ASSESSING TERMITE RESISTANCE IN COCONUT WOOD: EVALUATING THE EFFICACY OF

A LEMONGRASS EXTRACT AND LINSEED OIL MIXTURE AGAINST SUBTERRANEAN

TERMITES

_______________________

An Undergraduate Research Presented to the Civil Engineering Faculty

St. Mary's College of Tagum Inc.
Tagum City

_______________________

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

CLIFORD JOHN S. MALABAGO

CHRISTINE MAE T. LORCA
FRANCES LEUR J S. GOC-ONG
HAZEL MAE A. SUMILE
SHYREL M. ALO
WILMAR IAN L. HILAY

November 2023
 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ii

1. THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING 3

Background of the Study 3

Statement of the Problem 6

Review of Related Literature and Studies 7

Theoretical Framework 33

Conceptual Framework 34

Significance of the Study 36

Definition of Terms 36

CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 2

1. METHOD 38

Research Design 38

Research Subjects 41

Research Instrument 41
 2

Research Locale 42

Data Gathering Procedure 44

Pre-Experimental Procedure 44

Experimentation Procedure 45

Post-Experimental Procedure 46

Statistical Treatment of the Data 47

References: 48
 3

Chapter 1

PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Background of the Study

Termite has transformed into critical vermin in the world. Reticulitermes speratus

kyushuensis Morimoto, a species of subterranean termites belonging to the Rhinotermitidae

family, is known for its destructive nature as soil-dwelling pests. These termites feed on

cellulosic wood biomass, causing significant damage to forest trees like Pinus densiflora

Siebold and Zucc. (Pinales: Pinaceae) and valuable wooden structures with cultural heritage

(Moon, J. et al., 20203). Subterranean termites exhibit a high degree of eusocial behavior,

engaging in collective foraging through communication within their colony. They effectively

locate food sources by using sternal gland pheromones, enhancing their ability to target

specific wood substrates (Kim, S. H. et al., 2020). The Philippines report by Gibb identifies

various subterranean termites, including Coptotermes vastator (= gestroi) and Macrotermes

gilvus, as documented culprits responsible for causing damage to cocowood (Amartey, S. et

al., 2006).

Termite infestations can last for years without homeowners noticing significant

damage. New Orleans has experienced more termite destruction than most other urban

areas globally. The Sophie B. Wright charter school in New Orleans faced a near-collapse of

its cafeteria/auditorium area due to extensive termite damage (John, 2022). According to a

report by Othman (2012), 12% of residences constructed with wood in Kg. Sireh, Kelantan,

Malaysia, experienced damage as a result of termite infestation. In the past few years, UPAS

has brought attention from the termite infestation in northeastern Switzerland (Silvia

GHESINI, 2020).

In the Philippines, coco wood is usually used as concrete forms and scaffoldings of
 4

small to medium-category builders instead of steel pipes and plates. In rural areas with

limited access to cement and other concrete aggregates, coconut lumber is used as

alternative structural members for houses Ney et al., (2019), from traditional Bahay Kubo

houses to historic wooden churches like in San Sebastian in Manila. An example of the

vulnerability of wooden structures to termite damage is the traditional Bahay Kubo house

(Lei & Lei, 2023). Homeowners in rural areas often face an ongoing struggle with termites,

which pose a threat to the structural integrity of their homes, leading to frequent and

expensive repairs. Similarly, schools like San Vicente West Integrated School in Asingan,

Pangasinan, relying on wooden buildings, contend with termite infestations causing

disruptions in the learning environment and safety hazards for students and staff. The

canteen and classrooms in the mentioned school have suffered extensive termite damage,

forcing teachers and students to overcrowd into a single classroom, accommodating up to

46 students (Rentokil, n.d.)

Davao, recognized for its tropical and humid climate, faces the unfortunate challenge

of being susceptible to termite infestations. Flourishing in these conditions, these wood-

devouring pests, locally referred to as "anay," necessitate a proactive approach from both

residents and business proprietors to safeguard their properties. If neglected, termites can

inflict substantial harm on structures, as they discreetly consume cellulose-rich materials

like wood, cardboard, and even wallpaper, silently undermining the integrity of buildings over

an extended period (Admin, 2023).

The efficiency of lemongrass extract mixed with linseed oil as a natural termite

repellent designed explicitly for coconut wood preservation has yet to be thoroughly

examined in the existing research. Although there is an increasing interest in alternative

wood protection techniques, most research has only briefly examined using lemongrass as a

termite repellant on coconut wood. There is a glaring research vacuum in determining how

lemongrass extract might function as a workable, long-term option for long-term

 5

preservation, given the unique makeup of coconut wood and its distinct susceptibility to

termite infestations. This gap emphasizes the necessity for thorough investigations into the

complex relationship between lemongrass extract mix with linseed oil and coconut wood,

considering both the effectiveness of termite deterrence and any potential impact on the

wood's structural and chemical qualities.

The urgent need for this study is evident in the escalating global crisis of termite

infestation, with a specific focus on the Philippines and the Davao Region. The prevalence of

destructive Subterranean termites poses a severe threat to the structural integrity of

buildings, including schools and historic structures, resulting in costly repairs, compromised

safety, and disrupted learning environments. The alarming increase in termite infestations is

attributed to factors like climate change and urbanization, necessitating immediate attention

and innovative solutions to protect vital infrastructure, historical heritage, and the well-being

of communities. In line with this, with the growing demand for environmentally friendly and

sustainable building materials, discovering an effective natural termite repellent for coconut

wood is critical. Termites are a considerable menace to timber structures, inflicting billions

of dollars in yearly damage. As a result, this research is not only urgent, but it also has the

potential to change the construction industry by providing a long-term solution to an urgent

issue.

This research study evaluates the potential of lemongrass extract mix with linseed

oil as a natural termite repellent for preserving coconut wood. Termites pose a significant

threat to wooden structures, including coconut wood, commonly used in construction and

furniture making in tropical regions. The research involves a series of experiments and tests

to assess how effective lemongrass extract mix with linseed oil is as a repellent against

termites. The findings of this research have important implications for preserving coconut

wood in regions where it is prevalent, offering a potentially eco-friendly and sustainable

solution to protect this valuable resource from termite damage. The results could also
 6

contribute to developing natural and environmentally friendly termite repellents for wood

preservation beyond coconut wood applications.

Statement of the problem

Wooden structures are seriously threatened by termites, especially Subterranean

Termites, with coconut wood being one of the most often afflicted materials. Interest has

been generated by using natural substances like lemongrass and linseed oil as a potential

treatment for termite resistance in coconut wood. The purpose of this study was to find out

the effectiveness of lemongrass extract and linseed oil mixture in preventing Subterranean

Termite infestation.

The research aimed to find responses to the following inquiries:

1. Is there a significant difference in the in the coconut wood samples between the

control setup after:

1.1. 2 weeks; and

1.2. 4 weeks?

2. Is there a significant difference in the coconut wood between the control setup

and experimental setup after the application of the optimal concentration or

mixture ratio through brushing:

2.1. 60 ml of lemongrass extract and 40 ml linseed oil mixture?

3. Is there a significant difference in the coconut wood between the experimental

setup after the application of 60 ml lemongrass extract and 40 ml linseed oil

through brushing:

3.1. 2 coats;

3.2. 3 coats; and

3.3. 4 coats?

4. Is there a significant difference in the coconut wood between the control setup
 7

and experimental setup after:

4.1. 2 weeks; and

4.2. 4 weeks?

Review of Related Literature

In structural preservation and pest control, the evaluation of innovative and eco-

friendly solutions holds paramount importance. Termites pose a significant threat to wooden

structures, often causing considerable damage and financial burdens. As such, this study

explores the potential of a novel mixture consisting of lemongrass extract and linseed oil in

bolstering coconut wood's resistance against the voracious Subterranean termites. The

ensuing exploration of existing research illuminates the current state of knowledge in this

field. It paves the way for a deeper understanding of this innovative approach to structural

preservation

Subterranean termite infestation in coconut wood, and its economic and ecological

implications.

Termite infestations can persist for years before a homeowner sees damage

structural collapse brought on by termite damage, which was experienced in homes and

structures in New Orleans. Therefore, New Orleans would undoubtedly be where termite

damage would destroy a building. While no significant structures have fallen in New Orleans

entirely due to termite damage, at least one building in the city came dangerously close six

years ago (John, 2022).

The Philippines report by Gibb enumerates several subterranean termites, such as

Coptotermes vastator (= gestroi) and Macrotermes gilvus, which have been documented for

causing damage to cocowood. It is noteworthy that these findings seem to be based on

practical observations during usage rather than specific field exposures to these particular
 8

termite species. Limited information is available regarding the susceptibility of untreated

coco wood to termite attacks. However, laboratory bioassays conducted on untreated

cocowood to assess its resistance against brown and white rot fungi have indicated that the

timber demonstrates significant resistance, especially when compared to beech and Norway

spruce (Amartey, S. et al., 2006).

The biology and behavior of Subterranean termites.

Subterranean termites, boasting a remarkable existence spanning over 55 million

years, owe a substantial portion of their success to their highly efficient cooperative behavior.

As inherently social insects, they form family units known as colonies. The distinctive feature

of social insects, setting them apart from their counterparts like grasshoppers, cockroaches,

or beetles, lies in the fact that each termite within the colony assumes a specialized role

geared towards the collective benefit of the entire community. This division of labor

enhances their overall effectiveness and adaptability, contributing significantly to their

longevity and prosperity over the millennia (Dini M. Miller, 2009). Subterranean termite

species dwell underground and reach wood sources through intricate tunnels known as mud

tubes. Comprising soil, wood, and a unique termite adhesive derived from saliva and fecal

material, these tubes are commonly located in close proximity to termite nests and human

residences (Terminix, & Webb, D., 2023).

Subterranean termites locate food sources by digging a network of tunnels around

their nest. As they dig, they encounter buried wood, and when food is found, they recruit

others to the source while closing off non-productive tunnels. The foraging range varies, with

small colonies covering a few yards and larger ones extending over a football field-sized

area. Seasonal and weather factors influence foraging patterns, and multiple small related

colonies may cover a greater distance than a single large colony (Dini M. Miller, 2009).

Eastern subterranean termites spare cypress from their attacks, while Formosan termites

readily target cypress, along with pine, other softwoods, and hardwoods. Both species
 9

exhibit a preference for moist wood, and the vulnerability of wood to termite infestation

increases in the presence of moisture and wood decay fungi (Termite biology, n.d.).

Distribution and Habitat

Formosan subterranean termites pose a threat to living trees by consuming wood in

the trunks and large branches, resulting in weakened structural support and an increased

risk of toppling during strong winds. While existing literature primarily focuses on the

distribution of C. formosanus in urban settings near buildings, there is limited information

regarding their presence in forested areas. Initiated in 2002, this study aims to explore the

distribution of Formosan and native subterranean termite colonies in an urban forest. It

involves monitoring termite activity and determining the foraging ranges of termite colonies

within the forested sections of City Park in New Orleans, LA (Mary L. Cornelius et al. 2007).

Despite its limitations, Maynard et al. (2015) offered valuable insights into the impact of

climatic variables on termite distributions in the eastern United States. Their study focused

on Reticulitermes species (R. flavipes and R. virginicus) and the invasive Formosan

subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus, utilizing Ecological Niche Modeling (ENM).

