Effects of Mixing Different Types of Cement To The Properties of Concrete

JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
OF
AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, CONSTRUCTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERING
FINAL YEAR PROJECT
TITLE
EFFECTS OF MIXING DIFFERENT TYPES OF CEMENT

ON THE PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
BY:
LOISE WANJIKU KAHIGA
REG. NO. E25-0855/04
SUPERVISOR
Eng. Mang’uriu
This project is submitted in partial fulfillment of the award of Bsc. Civil, Construction and
Environmental Engineering of the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology.
March,2010.
Loise Wanjiku Kahiga E25-0855/04
DECLARATION
I, Loise Wanjiku Kahiga hereby do declare that this is my original work and has not been
presented elsewhere for the award of a degree or any other purpose whatsoever.
Signed Date
Loise Wanjiku Kahiga
CERTIFICATION
I have read this report and approve it for examination
Signed Date
Eng. Mang’uriu
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this project to my dear parents, brothers and sister who have believed in me and dared
me to dream. Thank you for your unrivaled support and prayer throughout my education. Philip
Oyamo you have been a good friend and taught me that patience pays. Not forgetting my
roommate and friend Madrin Maina for the time we have shared to discuss the project and many
other things. And mostly, the Lord who set the path for me to follow with all the challenges, He
has been with me.
Most gratitude goes to my supervisor, Eng Mang’uriu, who dedicated his time to guide me
through the period and help me out when I was stuck with his philanthropic encouragement..
Thank you all and many blessings from the Almighty.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I register my appreciation to God Almighty. I thank my supervisor Eng. Mang’uriu for his
informed advice. Your effort at providing advice is greatly valued. I tender my deep gratitude to
the staff of the Civil Construction & Environmental Engineering department and my colleagues
who guided and assisted me throughout my studies and in accomplishing this research work.
In addition, I would like to thank my family and friends who stood by my side throughout my
studies. GOD BLESS YOU ALL.
To all those behind the scene who supported me and I have not mentioned, thank you so much. It
means a lot and I am humbled.
With all due respect, I thank A.M.Neville for his books which have really guided me through this
project.
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ABSTRACT
Concrete is a construction material composed of cement (commonly Portland cement) as well as
other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate (generally a coarse
aggregate such as gravel, limestone, or granite, plus a fine aggregate such as sand), water, and
chemical admixtures. The main binder of concrete has been the cement. Thus the study on the
effects of mixing the different types. Different cements react differently with the other
compounds which influences the properties of concrete.
Different companies manufacture a variety of types of cement with respect to their strengths and
also manufacture different types of Portland cement with respect to the percentages of chemical
constituents and compounds used in the cement production. This is mainly produced on order.
The literature review of this book gives the details about the types of Portland cement, the
chemical constituents and many more details which help in understanding the cement reaction
with the other materials in making of concrete. Due to time, the project is based on the different
types of cement with respect to strength i.e. cements of strengths 32.5 N/mm2. Concrete is known
to be strong in compressive strength than tensile strength, therefore the former is the main
property been studied here.
The project hopes to achieve the objectives and answer the problem statement; the mixing of
different types of cement should be discouraged as it affects the properties of concrete, and hence
resulting to the problems faced in the construction industry especially the collapse of buildings,
as well as determine if the hypothesis is true; the mixing of different types of cement affects the
properties, especially strength, of concrete. The properties observed here include the compressive
strength and workability of concrete which are the main physical properties of concrete.
For the project to be successful, the following research methods are used, compressive strength
test and slump test. The tests would not be done without doing the concrete mix design. All these
are well explained in chapter 3 of the booklet. Chapter 4 covers the results and their analysis. To
be able to know how exactly the properties of concrete are affected, control mixes are done for
comparison and as is shown the slump test table shows how workability is affected in comparison
to the slump of the control mixes which is based on the mix design. Effect on the compressive
strength is also tabled for ease of comparison.
From the media most buildings collapse before completion and therefore it can be argued that it is
due low strengths of concrete for the required curing period that may be one of the causes.
There is a discussion for the results, recommendation and conclusion for the project.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ................................................................................................................. i
CERTIFICATION .............................................................................................................. i
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................. iii
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... vi
CHAPTER 1 ....................................................................................................................... 1
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Justification..................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................ 3
1.4 Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Research Hypothesis ..................................................................................................... 3
