016.

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