Additionally, the authors synthesized existing knowledge to highlight the influence of biotic

factors, including tree species, wood traits, fungal preferences, predatory ant phenology, and

competitive dynamics among coexisting termite species.

The findings suggest that physiological limits may not effectively predict foraging

activity in these species, possibly due to their adeptness in avoiding extreme conditions

through behavioral mechanisms. Subterranean termites engage in foraging within a complex

three-dimensional network of tunnels and resources (Houseman et al. 2001). Subterranean

termites inhabit underground colonies or moist, secluded above-ground areas, with the

potential to house up to two million members (Subterranean Termite facts, n.d.). Termites

construct their colonies by excavating intricate tunnels underground, forming chambers that

are challenging to detect. Workers create protective mud and saliva tunnels, allowing them
 10

to navigate above ground and reach wood sources. As they consume wood, they replace it

with soil to preserve the necessary humidity levels within the colony (Preventive Pest control,

2015).

Favorable Conditions of Subterranean Termites.

The soil plays a crucial role for subterranean termites, serving as their habitat and

providing insulation against extreme temperatures and humidity (Nandika et al., 2015).

Termites exhibit selectivity in their use of soil particles, opting for finer particles to construct

structures that align with their ecological, physiological, and behavioral requirements (Aslam

Khan & Wasim Ahmad, 2018).

The primary factors influencing the activity, development, and behavior of termites

are air temperature and humidity (Ferreira et al., 2019). The findings revealed that the

average air temperature recorded at the research site was 25.15 ± 1.46℃, with a maximum

of 27.08℃ and a minimum of 24.62℃. Simultaneously, the average humidity registered 89.33

± 4.44%, ranging from a minimum of 82.77% to a maximum of 92.24%. According to Nandika

et al. (2015), the temperature range observed at the study site falls within the optimal range

of 25℃–28℃ for termite activities, making it a suitable habitat for termite species.

Additionally, the air humidity at the test site, ranging from 75% to 90%, aligns with the

optimal humidity conditions specified by Nandika et al. (2015). This level of humidity is

crucial for termites as they require high moisture levels to prevent dehydration in their nests.

How climate change might impact Subterranean Termites infestations.

Like all ectothermic organisms, termite activity is significantly impacted by

temperature. Research indicates that subterranean termites avoid foraging in areas with soil

temperatures that are excessively hot or cold. The ideal temperature range for termite

activity falls between 75°F and 95°F (24°C to 35°C). Temperatures exceeding 100°F or

dropping below 25°F can lead to termite mortality within minutes. Termites demonstrate
 11

adaptability by navigating their movements to avoid extreme temperature conditions and

favor areas with more suitable temperature ranges (POTTER, DR. M., 2013). The rate of

warming observed in the past 50 years is nearly twice the rate witnessed in the preceding

century. This has led to speculation that climate changes may bring about significant

alterations in the microbial community within the termite gut, as indicated by Arango (2021),

as well as in the surrounding soil/nest materials. Ultimately, these changes have the

potential to impact the survival and distribution of termites (Dhang, D. P., 2022).

In this investigation, subterranean termites (Reticulitermes flavipes Kollar)

underwent exposure to three distinct temperature treatments: low (15◦C), medium (27◦C),

and high (35◦C). The findings indicated that pre-exposure to cold enabled termites to

maintain activity for an extended duration in declining temperatures but led to freezing at

higher temperatures. Exposure to high temperatures had the most adverse impact on

termites, resulting in a significant decline in termite survival and a diminished capacity to

withstand cold stress (Arango et al., 2021).

Field studies on the efficacy of natural termite control methods.

Particularly in the context of controlling termite infestations, there has been a

growing focus on eco-friendly and sustainable pest control technologies in recent years.

Traditional termite management frequently makes use of chemical pesticides, which raises

questions about how they may affect the environment and public health (Oi, 2022). This has

sparked investigation into environmentally responsible and effective natural termite control

techniques.

Developing new, natural approaches to repelling termites has become a subject area

of research and experimentation. One of them was the use of a formulation of biologically

produced copper oxide nanoparticles to protect wood against termites and decay fungus.

The leaf extracts of neem (Azadirachta indica), pongamia (Pongamia pinnata), lantana

(Lantana camara), and orange peel (Citrus reticulata) were used to create copper oxide
 12

nanoparticles and was found to be effective as a wood protectant against termites and

decay fungus (Shiny et al., 2019).

In addition, nematodes, microscopic roundworms, were also found as a potential

natural and eco-friendly solution to termites infestation. Termites were the focus of

nematodes such as the Steinernema and Heterorhabditis species that were applied as

biopesticides. When applied

to termite-infested areas, they penetrate the termites and release bacteria, leading to termite

mortality (Mishra et al., 2021). This biological control approach holds promise due to its

minimal environmental impact and potential for long-term effectiveness.

Sustainable and environmentally friendly pest management practices.

Green pest control is an environmentally friendly pest control method that aids in

pest control and decreases the hazardous usage of pesticides. Pests like woodworms,

longhorn beetles, fruit flies, spiders, termites, and paper mites ruin food, utensils, leather,

carpets, and other items in structures. This relatively new concept comprises sanitation,

management, biological control, the least toxic pesticides possible, minimal chemical use,

and a strategy that avoids harming non-target species by spraying in specific areas

(Maddala, 2019).

Pesticide use increased the number of people who contracted various diseases, so

using green pest control techniques helps to enhance people's health and ensures their

survival (Yatoo, 2021). With education and proper awareness, people will be able to adopt

eco-friendly pest management practices. However, individual sanitation upkeep or natural

remedies are preferred (Maddala, 2019).

The influence of environmental factors on termite infestations.

A variety of environmental conditions affect the existence and intensity of termite

infestations, and understanding these factors can help in both preventing and managing
 13

termite problems. Due in large part to environmental concerns, there has been a growing

shortage of high-quality wood during the past few years (Esteves et al., 2021). The type of

interaction between the ground and wooden objects, the number of days of termite activity,

and the percentage of neighboring woods were found to have statistically significant effects

among a variety of environmental or architectural parameters connected to termite damage

(Kim & Yong-Jae, 2022).

Furthermore, there was a discernible relationship between the severity of termite

infestation damage to various forms of infrastructure in both inhabited and distant locations

to the direct and indirect effects of climate, vegetation, anthropogenic activities, and the

species richness of different categories of termites (Wu et al., 2022). Termite bait

consumption showed a substantial and positive correlation with mean monthly temperature,

but a significant and negative correlation with relative humidity and rainfall (Alamu & Ewete,

2021).

Integrated pest management (I.P.M.) strategies for termite control.

Termites are extremely destructive pests that can seriously harm wooden structures,

necessitating expensive repairs. Monitoring and the use of chemical (such as baiting and

termiticides) and nonchemical (such as physical barriers and heat treatment) measures are

some of the key components of effective and successful termite management (Ahmad et al.,

2021).

Due to consumer demand for ecologically friendly or "green" pest management

methods and their apparent absence of health dangers, naturally derived substances have

become more common in Integrated Pest Management programs (Tay, 2021). Clove oil

repels Cryptotermes cynocephalus Light (Blattodae: Kalotermitidae) most effectively and

has the greatest mortality effect on the latter (Meisyara et al., 2021). Globitermes sulphureus

(Haviland) (Blattodae: Termitidae), a higher termite that builds mounds, was also found to

have defensive components that could potentially serve as a natural termiticide and
 14

household repellant (Appalasamy et al. 2021).

Research gaps and unanswered questions in the field of termite control

Termite control is a discipline that is always changing, and professionals and

academics are working to close many knowledge gaps and unresolved issues. This includes

the issue of climate change, which greatly affects insecticide/ termiticide effectiveness in

addition to urban pest numbers, dispersal, and insect development time (Dhang 2017).

For instance, barrier treatments (such as repellent or non-repellent insecticides,

especially termiticides) disintegrate more quickly in extreme temperatures, making them

less effective. As a result, more pesticides are used, which has other negative effects on the

ecosystem (Zhou et al. 2017). Thus, in order to improve our tactics for overcoming them, we

need to build control programs while recognizing and taking into consideration how climate

change may affect management strategies. Similarly, due to our overdependence on, abuse

of, and improper application of conventional pesticides, it may result in the development of

resistance to pesticides in the context of control methods, including other chemical

treatments (Wang et al., 2021).

Finally, research is required to address the issue of termite resistance to control

measures as well as to provide more reliable and affordable monitoring and early detection

tools. Further research is also needed on the socioeconomic and cultural components of

termite-human relations as well as the effects of urbanization and climate change on termite

dispersal (Sameh et al., 2022). Overall, closing these gaps is essential to increasing the

efficiency and sustainability of termite control strategies simultaneously mitigating their

adverse impacts on the environment and the economy.

The possible advantages and disadvantages of employing a mix of lemongrass and linseed

oil
 15

A mixture of 1.5% linseed oil and lemongrass has demonstrated effective selective

toxicity and potential for integrated pest management against Tetranychus urticae (spider

mites) and Trialeurodes tabaci (thrips). This combination showed successful initial control

of spider mites on bean plants at various concentrations, while boiled linseed oil alone

proved excellent for aphid control, with initial and residual effects ranging from 80% to 100%.

Locally prepared plant oil formulations offer advantages such as safety for humans, animals,

and plants, cost reduction in pest control, and sustained pesticidal efficiency even with

repeated use (Ali et al., 2011).

In another study, Cymbopogon citratus (de Candolle) Stapf, usually known as

lemongrass, has been utilized as an anti-agent against different bugs in Budondo Subcounty.

They have seen that consuming dried lemongrass leaves delivers major areas of strength for

a that repulses houseflies. The viability of Cymbopogon citratus as an anti-agent can be

credited to its high citral content (4.3%). Citral is a compound known for its bug repellent

properties and is regularly tracked down in numerous rejuvenating oils (Baana et al., 2018).

In a Thai mosquito study, it was found that citronella and lemongrass essential oils

demonstrated similar insecticidal activity against Culex quinquefasciatus, Anopheles dirus,

and Aedes aegypti mosquitoes within 24 hours (Baker & Grant, 2018). Lemongrass oil, in a

separate study on Ae. Aegypti was one of the most effective repellents with the second-

highest knockdown effect, having an LC50 of 6.7%. In an experiment involving stable flies

exposed to blood-soaked pads, one treated with lemongrass oil, the flies allocated a greater

amount of time in the zone that had not been treated and none consumed the blood,

suggesting that the scent of citral in the air may have repelled them through their antennal

olfactory receptor cells (Baker & Grant, 2018).

Studies on the effectiveness of linseed oil as a wood protectant.

In the lab, treatments using linseed, neem, and jojoba oils outperformed jatropha and

eucalyptus oil in terms of termite resistance. On all types of wood, however, linseed oil
 16

demonstrated a comparatively greater protective effect on wood against termites. In both

the choice and no-choice tests, the treatments dramatically decreased weight loss and

increased termite mortality. Similar improvements in termite resistance following vacuum

pressure oil treatment were seen in earlier experiments (Ahmed et al., 2020).