1.6 Limitations Of The Study .............................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER 2 ....................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Literature Review.............................................................................................................. 4
2.2 Portland Cement................................................................................................................ 4
2.3 Standards For Classification Portland Cement ................................................................... 8
2.4 Concrete.......................................................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER 3 ..................................................................................................................... 34
3.1 Research Methodology .................................................................................................... 34
3.1.1 Mix Design Procedure .............................................................................................. 35
3.1.2 Sieve Analysis.......................................................................................................... 37
3.1.3 Water Absorption ..................................................................................................... 38
3.1.4 Slump Test ............................................................................................................... 38
3.1.5 Compressive Strength Test ....................................................................................... 39
3.1.6 Level Of Effect Of Compressive Strength................................................................. 39
CHAPTER 4 ..................................................................................................................... 43
4.0 Data Collection ............................................................................................................... 43
4.1 Sieve Analysis Results ................................................................................................ 43
4.2 Concrete Mix Design Table......................................................................................... 46
4.3 Compressive Strength Test Results.............................................................................. 47
4.4 Slump Test Results ..................................................................................................... 48
4.5 Comparison Results & Analysis .................................................................................. 48
4.6 Table Showing To What Level, In %Age, The Strength Of Concrete Is Affected By The
Mixing.............................................................................................................................. 51
CHAPTER 5 ..................................................................................................................... 53
5.1 Discussion....................................................................................................................... 53
5.2 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 54
5.3 Recommendations ........................................................................................................... 55
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 56
APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................... 57
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LIST OF FIGURES
Photograph 1: A pallet with Portland cement……………………………………………………...4
Photograph 2: A photograph showing a slump (true slump) which is a measure of workability...19
Photograph 3: The Abram’s cone before slump test……………………………………………...35
Fig 2. Showing the placement of the concrete cube for compression…………………………….39
Photograph 4: Cylindrical and cubical moulds for concrete specimens used for compressive
strength test……………………………………………………………….………40
Photograph 5: Moulds filled with concrete before curing………………………………………..40
Photograph6: The compressive test machine……………………………………………………..41
Photograph 7: The setting of the cube in the compressive test machine before crushing………..41
Photograph 8: Crushing of cubes before failure………………………………………………….42
LIST OF GRAPHS
Graph1: showing the coarse aggregate sieve analysis results…………………………………..44
Graph2: showing the fine aggregate sieve analysis results………………………………………45
Graph 3: showing the comparison of compressive strength of TYPE A + B with the control
mixes…….…………………………………………………………………………...49
Graph 4: showing the comparison of compressive strength of TYPE A + C with the control
mixes…………………………………………………………………………………...50
Graph 5: showing the comparison of compressive strength of TYPE A + D with the control
mixes…………………………………………………………………………………...50
Graph 6: showing the comparison of the effect on compressive strength in %age with TYPE A
being the determining mix……………………………………………………………..51
Graph 7: showing the comparison of the effect on compressive strength in %age with TYPE B,
TYPE C and TYPE D being the determining mix…………………………………….52
vi
CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
In the most general sense of the word, cement is a binder, a substance which sets and hardens
independently, and can bind other materials together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans,
who used the term "opus caementicium" to describe masonry which resembled concrete and was
made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick
additives which were added to the burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as
cementum, cimentum, cäment and cement. Cements used in construction are characterized as
hydraulic or non-hydraulic. The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and
concrete—the bonding of natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material which
is durable in the face of normal environmental effects. Concrete should not be confused with
cement because the term, cement refers only to the dry powder substance used to bind the
aggregate materials of concrete.
Therefore, Concrete is a construction material composed of cement (commonly Portland cement)
as well as other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate (generally a
coarse aggregate such as gravel, limestone, or granite, plus a fine aggregate such as sand), water,
