4) Please list 3 ways a brain can be stimulated and shortly explain them.

ChR2 (a cation channel used to stimulate neural activity)

iC1C2 (chloride channel used to inhibit neural activity)

eNpHR3.0 (a chloride pump used to inhibit neural activity)

eBR (a proton pump used to inhibit neural activity)

What is the molecular mechanism of action of a deep brain stimulation electrode used for
Parkinson patients?

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) elective surgical procedure in which electrodes are implanted
into certain brain areas.

Several potential mechanisms of action of DBS are considered, including monoaminergic and
glutamatergic neurotransmission, neurotrophic and neuroinflammatory mechanisms,

synaptic plasticity, potentially, intracellular signaling pathways.

Derin beyin stimülasyonu (DBS) ilk olarak 1970'lerde kronik ağrının tedavisi için kullanıldı

Monoaminerjik ve glutamaterjik nörotransmisyon, nörotrofik ve nöroinflamatuar mekanizmalar

dahil olmak üzere DBS'nin çeşitli potansiyel etki mekanizmaları düşünülmektedir.

What is the main difference between hemorrhagic and ischemic stroke?

An ischemic stroke occurs when a blood vessel supplying the brain becomes blocked, as by a clot.

A hemorrhagic stroke occurs when a blood vessel bursts, leaking blood into the brain.

Please list 5 underlying reasons behind amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) pathology.

Impaired DNA repair

Aberrant RNA metabolism

Oxidative stress

Axonopathy

Glial dysfunction

Hyperexcitability
 Please describe the 5 symptoms of Schizophrenia.

Delusions -Hallucinations -Disorganized thinking (speech) -Extremely disorganized or abnormal

motor behavior -Negative symptoms

Please shortly describe the events leading to muscle contraction starting from neurotransmitter
release at the neuromuscular junction.

When the nervous system signal reaches the

neuromuscular junction a chemical message is
released by the motor neuron. The chemical
message, a neurotransmitter called
acetylcholine, binds to receptors on the outside
of the muscle fiber. That starts a chemical
reaction within the muscle.

What are the sources of input for an alpha

motor neuron?

Dorsal root ganglion cells

Upper motor neurons

Interneurons -the largest input

Please classify the muscles according to their location in the body and give one example of their
function?

• Muscles responsible for the movement of trunk (axial muscles)

• Muscles responsible for the movement of shoulder, elbow, pelvis, knee(proximal – girdle –
muscles)

Muscles responsible for the movement of hands, feet, digits (distal muscles)
Please shortly describe the signal transduction in hair cells until the neurotransmitter release.

Cilia straight – partial open K+ channels, steady leak of K+ from endolymph to hair cells Displacement of
cilia in one direction – tension increase, increase in inward K+ movement Displacement of cilia in other
direction – tension decrease, prevent K+ movement

K + entry – depolarization & activation of voltage-gated

Ca2+ channels Ca2+ entry – release of the neurotransmitter & activation of spiral ganglion cells

The ear consists of 3 anatomical parts as outer, middle and inner ear. What are the components of
each part?

Outer ear. ----pinna and auditory canal--

Middle ear----tympanic membrane, ossicles--

Inner ear.---cochlea---

The light refracts due to the changes in its speed in different environments. When we open our eyes in
the water without using goggles, our vision is blurred. What is the reason for this blurry vision under
water?

The inside lens bends the rays a little, but it can't make up for the lost corneal refraction, so the light
that reaches the retina isn't focused and the underwater world looks blurry.
Rubbing the skin around the damaged area of the skin may decrease the pain sensation. What is the
mechanism leading to the decreased sensation of pain?

rubbing the skin around a damaged area stimulation of large fibers to decrease chronic pain

Endogenous opioids regulate the pain sensation by both affecting the pre- and the postsynapse. How
do the opioid achive these effects?

suppresing the release of glutamate & inhibiting neurons by hyperpolarizing their membranes

act on both pre- and postsynapse

What is a dermatome?

A dermatome is an area of skin that is mainly supplied by a single spinal nerve.

What are the main ascending pathways of somatic sensation? What type of the sensation that they
carry?

1) Dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway (touch and vibration)

2) Spinothalamic pathway (pain and temperature)

Dorsal column – carries information from the same side of the body (ipsilateral)

Spinothalamic pathway – carries information contralateral to the body