Linseed oil and extractive mixtures provided protection against termite attacks on

softwood, according to field exposure testing. The hydrophobic properties of the oil, a

phenomenon previously noted with natural or synthetic biocides in other investigations, are

most likely responsible for this protection. In order to combat Reticulitermes santonensis

and Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, linseed oil developed a low toxicity wood treatment.

Linseed oil was used, and it was discovered that boiled and maleinized linseed oil was

promising for preventing decay in wood. It also demonstrated that treatment with linseed oil

at high retention improved resistance to decay but not to discoloring fungus (Hassan et al.,

2019).

Mechanisms of action of lemongrass and linseed oil against termites.

According to Moustafa et al. (2021), the insecticidal property of lemongrass is

accredited to the various secondary metabolites, such as bioactive cyclic and acyclic

terpenes, which disrupt the neurotransmitter in insects. The chemical compounds

of Cympobogon citratus E.O. are Isoneral, Isogeranial, Dihydronopol and etc., where the main

compounds were α-citral (35.91%), β-citral (35.00%), 5-octyldihydro-2(3H)-furanone (9.08%),

nerylacetal (7.84%), and trans-verbenol (3.58%). Furthermore, other secondary metabolites,

such as alkaloids, flavonoids, and carotenoids, have been found in lemongrass extracts,

indicating its potential as a bio-insecticide.

Linseed oil is thought to have no negative effects on organisms that cause wood to

deteriorate; it gave the three wood types, which are Sapwood, Heartwood, and Gum Arabic

trees, greater resistance to termites. One potential mechanism for this oil is the formation of

hydrophobic barriers, which caused water in the forests to be replaced with oil and prevented
 17

O. feeding the obese. The preservation of oils provided evidence that termites could not eat

wood with considerable oil retention (Ahmed et al., 2020).

Lemongrass active ingredient

Lemongrass oil is majorly composed of citral (Okpo & Edeh, 2023). Citral was found

in the leaf as majora major component compared to other compounds such as limonene,

geraniol, and citronellal. The insecticidal property of lemongrass is accredited to the various

secondary metabolites, such as bioactive cyclic and acyclic terpenes (Moustafa et al., 2021).

Bellanger et al. (2019) stated that the active ingredients present in lemongrass essential oil

are myrene, limonene, citral, geraniol, citronellol, geranyl acetate, neral, and nerol. Although

myrcene and limonene are aromatic compaounds, citral and geraniol serve as an

antimicrobial and insecticidal, respectively.

In a study conducted by Olotuah and Dawodu (2017), various extracts of the

lemongrass have been reported to have insecticidal activities on vectors of medical or

interests or non-agricultural pests which encompasses mosquitoes, mites, cockroaches,

houseflies, termites and water snails and a host of human or cattle parasites. Their study

affirms the adoptive use of Cymbopogon citratus extracts in the control of termites.

Linseed Oil active ingredient

Linseed oil is a colorless to yellowish oil, edible and industrial vegetable oil made

from the seeds of the flax plant (Linum usitatissimum) which active ingredient comprises

linoleic and α-linolenic fatty acids (Campos et al., 2019). It is obtained from the seed of the

linseed–flax plant, one variety of which produces a high yield of seed and another a high

yield of fiber (flax). And owing to its polymer-forming properties, linseed oil is often blended

with combinations of other oils, resins or solvents as an impregnator, drying oil finish or

varnish in wood finishing, as a pigment binder in oil paints, as a plasticizer and hardener in

putty, and in the manufacture of linoleum (Abraham & Höfer, 2012).

 18

Industrially, linseed oil is classified as a drying oil because it thickens and becomes

hard on exposure to air. These characteristics make it useful particularly in the production of

paints, printing inks, linoleum, wood varnish and stains, and oilcloth. Linseed oil is primarily

used in artists’ oil paints, which are made by grinding raw pigment into the oil. It is also used

as a coating for concrete surfaces, such as on buildings, bridges, and parking lots, for its

ability to repel water, which helps maintain concrete and decreases rust breakdown of

reinforcing steel. It was once a common ingredient in exterior house paint but has largely

been replaced by petroleum-based ingredients (Colón, 2023).

Studies on the effectiveness of lemongrass against termites.

Cryptotermes species of dry-wood termites have been investigated for resistance to

the essential oils of lemongrass (D Meisyara, 2021). Both time and concentration were

observed to affect the activity of lemon grass extract against Macrotermes bellicosus. The

greatest and lowest quantities of the extract were shown to have the highest and lowest

termite mortality, respectively (Rosemary Anietie Essien et al. 2023). A lemon grass extract

repelled macrotermes. The plant's repelling properties strongly imply antifeedant properties

(Maia et al. 2011). The high geraniol content of Cymbopogon is thought to be responsible for

its termiticidal properties. The fragrant plant component citral may act as a termite repellent.

This study showed that termite mortality in Macrotermes bellicosus treated with

extract of Cymbopogon citratus at various concentrations showed promising potential in the

control of termites, with the exception of the experimental control, which suggests that there

was no mortality recorded (Rosemary Anietie Essien et al. 2023). The results of this study

also demonstrate that Cymbopogon citratus leaf extract is a source of naturally occurring

chemicals that may be employed as termite control agents. This activity is attempted in the

presence of phytochemicals of various chemical structures that have repellent, survival,

antifeedant, or toxic effects on termites in feeding assays (Ahmed N et al. 2016).

Linseed oil can harden or strengthen woods

 19

Linseed oil is obtained from flax seed (Linum usitatissimum) and has been used for

wood protection for long time due to its good penetrability .Several studies have reported the

use of linseed oil in wood protection thereby improving the physical, biological and

mechanical properties (Bansal R. et al 2022). The oil prepared by crushing the seeds finds

applications in formulating the so-called drying alkyd paints, which exhibit drying and

hardening properties when exposed to air ( Dlugogorski B. et al 2012)

The viscosity of the other glue solutions with linseed oil mixture are very low, so It

penetrates deep into the structure of the wood hardens and reduces the permeability of the

wood ( Doruk S. et al 2013). Maleinized and epoxidized linseed oil (MLO and ELO)

respectively, and two commercial additives derived from petroleum and based on glycidyl

functionality, that is, low-functionality epoxy-based styrene-acrylic oligomer (ESAO) and

polystyrene-glycidyl methacrylate random copolymer (PS-GMA). The addition of all four

compatibilizers improved both the mechanical and thermomechanical properties of the

composites, thus resulting in high-performance composite materials with relatively low

water uptake. Furthermore, the morphology of the obtained composites revealed an

extraordinary embedment of the fibers into the biopolymer matrix, which plays a crucial role

in improving toughness (Carrillo L. et al, 2021).

Properties and potential benefits of lemongrass oil in pest control.

Cymbopogon citratus known as lemongrass, is a significant source of chemical

metabolites with uses in pest control. The toxic properties of terpenoids and lemongrass

essential oil have been successfully demonstrated in the management of agricultural pests

(Jiang, Akhtar, Zhang, Bradbury, & Isman, 2012). Eucalyptus-based essential oils and

lemongrass have both been discovered to be efficient as insecticides, miticides,

antifeedants, and repellents for animals and antibacterial goods, hence being utilized as

bacteriostats, microbiocides, disinfectants, sanitizers, fungicides and others have helped to

safeguard people personal effects (OPENDER KOUL, 2008).

 20

The perennial grass Cymbopogon citratus, often known as citronella grass or

lemongrass, can reach a height of 1 m and has several stiff green stems that develop from

short rhizomatous roots. Its economic life span is approximately 5 years (Carianne B, 2005).

Lemongrass is believed to be harmless for both human health and the environment due to

its non-toxic mechanism of action. The majority of non-target animals, including humans, are

not poisonous to lemongrass oil, a common ingredient in many cuisines (Baker & Grant,

2022).

Environmental and health concerns associated with chemical termite control.

The widespread use of chemical pesticides for crop protection, despite having

contributed to ensure food security, have shown to exert negative impacts on the

environment and on human health (Campolo O. et al 2020). Termite control chemicals can

also harm or kill birds or other wildlife that the homeowner may not consider "pests." Just

some of the side effects documented by humans who have been exposed to termite control

agents in their environment include headaches, neuropathy, asthma and allergies (Janice F.,

2017) .The indiscriminate use of pesticides poses environmental concerns by contaminating

soils, groundwater, bodies of water, and marine ecosystems (Garay et al 2020).

Unlike chemical insecticides, which contain a single active constituent, plant-derived

insecticides are composed of many active components that act in a concerted manner

against the physiological, metabolic and behavioral pathways of pests. Thus, the chances of

pests developing resistance to such materials are less likely (Isman 2015; Benelli and Pavela

2018, b;Garay et al 2020). Undoubtedly, Essential oils and their bioactive components,

especially monoterpenes, are good examples as bio rational pest control options, as many of

them have shown promising bioactivities against harmful insects, including mosquito

vectors (Pavela et al 2021).

Natural and eco-friendly alternatives to chemical termite control.

 21

The use of eco-friendly biopesticides, derived from essential oils, plant extracts, and

inert dusts, provides a green alternative to conventional insecticides, reducing harm to

humans and the environment (Stankovic S. et al 2020). Essential oils, alone or in mixtures,

offer safe, biodegradable, and effective pest control, benefiting both nature and mankind

(Garay et al, 2020).

These natural biopesticides, derived from plants, are known as green pesticides,

minimizing harm to health, habitats, and ecosystems (Mossa 2016, Nollet and Rathore 2019).

They involve green chemistry and advanced crop protection techniques, offering eco-friendly

solutions (Koul 2008, Mishra et al. 2020, Abdelatti and Hartbauer 2020). Essential oils are

plant-derived and fragrant secondary metabolites found in various plant parts (Mishra et al.

2020). For termite control, eco-friendly biological methods can be a target-specific

alternative to chemicals (Verma P. et al, 2018).

The use of essential oils in pest controls.

Essential oils are well-known compounds with insecticide or repellent activities

(Stankovic S. et al, 2020). Essential oils (Eos) are a mixture of volatile oils produced as a

secondary metabolite in medicinal plants, and show activities against pests, insects, and

pathogenic fungi (Assadpour E. et al, 2023). Plants, giving large biomasses rich in essential

oils (Eos), are a great source of bioactive natural compounds that can be used in sectors

other than medical. Eos can act as insecticides and acaricides, and represent valuable

alternatives to the synthetic pest controllers, being biodegradable and human-

environmentally safe products (Danna C. et al, 2023).

In addition, the frequent emergence of resistance to pesticides and their adverse

effects toward non-target organisms have generated the need to develop novel ecofriendly

tools for pest control. Among these, plant essential oils (Eos) may play a central role in

arthropod pest control (Campolo O. et al, 2020).

 22

By 2030, the European Commission intends to halve chemical pesticide use and its

consequent risks. Among pesticides, nematicides are chemical agents used to control

parasitic roundworms in agriculture. In recent decades, researchers have been looking for

more sustainable alternatives with the same effectiveness but a limited impact on the

environment and ecosystems. Essential oils (Eos) are similar bioactive compounds and

potential substitutes (Catani L. et al, 2023).

Lemongrass oil as a potential termite repellant.