and maybe chemical admixtures. Cement solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and
placement due to a chemical process known as hydration. The water reacts with the cement,
which bonds the other components together, eventually creating a stone-like material and the
reaction is exorthermic. Concrete is used to make pavements, architectural structures,
foundations, and motorways/roads, bridges/overpasses, parking structures, brick/block walls and
footings for gates, fences and poles.
The construction industry in Kenya is growing wider and wider every day thus a great demand for
cement, an example is the current expansion of Thika road. The cost of cement has been
fluctuating for the last 5 years and thus you find that people will buy a cheaper product just so as
to save a shilling for the next bag, in this case, they don’t maintain the use one type of cement.
This has adversely led to failures and collapse of buildings. In the construction of residential
houses, structural engineers are greatly ignored. This has led to failures and a major activity of
mixing different types of cement to produce concrete at the sites. If they are involved from the
beginning, it is believed the activity will reduce at a greater percentage since He/She will demand
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for the best type of cement for the concrete production with respect to the strength of concrete
required.
Comprehensive study was made of compressive and flexural strengths produced by different
types of Portland cement used in concretes mixed, placed, and cured at various temperatures
between 25°F and 120°F. Tests indicate that there is a temperature during the early life of
concrete which is considered optimum with regard to strength at later ages. Effect of calcium
chloride on strength at various temperatures of mixing, placing, and curing is reported. Effect of
cement temperature was found unimportant, except as it affected concrete temperature after
mixing. More air-entraining agent was required for a given air content as concrete temperature
increased and slump decreased.
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1.2 PROBLEM JUSTIFICATION
This study is necessary because there have been many cases of collapse of buildings and the
major blame goes to the structural engineers. Determining the effect of mixing different types of
cement to the properties of concrete will help in partly or majorly solving the problem and raising
consciousness to the people (contactors, project managers, proponents/clients/employer e.t.c.) on
site during construction. The study will examine to what level concrete is affected and provide
recommendations and conclusions for it.
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT
The mixing of different types of cement should be discouraged as it affects the properties of
concrete, and hence resulting to the problems faced in the construction industry especially the
collapse of buildings.
1.4 OBJECTIVES
The main objective of this project is to determine the effect of mixing different types of cement
on the strength and other properties of concrete.
Specific objectives
• To determine to what level the strength of concrete is affected by mixing different types
of cement.
• To determine how the other properties of concrete are influenced by the mixing of
different types of cement.
1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
The mixing of different types of cement affects the properties, especially strength, of concrete.
1.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
• Use of locally manufactured cement as opposed to cement types from other regions.
• No enough time to conduct the study, the research would have considered the use various
mixes as shown in the research methodology table 1.
3
CHAPTER 2
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.2 PORTLAND CEMENT
Photograph 1: A pallet with Portland cement
Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the world, because it
is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco and most non-specialty grout. It is a fine powder
produced by grinding Portland cement clinker (more than 90%), a limited amount of calcium
sulphate which controls the set time, and up to 5% minor constituents (as allowed by various
standards).As defined by the European Standard EN197.1, "Portland cement clinker is a hydraulic
material which shall consist of at least two-thirds by mass of calcium silicates (3CaO.SiO2 and
2CaO.SiO2), the remainder consisting of aluminum- and iron-containing clinker phases and other
compounds. The ratio of CaO to SiO2 shall not be less than 2.0. The magnesium content (MgO)
shall not exceed 5.0% by mass.
2.2.1 History of Portland cement
Portland was developed from cements (or correctly hydraulic limes) made in Britain in the early
part of the 19th century, and its name is derived from its similarity to Portland stone, a type of
building stone that was quarried on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England.
4
Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer, in 1824 was granted a patent for a process of making cement
which he called Portland cement. His cement was an artificial hydraulic lime similar in properties
to the material known as "Roman Cement" (patented in 1796 by James Parker) and his process
was similar to that patented in 1822 and used since 1811 by James Frost who called his cement
"British Cement". The name "Portland cement" is also recorded in a directory published in 1823
being associated with a William Lockwood and possibly others.
Aspdin's son William in 1843 made an improved version of this cement and he initially called it
"Patent Portland cement" although he had no patent. In 1848 William Aspdin further improved
his cement and in 1853 moved to Germany where he was involved in cement making. Many
people have claimed to have made the first Portland cement in the modern sense, but it is
generally accepted that it was first manufactured by William Aspdin at Northfleet, England in
about 1842. The German Government issued a standard on Portland cement in 1878.
2.2.2 Production of Portland cement
There are three fundamental stages in the production of Portland cement:
1. Preparation of the raw mixture