Lemon grass, scientifically known as Cymbopogon citratus, is a perennial plant that

thrives in tropical and subtropical regions globally, including Cameroon where it is

abundantly found. Research has highlighted its remarkable ability to repel rubber tree

termites, particularly due to its limonene extract (Mohd Zawawi, Izzati Sha’aree, 2021).

Within the realm of environmentally friendly pest control, local plants like papaya leaves,

soursop leaves, and lemongrass leaves, all of which contain active compounds, have

emerged as substitutes for synthetic pesticides (Kendalpayak and Timur, 2017).

Lemongrass, with its strong aroma, serves as a natural deterrent for termites and

can be employed as mulch to safeguard garden beds. Additionally, the use of lemongrass

oils has proven effective in termite control. It’s advisable to grow lemongrass in containers

to manage its robust growth (Adrea, 2022).

Linseed oil as a wood protectant.

The utilization of linseed oil in the woodworking industry dates back centuries.

Derived from flax seeds (Linum usitatissimum), linseed oil has been employed for wood

preservation due to its exceptional ability to penetrate wood (Bansal R. et al, 2022). It not

only imparts water resistance and dimensional stability to treated wood but, when combined

with boron, also guards against termite infestation (Terziev N. et al, 2010).

Numerous authors have documented methods for modifying linseed oil through
 23

refining reactions in an acetone process, resulting in coatings suitable for wood protection

(Perdoch W. et al., 2020). Linseed oil has a long history as an effective wood preservative,

especially when used in conjunction with other organic biocides (Singh T. et al, 2011). The

findings of a recent study by Hassan B. et al (2020) suggest that a mixture of specific

heartwood extract and linseed oil holds promise as an environmentally friendly wood

preservative.

Characteristics of coconut wood and its applications.

Coconut wood is a versatile and renewable material that can be obtained from senile

coconut palms that are no longer productive. Coconut wood has a unique structure that

varies according to the position along the stem. The outer part of the stem is hard and dense,

while the inner part is soft and porous. The density of coconut wood ranges from 0.248 to

0.852 g/cm3, and affects its physical and mechanical properties, such as bending strength,

modulus of elasticity, crushing strength, shear strength, and hardness. Coconut wood also

has a high moisture content and low natural durability, which require proper seasoning and

preservation techniques (Oduor & Githiomi, 2009).

Coconut wood can be used for various applications, such as house and building

construction, furniture and high-value products, electrical and telecommunication posts and

poles, charcoal, chemicals, and fiber-cement board. The density of the coconut wood

determines its suitability for different purposes. For example, low-density wood is mainly

used for non-loading structures, such as wall panels, ceilings, and partitions, while high-

density wood is used for load-bearing materials, such as beams, columns, and flooring.

Coconut wood can also be processed into veneer, plywood, laminated boards, parquet, and

handicrafts. Moreover, coconut wood can be converted into charcoal for fuel or activated

carbon for water purification and gas adsorption. The chemical constituents of coconut

wood, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and extractives, can also be extracted and

utilized for various industrial applications (Arancon Jr., 2009).

 24

The susceptibility of coconut wood to termite damage.

Coconut wood is a potential alternative source of timber for various applications, but

it is also vulnerable to termite attack, especially by subterranean termites. The susceptibility

of coconut wood to termite damage depends on several factors, such as the density,

moisture content, natural durability, and chemical composition of the wood. Different parts

of the coconut stem have different densities and properties, which affect their resistance to

termites. The outer part of the stem is hard and dense, while the inner part is soft and porous.

Generally, the higher the density of the wood, the lower the degradation by termites (Oduor &

Githiomi, 2009).

However, density alone is not a reliable indicator of termite resistance, as other

factors may also influence the feeding preference and damage potential of termites. For

example, the moisture content of the wood affects its attractiveness and digestibility by

termites. The natural durability of the wood is determined by its extractives, such as tannins,

phenols, and oils, which may have repellent, toxic, or antifeedant effects on termites. The

chemical composition of the wood, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and ash content,

also affects its nutritional value and susceptibility to termite attack (Arancon Jr., 2009).

Another factor that influences the susceptibility of coconut wood to termite damage

is the species of termites involved. Different species of subterranean termites have different

feeding habits and preferences for wood types. For instance, Peters et al. (2014) 3

conducted a field trial with untreated coconut wood of varying densities against two species

of subterranean termites: Coptotermes acinaciformis and Mastotermes darwiniensis in

northern Queensland, Australia. They found that Mastotermes darwiniensis fed more on the

coconut wood than did Coptotermes acinaciformis despite consuming less of the Scots pine

feeder specimens. They also found that Mastotermes darwiniensis caused more damage to

low-density coconut wood than to high-density coconut wood, while Coptotermes

acinaciformis showed no significant preference for either density.

 25

Similarly, Sivakumar et al. (2015) 4 compared the resistance of coconut wood to four

species of subterranean termites: Coptotermes gestroi, Coptotermes curvignathus,

Macrotermes gilvus and Microcerotermes crassus in Malaysia. They found that

Coptotermes gestroi was the most aggressive species, followed by Coptotermes

curvignathus, Macrotermes gilvus and Macrotermes crassus. They also found that high-

density coconut wood was more resistant than low-density coconut wood to all four species

of termites.

Previous research on termite resistance in various wood types.

Termite resistance is an important property of wood for various applications,

especially in tropical and subtropical regions where termites are prevalent. Different wood

species have different levels of natural resistance to termite attack, depending on their

physical and chemical characteristics. Some wood species also respond differently to

various treatments that aim to enhance their termite resistance. Therefore, it is useful to

review the previous research on termite resistance in various wood types and their

treatments (Usmani et al. 2020)

One of the recent studies on termite resistance was conducted by Usmani et al.

(2020), who investigated the effect of nano metal fluorides on pine wood treated with

different sol concentrations. They exposed the treated wood specimens to subterranean

termites (Coptotermes formosanus) for eight weeks and measured the termite mortality,

mass loss, and visual rating of the specimens. They found that nano metal fluorides with sol

concentrations of 0.5 M and higher were effective against termites, resulting in 100% termite

mortality and significantly inhibited termite feeding. They also found that combinations of

calcium fluoride (CaF2) and magnesium fluoride (MgF2) were the most effective

formulations, with an average mass loss less than 1% and visual rating of “1”.

Another recent study on termite resistance was conducted by Hadi et al. (2020), who

evaluated the effect of kesambi (Schleichera oleosa) smoke on fast-growing tropical woods,
 26

such as sengon (Falcataria moluccana), jabon (Anthocephalus cadamba), mangium (Acacia

mangium), and pine (Pinus merkusii). They treated the wood samples with kesambi smoke

for 1, 2, or 3 weeks and then exposed them to subterranean termites (Coptotermes

curvignathus) for eight weeks. They observed the color change and chemical analysis of the

smoked wood, as well as the termite mortality, mass loss, and visual rating of the specimens.

They found that kesambi smoke treatment enhanced the resistance of wood to termite

attack, and the resistance levels were not significantly different based on the duration of the

smoke treatment. They also found that the color of smoked wood became darker, less

yellow, and a little redder, while a longer smoking period produced a darker color which was

more resistant to termite attack.

The role of coconut wood in local economies and construction industries.

Coconut wood is a renewable and abundant resource that can contribute to the local

economies and construction industries of coconut-producing countries, especially in the

Asia-Pacific region. Coconut wood can provide income and employment opportunities for

farmers, processors, traders, and end-users of various coconut wood products. Coconut

wood can also reduce the dependence on imported and expensive building materials, and

promote the use of environmentally friendly and sustainable alternatives (Arancon Jr., 2009).

One of the recent studies on the role of coconut wood in local economies and

construction industries was conducted by Pichelin et al. (2020), who developed an innovative

technology to produce coco boards, which are ecological construction panels made of

coconut husk fibers and a natural tannin-based adhesive. They tested the production of coco

boards on a commercial scale in the Philippines and installed them in a social housing

project. They found that coco boards were affordable, durable, and resistant to termites,

fungi, and fire. They also found that coco boards had a positive social and environmental

impact, as they improved the living conditions of low-income families, created jobs for local

workers, and reduced the waste and pollution from coconut husks.
 27

Preservation methods for coconut wood in addition to termite control.

Anoop et al. (2018) investigated the treatment of coconut palm wood using inorganic

preservatives, such as copper chrome boron (C.C.B.) and borax boric acid (B.B.A.), by

diffusion and pressure treatment. They found that pressure treatment performed better than

diffusion treatment, and that solution concentrations and overall retention and penetration

percentage were significantly related. They also found that the treated coconut wood

samples complied with the prescribed retention and penetration percentages as per the

different standards and were resistant to insect damage.

Another study conducted field trials with untreated coconut wood of varying

densities against the subterranean termites Coptotermes acinaciformis and Mastotermes

darwiniensis. The susceptibility of coco wood to these termites decreases with increasing

density, but all densities could be considered susceptible, particularly to Mastotermes

darwiniensis (Peters et al., 2014).

A chapter on the management of coconut wood borers discusses the

implementation of integrated pest management strategies against major pests. The palm

wood should be free of pest damage and suitable for building applications when it gets

senile if integrated pest management measures against main pests in the standing crop are

implemented in a timely manner (Sujithra et al., 2022).

Challenges and limitations associated with coconut wood preservation.

One of the most beneficial palms in world is the coconut, the coconut tree's entire

body has a distinct usefulness. Coconut offers nearly all of the essential requirements of

humanity, including food, housing, medications, fuel, beverages, furnishings, cosmetics,

ornamental items and numerous other. Thus, it is commonly referred to as "Tree of

Life." from the roots to the leaves of the tree can be used as a source of raw materials for

practically everything (Dev, P. 2012). Coconut wood is a cost-effective and durable

 28

alternative for construction materials, particularly beneficial for low and middle-income

groups. Its availability and renewability contribute to forest conservation by reducing the

demand for traditional wood species, helping to preserve Kerala's natural forests (Mohan

Kumar, Kunhamu 2022).

Based on the density of the coconut timber, it can be used for loading and non-

loaded structural components. Low-density timber is mainly used for non-loading structures,

and high-density timbers are used for load-bearing materials”. The coconut palm is

undoubtedly the most economically important plant in the family, as it is used as both an

ornamental and as a food crop (Fairoosa & Nair, 2022).

The importance of sustainability in the use of coconut wood.

Environmental protective measures are essential in reducing operational energy in

construction due to the substantial energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions

associated with the building sector. Traditional earth-based buildings emit fewer greenhouse

gases, consume less energy, and maintain internal thermal comfort. The biodegradability of

materials is a crucial factor in their environmental impact, as some materials decompose

naturally and quickly, while others, like steel, take much longer and can produce hazardous

byproducts (Iwuagwu & Azubuine, 2015).

Wood and wood-based products are generally low in CO2 emissions and can be

gained from sustainable forest resources. Therefore, they can play a significant role as

renewable resources (Khademibami & Bobadilha, 2022). Biodegradability refers to a

material's ability to naturally break down when discarded. Organic materials like earth, thatch,

bamboo, and timber decompose quickly without producing hazardous substances, making

them traditional African building choices. In contrast, non-organic materials like steel

decompose slowly and may pose environmental risks (Iwuagwu and Azubuine, 2015).

Cultural and traditional methods of wood preservation.

 29

Since the 1830s, wood preservation enterprises have impregnated wood goods with

oil- and water-borne preservatives to guard against insects, fungus, and changes caused by

weathering. By 25 to 50 years, preservatives aid in extending the useful life of wood.

Creosote and pentachlorophenol (P.C.P.), two oil-borne preservatives, have been widely

employed to preserve wood items including railroad ties, utility poles, and timbers used in

bridge and building construction (Coudert, 2013).

The history of wood preservation dates back to 2000 B.C.E., with substances like tar

oil, olive oil, and cedar oil used as biocides. Over time, various wood preservatives, including

copper sulfate, mercuric chloride, and zinc chloride, were developed in the 18th and 19th

centuries to protect wood from degradation (Husaini, 2021).

Case studies and success stories of using natural termite control methods.

Numerous reviews of wood protection can be found in the scientific literatures, but

until now a review of a combination of wood preservatives (Khademibami & Bobadilha, 2022).

It is a current concern in the wood preservation field to avoid the use of toxic chemicals and

develop new technologies based on low environmental impact agents and sustainable

principles. Under this expectation, an intended state-of-the-art is introduced on the

application of natural products such as traditional tar and wood oils, as well as tannins and

plant extracts (Gonzales, 2015).

Traditionally, natural extracts have been explored throughout history to protect wood.

Oils, tars and extracts were used to impregnate wood structures, but their availability and

economic feasibility have not promoted their extensive use. The natural sources have been

almost any part of select wooden and herbaceous plants: bark, heartwood, fruit, seeds, and

leaves. Among sources of plant oils (either vegetal oils or essential oils), flax seeds (Lyon et

al., 2007), cinnamon (Lin et al., 2007), citrus peels (Macias et al., 2005), and tung seeds have

been experimented as potential wood protectors, showing diverse activities as antibacterial,

antifungal, antitermite, and antinematode agents. The list continues with exotic sources
 30

such as the oil from the nut of kukui plant (Aleurites moluccana), which is being used to

protect canoes against marine borer damage according to native folklore (Nakayama &

Osbrink, 2010).

A study from Cornell University's Cooperative Extension Service concluded that

lemongrass oil is effective at repelling subterranean termites (Ardoin, 2022). Vegetable oils

may be potential preservatives when applied as a layer into the wood surface by decreasing

water absorption and actually performing as water repellents (Tomak & Yildiz, 2012).

The relevance of your research to the broader field of wood preservation and pest control.

In conclusion, this research paper aims to investigate the potential of a mixture of

lemongrass extracts and linseed oil as an eco-friendly and sustainable lumber preservative.

Concerns related to environmental impacts stemming from the use of traditional wood

preservatives containing toxic metals, as well as the challenges associated with their

disposal, have prompted a quest for more environmentally sustainable technologies in the

realm of wood treatment (Gonzales, 2015).

Conventional wood preservation techniques rely on chemicals that are known to be

harmful, posing risks to both the environment and human well-being (Khademibami &

Bobadilha, 2022). Due to the negative environmental and health effects associated with

these chemicals, regulatory limitations on wood preservatives have been implemented in the

United States and various European nations. In response to these concerns, this study

explores an alternative approach that combines natural, locally-sourced materials. The

research assesses the effectiveness of this mixture in preventing wood decay, insect

infestations, and other forms of deterioration.

Additionally, it considers the economic, environmental, and cultural implications of

adopting such a preservation method, according to the Market Research Report (2020) the

value of the wood preservatives market is estimated to be $1.7 billion by 2025

 31

(Khademibami & Bobadilha, 2022). This research holds significant relevance in the context

of sustainable construction and environmentally responsible lumber treatment practices.

Theoretical Framework

Traditionally, natural extracts have been explored throughout history to protect wood.

Oils, tars and extracts were used to saturate wood structures, but their availability and

economic feasibility have not promoted their extensive use (Gonzales, 2015). Researchers

have consistently worked towards enhancing and pioneering novel methods for wood

preservation, studies from Cornell University's Cooperative Extension Service concluded that

lemongrass oil is effective at repelling subterranean termites (Ardoin, 2022). Furthermore,

Vegetable oils such as linseed oil, tung oil, soybean oil and more may be potential

preservatives when applied as a layer into the wood surface by decreasing water absorption

and actually performing as water repellents (Tomak & Yildiz, 2012). It is a natural oil, so not

as bad for the environment as many other solvent-based finishes, and it has a variety of uses,

from a furniture finish to treating wooden floors (Polishes, 2023). Through the fusion of

these two natural elements, there exists potential for developing a collaborative remedy to

protect coconut lumber.

The concept of safeguarding wood against biodegradation traditionally relies on the

principle of introducing toxicity. This practice involves the infusion of wood with

conventional synthetic biocides like creosote, copper chromium arsenate (C.C.A.), and

pentachlorophenol (P.C.P.) to prevent deterioration caused by insects and decay fungi

(Jones and Brioche, 2017). However, the application of these typical wood preservatives is

currently encountering environmental and consumer-related restrictions. Some of these

chemicals have faced limitations in various global commercial markets, a trend noted by

(Ahmed et al., 2020, Koski & Ahonen, 2008). In certain nations, wood that has undergone

treatment with conventional preservatives is categorized as hazardous waste. These

considerations have spurred both academic researchers and the wood preservation sector
 32

to seek out innovative, environmentally-friendly alternatives (Fatima et al., 2021).

Conceptual Framework

This research investigates the efficacy of lemongrass extract as a termite repellent

for coconut wood preservation. The study involves key concepts and variables, including the

independent variable, which is the application of lemongrass extract mixed with linseed oil,

and the dependent variable, which relates to termite infestation and wood preservation.

Additionally, termite species, like Subterranean Termite, act as mediating variables.

This study hypothesizes that applying lemongrass extract to coconut wood will deter

termites and enhance wood preservation. Environmental factors and termite species are

expected to affect this relationship. Assumptions include the presence of termite-repelling

compounds in lemongrass extract. The research is grounded in the theory of lemongrass

extract's potential as a natural termite repellent. Data collection involves applying the extract

to wood samples and analyzing termite infestation and wood preservation. Statistical

methods will assess the hypotheses and moderating/mediating variables. The study aims to

determine if lemongrass extract effectively repels termites, preserves wood, and how

environmental factors and termite species influence it. Findings will be interpreted within this

framework.

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study

33
 34

Significance of the study

Several stakeholders can benefit from the study on “Assessing Termite Resistance in

Coconut Wood: Evaluating the Efficacy of a Lemongrass Extract and Linseed Oil Mixture

Against Subterranean Termites.” These include:

To Wood Industries: Companies in coconut wood production can enhance product

durability with the natural termite resistance method, impacting construction, furniture, and

crafts.

To Environmental Conservationists: The study explores an eco-friendly alternative,

potentially reducing environmental impact in wood preservation practices.

To Farmers and Coconut Industry: If the mixture proves effective, it could add value

to coconut wood, benefiting farmers and the coconut industry.

To Community Well-Being. Preserving coconut wood against termites can prolong

the lifespan of structures, which is essential for community well-being and safety in areas

where coconut wood is a primary construction material. It could also offer a cost-effective

solution for termite protection, benefiting communities and industries in regions where

coconut wood is commonly used.

To Researchers and Academia: The study contributes to wood science, pest

management, and environmental studies, advancing knowledge for researchers and

academics.

Definition of Terms

Coconut wood. Coconut palm trees produce coconut timber, a substitute for

hardwood. In the Philippines, it is referred to as coconut timber or coco lumber, and it is also

known as coco wood. Its traditionally low value elder coconut trunks have been pushed as a

source of veneer and other wood products. It is a source of revenue for less developed

South Pacific island populations. (Nolan et al., 2016). Given the widespread use of coconut

wood in construction, we will incorporate it into this study to explore methods for

safeguarding it from termite damage and ensuring its long-term durability and sustainability.
 35

Lemon Grass Extract. In tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, South America, and

Africa, lemon grass, a perennial tropical grass with thin, long leaves, is one of the most

important medicinal and aromatic plants primarily grown for its essential oils (Akhila, 2010).

In this study, we will employ a mixture of lemon grass extract and linseed oil to assess its

potential as an effective termite repellent for protecting coconut wood.

Linseed Oil. One variety of the linseed-flax plant generates a high production of seed,

and another type produces a high yield of fiber (flax), both of which are used to make linseed

oil (Patterson, 2011). Linseed oil positively shows results in each treatment in terms of

mortality of termites and their feeding resistance (Ahmed et al., 2020). In this study, we will

combine linseed oil with lemon grass extract to determine its effectiveness as a termite

repellent for preserving coconut wood.

Subterranean termites. Of all the termite species, subterranean termites are the

most destructive. Known as "mud tubes," these termites create unique tunnels that help

them reach food sources and shield them from the elements. They consume wood seven

days a week, twenty-four hours a day, biting off little pieces of wood at a time with their saw-

toothed jaws. (Scheffrahn et al., 2008). This study will focus on the subterranean termites

and explore possible alternatives to reduce its impact on coconut wood, investigating

potential effects, damage, and interactions within this context.

Wood Resistance. It is wood's inherent resistance against biological degradation,

such as fungus growth and insect attacks, or even with the use of insecticides or other

chemical agents for insects like termites (Verbist et al., 2019) .In this study, it refers to the

treated capacity of the coconut wood to deter, inhibit, or withstand termite infestations,

preventing damage and preserving its structural integrity and durability.

Chapter 2

METHOD
 36

This section outlines the research methodology, encompassing the description of

the methods employed, the subjects under investigation, the instruments utilized for

research, and the procedures implemented for data collection. It provides a comprehensive

overview of how the study is conducted, detailing the approach, participants, tools, and steps

taken to gather relevant data for analysis.

Research Design

This study is a quantitative-experimental research, following the posttest design with

a total of 12 samples. The purpose of quantitative research is to discover the relationship

between the dependent variable and independent variable. The design compares the new

method or other control, one that receives the new intervention and one that receives the

control comparison. A true experiment is any research in which every other variable except

one is identified and controlled. It will also determine whether the independent variable has

an effect on the dependent variable (Lowhorn, 2007). Moreover, a posttest only control group

was also used in the study. In this design, all subjects were measured, but the experimental

group will only receive the treatment (X). Then the outcome was measured only once after

the intervention takes place in order to determine the treatment's effect (Hopkins, 2000).

In this study, choice test is used as a basic termite bioassay. Choice test means that

termites are presented with two feeding targets which may or may not contain insecticidal

components. Difference in mass loss may be indicative of preference or avoidance of one

material over another (ASTM D3345-22, 2022).

Referring to Figure 2, the control group with no mixture applied consisted of the samples

which are given (0) percent mixture. The samples are labeled C1, C2, C3 which is the wood

sample with no traces of lemongrass extract and linseed oil mixture. The experimental group

with 60 ml of lemongrass extract and of linseed oil was treated with the same amount of

mixture content but with a different number of coatings of the mixture through brushing. The
 37

samples were labeled T1 for wood sample that is coated twice (2), T2 for wood sample that

is coated thrice (3), and T3 for wood sample that is coated four times (4). And there will be

comparisons between the determined results after 2 weeks and 4 weeks, starting with the

application of the mixture to the wood samples. This study is conducted under controlled

environmental conditions. Only the experimental set-up underwent treatment (X) wherein

lemongrass extract and linseed oil were the mixture and the control set-up are the untreated

coconut wood samples. Table 2, shows the Treatment pairings of wood samples that will be

placed in every container. Observations are based on the parameters of the study, such as

termite mortality, Visual ratings (Test Method D3345 or AWPA E1), Weight Loss (based on

ASTM D3345 & AWPA E1-06)

Table 1. Example Treatment Pairings for Choice Testing

Hypothetical Test Groups Treatment Comparison Pairings

Untreated Control (C) C1-T1

Treatment #1 (T1) C2-T2

Treatment # 2 (T2) C3-T3

Treatment # 3 (T3) T1-T2

T1-T3

T2-T3

Figure 2. A Model for Posttest Group Design

38
 39

Research Subjects

The focus of this study were the parameters, especially the mortality of the termites,

visual ratings, and actual change in mass of the wood after the application. The subject was

the treated wood of coconut using the termite repellent mixture of lemongrass oil and

linseed oil. The treated wood was using different mixtures and different percentages of

Lemongrass oil and Linseed oil. The subjects were mainly composed of lemongrass oil and

linseed oil with different percentages which were converted to a volume valued in milliliters

(ml) in every different coating. A total of 60 milliliters (ml) of lemongrass oil and 40 milliliters

(ml) of linseed oil in every coat. Every sample had a total volume of 100 milliliters (ml). The

distribution of the materials was following the designated percentage as shown in table 1.

There were three (3) batches of treated coconut wood with the same size and the same

quantity of mixtures of lemongrass oil and linseed oil. Every batch has a different

composition of treated wood by the number of coatings that made the collection of results

different.

Research Instrument

In this research, the following materials were used for experimentation and

instrumentation:

Containers. Clear, Clean Glass or Plastic, with loosely fitting tops with liners removed,

220 cm3 to 450 cm3 (225 mL (8 oz) to 480 mL (16 oz)). It shall be utilized for the

containment of termites and wood samples

Tray. Enamel, stainless steel, or plastic, 0.25 m by 0.51 m (10 in. by 20 in.) to collect

and separate the termites.

Paper Towels or Corrugated Cardboard. Shall be used by the researchers for the

collection of termites.
 40

Hydrometer. Used to measure the to measure the humidity

Thermostat. Used to measure the to measure the temperature

Weighing scale. To weigh wood samples before and after exposure to termites. This

helps determine the extent of termite damage.

Incubation room (or Aquarium). Maintained at a temperature between 25 °C to 28 °C

(77 °F to 82°F) These are controlled environments where researchers can expose treated

wood samples to termites. The chambers should allow you to regulate temperature,

humidity, and other environmental factors.

Heat lamp. Is to be used to regulate temperature in the container.

Saw. Electric / hand saw for cutting the wood samples into smaller pieces.

Shovel. The researchers are to use shovels for collecting the soil and subterranean

termites that will be used in the experiment.

Documentation. The researchers shall use cameras to take pictures of the

experimentation.

Research Locale

The experimental research will be conducted at Sumile’s Residence in Purok

Bougainvilla, Mirafuentes Street, Magugpo North, Tagum City, Davao del Norte, providing a

convenient location for monitoring and experimentation. The research samples will be

coated with the mixture using the brushing method, applying varying quantities. The

standard proctor test will be executed at Sumile’s Residence in Purok Bougainvilla,

Mirafuentes Street, Magugpo North, Tagum City, Davao del, utilizing the necessary apparatus

for the tests.

 41

Figure 1. Location of Purok Bougainvilla, Mirafuentes Street, Magugpo North, Tagum City,

Davao del Norte

 42

Data Gathering Procedure

These steps were followed accordingly during the duration of the research:

1. Permission to conduct the experimental study at Wilmar’s residence. The

researchers need permission from the owner of the place to carry on the experiment,

where it will be stocked and tested for the period of experimentation.

2. Laboratory tests and analysis. In each of the set-ups, effectiveness of the mixture in

the samples was acquired through laboratory tests. The five (5) samples, each

having an individual container, have different quantities of coats of the linseed and

lemongrass oil mixture.

3. Data organization and interpretation. The control group with no treatment applied

shall be compared to the different experimental group with the varying coats of the

mixture applied.

Pre-Experimental Procedure

A. Wood Sampling Procedure

These will be the steps marked by the researchers in collecting the wood sample for the

experimentation:

1. The researchers will use coconut wood in the experimentation from Tagum City.

2. The researchers will make sure that the woods are of the same characteristics.

3. The researchers will cut some pieces of the coconut wood as a sample of the

experimentation.

4. The researchers will oven-dry the wood before the experimentation to get a

perfect sample that can be used in the experimentation.

 43

B. Subterranean Termites Sampling Procedure

1. The researchers will locate areas with visible signs of termite activity.

2. The researchers will get plastic containers with lids ready for collecting termites.

They will ensure they are clean and have ventilation holes.

3. The researchers will dig small trenches using a garden shovel to expose termite

galleries and make it easier to collect specimens.

4. The researchers will make sure that the termites have the same characteristics.

C. Preparation for Lemongrass extract and Linseed oil

1. The researchers will buy 60 ml lemongrass extract and 40 ml linseed oil from the

store.

D. Preparation for the Glass container

1. The researchers will use 3 existing glass containers and each are divided by 2 to

have 6 glass containers from one of our members.

2. The researchers will put sand on one of the glass containers and water on it with

the same quantity of water on every container.

Experimentation Procedure

The following will be the steps taken by the researchers for the experimentation:

1. The researchers will cut 12 woods with a length of 8 inches, width of 2 inches, and

height 2 inches for different samples.

2. The researchers will brush the wood samples with a different number of coats
 44

using the mixture of the lemongrass extract and linseed oil with a mixture of resin.

3. The researchers will use 3 glass containers and each container is divided by 2 to

have 6 glass containers for the storage of the wood samples. The glass container

has sand in it and the other glass container has water in it.

4. The researchers will store a number of 4 wood samples in every glass container.

5. The researchers will divide a sample of 12 coconut woods consisting of a different

number of coats that will be used weekly for the testing of parameters.

Post-Experimental Procedure

To get the perimeters of the experiment, the following will be employed:

1. The researchers will allocate four (4) containers with termites and test blocks, and

two additional containers with only termites, which will be inspected weekly.

2. The researchers will obtain the termite mortality, presence of tunneling, and the dry

mass of the test blocks for determining its weight loss at the end of fourth week.

3. The researchers will dispose of any excess and/or garbage after the results are

taken.

4. At the end of the experiment, termites will be disposed of responsibly through

euthanasia in consideration to ethical and legal standards.

A. Choice Test

The following equipments will be used:

1. Aspirator

2. Weighing Scale

3. Oven

0. Procedures for Choice Test.

1. The researchers will be putting two blocks of coconut wood (treated or

untreated) in each container with termites that will be stored in a dark room
 45

at a temperature between (25 °C to 28 °C).

2. At the end of four weeks, the researchers will pull out the test blocks from its

containers.

3. Living termites will be collected out of the blocks and will be counted

carefully using an aspirator to collect data on termite mortality.

4. The researchers will also examine and will visually rate each block for the

presence of tunneling in the wood which indicates the vigor of termites.

5. The researchers will also clean the test blocks from mud tubes and debris.

6. The test blocks will be oven dried under the same conditions as the pretest

(60 °C to a constant weight) to collect the dry mass of the block.

7. The researchers will then weigh the test block or coconut wood.

8. The researchers will take the data collected and take pictures of the samples.

Statistical Treatment of the Data

The following statistical approaches serve as analytical tools, illuminating insights

acquired from experiment results. These approaches not only examine and evaluate the

acquired data, but also identify the elements that describe the relationships between the

variables.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA): ANOVA will be utilized to assess whether there are

statistically significant differences in termite resistance among the samples with varying

coating quantities. This test will help determine if specific quantities of the lemongrass

extract and linseed oil mixture have a significant impact on termite resistance.

Regression Analysis: Regression analysis will be employed to model the relationship

between the quantity of coating applied and the resulting termite resistance. This will enable

the identification of trends and predictions, providing insights into the optimal coating
 46

quantity for enhanced termite resistance.

References:

Abraham, T. W., & Höfer, R. (2012). Lipid-Based polymer building blocks and

polymers. In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 15–58). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-

444-53349-4.00253-3

Admin. (2023, November 3). Termite/Anay Control in Davao | A.D.J. and R Pest

Control. A.D.J. And R Pest Control. https://davaopestcontrol.com/pest-

control-davao-services/termite-anay-control-in-davao-

city/?fbclid=IwAR27JwPaT7V1rj3MbzPrr_kSsD3evr9PtHC-

YHt_nzyHmDXGp9kuDzHAL3Q

Ahmed, S., Fatima, R., & haigh, B. (2020). Evaluation of different plant-derived oils as

wood preservatives against subterranean termite Odontotermes obesus.

Maderas-ciencia Y Tecnologia, ahead, 0. https://doi.org/10.4067/s0718-

221x2020005000110

Alamu, O.T.,and Ewete, F.K.(2021). Influence of seasonal changes, weather factors,

and soil depth on the foraging activities of subterranean termites in

eucalyptus plantations. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science. 41,

1213–1221.https://doi.org/10.1007/s42690-020-00311-8

Ali, I., Hashim, E., Toson, M., & Gnedy, M. (2011, July). EFFICACY OF PLANT OILS

AGAINST Thrips tabaci LIND. AND Tetranychus urticae KOCH ON BEAN,

Phaseolus vulgaris UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS IN FAYOUM GOVERNORATE.

fjord journals, Vol.25. Retrieved from

https://fjard.journals.ekb.eg/article_195644_3c81b8a16cea3e428c3179d0a1
 47

257d14.pdf

Almadiy, A. A. and Nenaah, G. E. (2021). Bioactivity and safety evaluations of

cupressus sempervirens essential oil, its nanoemulsion and main terpenes

against culex quinquefasciatus say. Environmental Science and Pollution

Research, 29(9), 13417-13430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16634-z

Amartey, S. et al. (2006). “Decay resistance of coconut and rubber woods –

alternative wood species from Ghana,” IRG/WP/06-10596, 1-7.

Andrea. (2022, September 22). The 13 Plants that Repel Termites (Protect Your

Home!) | Your indoor herbs and garden. Your Indoor Herbs and Garden.

https://www.yourindoorherbs.com/plants-repel-termites/

Appalasamy, S., Diyana, N. Arumugam, and J. G. Boon. (2021). Evaluation of the

chemical defense fluids of Macrotermes carbonarius and Globitermes

sulphureus as possible household repellents and insecticides. Sci. Rep. 11:

153.DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-80018-5

Arancon, N., Jr. (2009). THE SITUATION AND PROSPECTS FOR THE UTILIZATION OF

COCONUT WOOD IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND

THE PACIFIC.

Arango, R. A., Schoville, S. D., Currie, C. R., & Carlos‐Shanley, C. (2021). Experimental

Warming Reduces Survival, Cold Tolerance, and Gut Prokaryotic Diversity of

the Eastern Subterranean Termite, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar). Frontiers

in Microbiology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.632715

 48

Ardoin, J. (2022, June 17). 6 Plants to deter termites. Lawn Care Blog | Lawn Love.

https://lawnlove.com/blog/pest-control-plants-to-deter-termites/

Aslam Khan, Wasim Ahmad. (2018). Termites and Sustainable Management. Volume

2 - Economic Losses and Management.

https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-68726-1

Assadpour, E., Karaça, A. C., Fasamanesh, M., Mahdavi, S. A., Shariat-Alavi, M., Feng,

J., Kharazmi, M. S., Rehman, A., & Jafari, S. M. (2023). Application of

essential oils as natural biopesticides; recent advances. Critical Reviews in

Food Science and Nutrition, 1–21.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2023.2170317

Baana, K., Angwech, H., & Malinga, G. M. (2018). Ethnobotanical survey of plants

used as repellents against housefly, Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae)

in Budondo Subcounty, Jinja District, Uganda. Journal of Ethnobiology and

Ethnomedicine, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0235-6

Baker, B., & Grant, J. (2018). Lemongrass Oil Profile: Active Ingredient Eligible for

Minimum Risk Pesticide Use. Cornell eCommons. Retrieved October 16, 2023,

from https://ecommons.cornell.edu/items/5cfefd13-6e55-46c7-9f92-

d72da5cc6f16

Bansal, R., et al (2022). Purchase UV-resistant wood coating based on zinc oxide and

cerium oxide dispersed linseed oil nano-emulsion. ScienceDirect.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/getaccess/pii/S235249282200054X/purcha

se.

Bellanger, R. A., Seeger, C., & Smith, H. (2019). Safety of complementary and

alternative medicine treatments and practices. In Side effects of drugs

 49

annual (pp. 559–571). https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.seda.2019.06.004

Bignell, D. E. (2019). Termite ecology in the first two decades of the 21st Century: A

review of reviews. Insects, 10(3), 60.

https://doi.org/10.3390/insects10030060

Blog-Manager. (2021, August 4). 5 causes of flying termites in the Philippines. Pest

Control Philippines. https://topbest.ph/blogs/causes-flying-termites-

philippines/

Catani, L., Manachini, B., Grassi, E., Guidi, L., & Semprucci, F. (2023). Essential Oils as

Nematicides in Plant Protection—A Review. Plants, 12(6), 1418.

https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12061418

Campolo, O., Puglisi, I., Barbagallo, R. N., Cherif, A., Ricupero, M., Biondi, A., Palmeri,

V., Baglieri, A., & Zappalà, L. (2020c). Side effects of two citrus essential oil

formulations on a generalist insect predator, plant and soil enzymatic

activities. Chemosphere, 257, 127252.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127252

Campos, J., Severino, P., Ferreira, C. S., Zielińska, A., Santini, A., Souto, S. B., & Souto,

E. B. (2019). Linseed essential oil – source of lipids as active ingredients for

pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 26(24),

4537–4558. https://doi.org/10.2174/0929867325666181031105603

Cesar, C. S., Giacometti, D., Costa‐Leonardo, A. M., & Casarin, F. E. (2019). Drywood

Pest Termite Cryptotermes brevis (Blattaria: Isoptera: Kalotermitidae): a

Detailed Morphological Study of Pseudergates. Neotropical Entomology,

48(5), 822–833. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13744-019-00687-4

 50

Colón, S. (2023, October 26). Linseed oil | Description, Uses, Nutrition, Flaxseed, &

Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/linseed-

oil

Coudert, L., Blais, J., Mercier, G., Cooper, P. A., & Janin, A. (2013). Remediation

processes for wood treated with organic and/or inorganic preservatives. In

Elsevier eBooks (pp. 526–554).

https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857096906.4.526

Danna, C., Malaspina, P., Cornara, L., Smeriglio, A., Trombetta, D., De Feo, V., & Vanin,

S. (2023). Eucalyptus essential oils in pest control: A review of chemical

composition and applications against insects and mites. Crop Protection,

106319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2023.106319

Dhang, D. P. (2022). THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE BIO-ECOLOGY OF

SUBTERRANEAN TERMITES. THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE

BIO-ECOLOGY OF SUBTERRANEAN TERMITES.

https://professionalpestmanager.com/termite-research/the-impact-of-

climate-change-on-the-bio-ecology-of-subterranean-

termites/#:~:text=The%20rate%20of%20warming%20over,eventually%20influ

encing%20survival%20and%20distribution.

Dhang, P. 2017. Review of climate change impacts on urban pests, pp. 25–31. In 9th

International Conference on Urban Pests, 9–12 July 2017, Birmingham, UK.

Dini M. Miller, Associate Professor and Extension Specialist, Entomology, Virginia

Tech. (2009). Subterranean Termite Biology and Behavior. Virginia

Cooperative Extension.

https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/c1477776-b649-
 51

444c-be06-fe79a160e434/content

Doruk, E. (2013). Determination to the effects of wax / linseed oil and varnish on the

dimensional stability of laminated veneer wood ( LVL ) Ş.

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Determination-to-the-effects-of-wax

-linseed-oil-and-Doruk-

Altunok/86dd9089047231eaf625f4d49bef11a4fdcb9299

Esteves, B., Ferreira, H., Viana, H., Ferreira, J., Domingos, I., Cruz-Lopes, L., and Jones,

D. (2021). Termite resistance, chemical and mechanical characterization of

paulownia tomentosa wood before and after heat treatment. Forests. 12(8).

1114. MDPI AG.http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/f12081114

E.V. Anoop*, V. J. Jeeshma, T.K. Dhamodaran#, K. Vidyasagaran, Surabhi Lukose

And Francis Scaria. (2018). Treatment of coconut palm wood using inorganic

preservatives. https://www.researchgate.ne.

Ferreira, D.V., Cruz, J.S., Sacramento, J.J.M., Rocha, M.L.C., Cristaldo, P.F., Araújo,

A.P.A. 2019. Effect of temperature and substrate moisture on group survival

of Constrictotermes sp. (Isoptera: Termitidae) under laboratory conditions.

Revista Brasileira de Entomologia 63(1): 9-11.

Garay, J., Brennan, T. M., & Bon, D. (2020b). Review: Essential Oils A Viable Pest

Control Alternative. International Journal of Ecotoxicology and Ecobiology,

5(2), 13. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijee.20200502.11

González-Laredo, R. F. (n.d.). Wood preservation using natural products.

https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S140504712015000400005&scri

pt=sci_arttext&tlng=en
 52

Hadi, Y. S., Massijaya, M. Y., Nandika, D., Arsyad, W. O. M., Abdillah, I. B., Setiono, L., &

Amin, Y. (2020). Color change and termite resistance of fast-growing tropical

woods treated with kesambi (Schleichera oleosa) smoke. Journal of Wood

Science, 66(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s10086-020-01906-y

Juita, Dlugogorski, B. Z., Kennedy, E. M., & Mackie, J. C. (2012). Low temperature

oxidation of linseed oil: a review. Fire Science Reviews, 1(1).

https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-0414-1-3

McDonaldHassan, B., Ahmed, S., Mankowski, M., & Kirker, G. (2019). Comparison of

Performance of Wood Extractives as Preservatives in Field Tests against

Termites and Decay in the U.S.A. and Pakistan. One Hundred Thirteenth

Annual Meeting of the AMERICAN WOOD PROTECTION ASSOCIATION,

VOLUME 113(0066–1198), 35. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Babar-

Hassan/publication/330213659_Comparison_of_Performance_of_Wood_Extr

actives_as_Preservatives_in_Field_Tests_against_Termites_and_Decay_in_th

e_USA_and_Pakistan/links/5c34615ca6fdccd6b59b01b1/Comparison-of-

Performance-of-Wood-Extractives-as-Preservatives-in-Field-Tests-against-

Termites-and-Decay-in-the-USA-and-Pakistan.pdf

Hassan, B., Mankowski, M. E., Kirker, G. T., Ahmed, S., & Bishell, A. B. (2019). Ex-situ

performance of extracts from naturally durable heartwood species and their

potential as wood preservatives. European Journal of Wood and Wood

Products, 77(5), 869–878. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-019-01443-6

Hassan, B., Ahmed, S., Kirker, G. T., Mankowski, M. E., & Haq, M. M. U. (2019).

Synergistic effect of heartwood extracts in combination with linseed oil as

wood preservatives against subterranean termite Heterotermes indicola

(Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae). Environmental Science and Pollution Research,

 53

27(3), 3076–3085. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07202-7

Houseman, R. M., Gold, R. E., & Pawson, B. M. (2001). Resource Partitioning in Two

Sympatric Species of Subterranean Termites,Reticulitermes

flavipesandReticulitermes hageni(Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Environmental

Entomology, 30(4), 673–685. https://doi.org/10.1603/0046-225x-30.4.673

Husaini, A., Sing, N. N., Chin, S. F., Roslan, H. A., Vincent, M., & Ho, W. (2021). Smart

polymer composites for wood protection. In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 377–397).

https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-819961-9.00014-1

I.O. Uwubanmwen, C.N. Nwawe, R.A. Okere, M. Dada and E. Eseigbe. (2011).

Harnessing the Potentials of the Coconut Palm in the Nigerian Economy.

World Journal of Agricultural Sciences.

John, R. (2022, May 12). Are Homes or Buildings Ever at Risk of Collapsing Due to

Extensive Termite Damage? - J&J Exterminating. J&J Exterminating.

https://www.jjext.com/homes-buildings-ever-risk-collapsing-due-extensive-

termite-damage

Kendalpayak, Jl Raya, and Jawa Timur. (2017). “Biopestisida Untuk Pengendalian

Hama Dan Penyakit Tanaman Aneka Kacang Dan Umbi.” Iptek Tanaman

Pangan, 11(2), 159–66.

Khan, N., Naushad, M., & Fahad, S. (2020). Termites economics and control aspects

in Pakistan. Social Science Research Network.

https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3583247

K. Fairoosa and Suma Nair. (2022). Comparative Evaluation of Physical and

Mechanical Properties in the Radial Positions of Coconut (Cocos nucifera)

 54

Timber. International Journal of Plant & Soil Science.

Kim, S. H., Lee, S., & Gyun, I. I. (2020). Study of Minimum Passage Size of

Subterranean Termites (Reticulitermes speratus kyushuensis). MUN HWA

JAE - Annual Review in Cultural Heritage Studies, 53(4), 188–197.

https://doi.org/10.22755/kjchs.2020.53.4.188

Kim, S., and Yong-Jae C. (2022). Analysis of factors affecting termite damage to

wooden architectural heritage buildings in Korea. Forest. 13 (3), 465.

https://doi.org/10.33 90/f13030465

Kumar, B. M., & Kunhamu, T. K. (2022). Nature-based solutions in agriculture: A

review of the coconut (Cocos nucifera L.)-based farming systems in Kerala,

“the Land of Coconut Trees.” Nature-Based Solutions, 2, 100012.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbsj.2022.100012

Lei, & Lei. (2023, June 10). A guide to understanding termites and termite destruction

in the Philippines. Pest Control Services in the Philippines | Environet.

https://environet.com.ph/blog/guide-to-understanding-termites-and-termite-

destruction-in-the-philippines/

Living, R. (2022, September 25). How to Get Rid of Termites and Keep Them from

Coming Back. realliving.com.ph. https://www.realliving.com.ph/cleaning-

organizing/home-care/how-to-get-rid-of-termites-and-keep-them-from-

coming-back-a1818-20220925-lfrm

Maddala, S. (2019, April). Green pest management practices for sustainable

buildings: critical review. Science Progress.102(2),141-

152.doi:10.1177/0036850419842459.
 55

Mary L. Cornelius , Leanne M. Duplessis & Weste L. A. Osbrink. (2007). The Impact of

Hurricane Katrina on the Distribution of Subterranean Termite Colonies

(Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in City Park, New Orleans, Louisiana. United

States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern

Regional Research Center, 1100 Robert E. Lee Blvd., New Orleans, LA 70124.

Maynard, D. S., Crowther, T. W., King, J. R., Warren, R. J., & Bradford, M. A. (2015).

Temperate forest termites: ecology, biogeography, and ecosystem impacts.

Ecological Entomology, 40(3), 199–210. https://doi.org/10.1111/een.12185

Meisyara, D., Himmi, S. K., Tarmadi, D., Ismayati, M., Wikantyoso, B., Fajar, A.,

Guswenrivo, I., & Yusuf, S. (2021). Anti-termite activities of Indonesia's

essential oils against invasive drywood termite for wood product protection.

I.O.P. Conference Series, 918(1), 012032. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-

1315/918/1/012032

Mishra A K, Singh D, Bharti P, and Chiranjeeb K. (2020). Essential Oil- a potential

green pesticide. Biotica Research Today, 2(7), 638–40.

Mishra, P.,Verma, M., Jha, S., Tripathi, A., Pandey, A., Dikshit, A. and Sharma, S.

(2021). Biological approaches of termite management: a review. Current

Botany. 12, 121-131. https://doi.org/10.25081/cb.2021.v12.7021

Moon, J., Ajuna, H. B., Won, S., Choub, V., Choi, S., Yun, J., Hwang, W. J., Park, S. W., &

Ahn, Y. S. (2023). The Anti-Termite Activity of Bacillus licheniformis PR2

against the Subterranean Termite, Reticulitermes speratus kyushuensis

Morimoto (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Forests, 14(5), 1000.

https://doi.org/10.3390/f14051000

Mossa A H. (2016). Green pesticides: Essential oils as biopesticides and Technology

 56

9: 354–78.

Moustafa, M., Awad, M., Amer, A., Hassan, N. N., Ibrahim, E. S., Ali, H. M., Akrami, M.,

& Salem, M. Z. M. (2021). Insecticidal Activity of Lemongrass Essential Oil as

an Eco-Friendly Agent against the Black Cutworm Agrotis ipsilon

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Insects, 12(8), 737.

https://doi.org/10.3390/insects12080737

Nandika, D., Rismayadi, Y., Diba, F. 2015. Rayap: Biologi Dan Pengendaliannya. 2nd

ed. Muhamma- diyah University Press, Surakarta, Indonesia.

Ney, F. P., Malco, D. C. L., Senoro, D. B., & Catajay-Mani, M. (2019). The bio-

mechanical properties of coco wood applied with Neem extracts: a potential

preservative for sustainable building in Marinduque, Philippines. Sustainable

Environment Research. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42834-019-0041-4

Nollet L M L, Rathore H S. (2019). Green pesticides handbook: Essential Oils for Pest

Control, pp. 1–572. C.R.C. Press. In insect-pest management. Journal of

Environmental Science.

Oduor, N. O. and J. G. (2009). Wood Characteristics and properties of Cocos nucifera

(the coconut tree) grown in Kwale District. https://www.fornis.net/.

Oi, F. (2022). A review of the evolution of termite control: a continuum of alternatives

to termiticides in the United States with emphasis on efficacy testing

requirements for product registration. Insects. 13(1), 50;

https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13010050

Okpo, S. O., & Edeh, I. (2023). A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW ON LEMONGRASS

(CYMBOPOGON CITRATUS) OIL EXTRACTION AND ITS APPLICATIONS.

 57

EPRA International Journal of Research and Development (IJRD), 8(4),

2455–7838. https://doi.org/10.36713/epra2016

Olotuah, O. F., & Dawodu, E. O. (2017). Biocidal properties of cymbopogon citratus

extracts on termite (Microcerotermes beesoni). Agriculture and Food

Sciences Research, 4(1), 20–23.

https://doi.org/10.20448/journal.512.2017.41.20.23

Othman, N. (2012, December 17). ANALYSIS OF BUILDING DEFECT FOR WOODEN

HOUSES AT FLOODED AREA IN KOTA BHARU, KELANTAN. Othman | Journal

of Design + Built. https://spaj.ukm.my/jsb/index.php/jdb/article/view/28

Perdoch, W., Depczyńska, E., Tomkowiak, K., Furgał, M., Kurczak, M., & Mazela, B.

(2022). The impact of Vinylotrimethoxysilane-Modified linseed oil on selected

properties of impregnated wood. Forests, 13( 😎, 1265.

https://doi.org/10.3390/f13081265

Pests, weeds, and diseases in agricultural crop and animal husbandry production.

Google

Books.https://books.google.com.ph/books?hl=en&lr=&id=K6ItEAAAQBAJ&oi

=fnd&pg=PA43&dq=info:kZh9uEWXrOgJ:scholar.google.com/&ots=_I42I2GF

6q&sig=z3UDF1oNkPr3TwEFx0acJhCwym4&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=fa

lse

Peters, B. C., Bailleres, H. and Fitzgerald, C. J. (2014). Susceptibility of Coconut Wood

to Damage by Subterranean Termites (Isoptera: Mastotermitidae,

Rhinotermitidae). https://era.daf.qld.gov.au/images/dpi-era100.gif.

POTTER, DR. M. (2013). [Termite Control] Brrrrr! How Temperature and Moisture

Impact Termite Behavior. https://www.pctonline.com/article/pct0113-

 58

temperature-termite-

behavior/#:~:text=Optimum%20temperatures%20for%20termites%20range,w

here%20temperatures%20are%20more%20suitable.

Quiles-Carrillo, L., Balart, R., Boronat, T., Torres-Giner, S., Puglia, D., Dominici, F., &

Torre, L. (2021). Development of Compatibilized Polyamide 1010/Coconut

Fibers Composites by Reactive Extrusion with Modified Linseed Oil and Multi-

functional Petroleum Derived Compatibilizers. Fibers and Polymers, 22(3),

728–744. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12221-021-0024-z

Sameh S. Ali, R., Yehia A., Michael K., Sarina S., and Jianzhong S.Recent advances in

the life cycle assessment of biodiesel production linked to azo dye

degradation using yeast symbionts of termite guts: A critical review. Energy

Reports.8. 7557-7581. https://doi.org /10.1016/j.egyr.2022.05.240.

Shiny, K.S., Lingappa, B., Mamatha, N., and Sundararaj, R. (2019, July). A new

approach to wood protection: preliminary study of biologically synthesized

copper oxide nanoparticle formulation as an environmental friendly wood

protectant against decay fungi and termites.Maderas.Cienca y tecnologia.

21(3). 347-356.http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-221X20 19005000307

Silvia GHESINI , Gabi MÜLLER , Mario MARINI. (2020). First record of the

subterranean termite Reticulitermes grassei in Switzerland. Bulletin of

Insectology. http://www.bulletinofinsectology.org/pdfarticles/vol73-2020-

149-151ghesini.pdf

Singh, T., & Singh, A. P. (2011). A review on natural products as wood protectant.

Wood Science and Technology, 46(5), 851–870.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-011-0448-5
 59

Sivakumar V., Baharuddin K.A., Bakar E.S., & Sahri M.H. (2015). Resistance of

Coconut Wood to Subterranean Termite Attack: Laboratory Testing against

Four Termite Species under Malaysian Conditions. Journal of Tropical Forest

Science 27(1), 102-109

Subterranean Termite facts: Appearance, habitat & threats. (n.d.-b).

https://www.arrowexterminators.com/learning-center/pest-

library/termites/subterranean-

termites#:~:text=Subterranean%20termites%20live%20in%20underground,th

eir%20caste%20within%20the%20colony

Subterranean termites Characteristics, habitat, and behavior | Preventive Pest control.

(2015, January 13). Preventive Pest Control.

https://www.preventivepestcontrol.com/subterranean-termites-

characteristics-habitat-and-behavior/

Tay, J. (2023). Highlights of Urban Entomology 2021: chemical, nonchemical, and

alternative approaches to urban pest management as we adapt, advance,

and transform. Journal of Medical Entomology. 60 (1), 1–6,

https://doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjac176

Termite Biology (eastern subterranean termites and Formosan termites). (n.d.).

Mississippi State University Extension Service.

https://extension.msstate.edu/content/termite-biology-eastern-subterranean

-termites-and-formosan-termites

Terminix, & Webb, D. (2023, June 20). Where do termites live? Termite habitats.

Terminix. https://www.terminix.com/termites/behavior/where-do-termites

live/#:~:text=Subterranean%20species%20live%20underground%20and,found
 60

%20near%20nests%20and%20homes.

Termites. (2023). Retrieved from https://www.rentokil.com/ph/services/pest-control

services/termites#:~:text=In%20the%20Philippines%2C%20termite%20dama

ge,the%2 growth%20of%20termite%20population.

Terziev N., Panov D. (2010). Minimizing the Environmental Impact of the Forest

Products Industries-Ecowood. Fernando Pessoa University; Porto, Portugal:

Plant oils as “green” substances for wood protection; pp. 143–149.

Universiti Teknologi MARA, Negeri Sembilan. Evaluation of selected herbs extract as

repellent against rubber termites (Coptotermes curvignathus) / Ahmad Zaimi

Mohd Zawawi and Shazatul Izzati Sha’aree - UiTM Institutional Repository.

https://ir.uitm.edu.my/id/eprint/47974/

Usmani, S. M., Plarre, R., Hübert, T., & Kemnitz, E. (2020). Termite resistance of pine

wood treated with nano metal fluorides. European Journal of Wood and

Wood Products, 78(3), 493–499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-020-01522-

Verma, P., Yadav, A. N., Kumar, V., Khan, M. Z., & Saxena, A. K. (2017b). Microbes in

Termite Management: Potential role and Strategies. In Springer eBooks (pp.

197–217). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68726-1_9

Wang, C., Lee,C.Y, and Rust, M.K. (2021). Biology and management of the German

cockroach, 1st ed. CABI, Wallingford, UK.DOI:10.1071/9781486312078 What

are the dangers of termite control? Healthfully. Published January 11, 2021.

https://healthfully.com/dangers-termite-control-5998192.html

Wu, D., Seibold, S., Ellwood, F., and Chu, C. (2022). Differential effects of vegetation
 61

and climate on termite diversity and damage. Journal of Applied Ecology.

59(12), 2922-2935. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.14282

Yatoo, A.M., Ali, M.N., and Baba, Z.A. (2021). Sustainable management of diseases

and pests in crops by vermicompost and vermicompost tea. A review. Agron.

Sustainable Development. 41, 7 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-020-00657-

Zhou, A., X. Qu, L. Shan, and X. Wang. (2017). Temperature warming strengthens the

mutualism between ghost ants and invasive mealybugs. Scientific Reports. 7,

959.https://doi. org/10.1038/s41598-017-01137-0