2. Production of the clinker
3. Preparation of the cement
The chemistry of cement is very complex, so cement chemist notation was invented to simplify
the formula of common oxides found in cement. This reflects the fact that most of the elements
are present in their highest oxidation state, and chemical analyses of cement are expressed as
mass percent of these notional oxides. The raw materials for clinker production hence cement are
as follows:
Limestone-high and low grade
Shale
Iron ore
Coal- (fuel)
Pozzolana
gypsum
Clinker
The intermediate product produced through pyro-processing is called clinker
Hourly samples are drawn for clinker analysis
Clinker is the major component of cement
5
Depending on clinker addition level two types of cement are produced i.e. OPC and PPC
cements
Kenyan standard allow clinker usage to a minimum of 65% for the production of PPC
cement
Clinker quality determines the quality of the cement
The flow chart below shows the process of the clinker production which is the main ingredient of
cement. (Source: Athi River Mining Company)
Clinker Process
CRUSHING Crushed STOCK

Limestone,
MINING shale & iron Limestone
PILING &
BLENDING
Limestone
COAL
MINING
&
DOSING
Fine
coal
Clinker PYRO- Kiln feed BLENDING Raw meal

PROCESSI HOMOGENIZI
NG NG & KILN
FEEDING
RAW P-24
Clinker MILLING Material blends
Limestone (76%)
Shale (20%)
Iron (4%)
CLINKER Clinker FINISH PACKING

Cement To dispatch Fe/Ore shale
STORAGE MILLING additives
Gypsum
Clinker YARD
Pozzolana
Fig1: Clinker production process
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Use of Gypsum in Cement:-

The major consumers of the Gypsum at present are cement industry. By weight about 4% to 6%
gypsum in crushed condition is utilized in Portland cement manufacture after mixing with
cement/clinker.
• Gypsum acts as a retarder and controls the setting time of cement.
• Gypsum also finds use in cementations formulations with non OPC products like in the
manufacture of high alumina cement, super sulphated cement.
Cement
Clinker is ground with gypsum to produce cement
There are two commonly used varieties of cement in Kenya
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) containing clinker and gypsum –Cem I 42.5N as per
KEBS
Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) containing clinker, gypsum and Pozzolana- Cem II
32.5 as per KEBS
KEBS allow Pozzolana usage in PPC up to 35%
PPC is preferred to OPC due to its better workability and higher resistance against
sulphate and chloride attack
OPC is used where high compressive strength is required
OPC provide high early compressive strength attain strength of 42.5N by the 28th Day.
Cement Grinding
• Specific surface area/particle size
• Setting time-initial and final setting time
• Sulphate level
• Calcium oxide and free lime
• Compressive strength
• Soundness
• Water consistency
• Chloride
2.2.3 Use of Portland cement

i. The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a
composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a
construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape desired, and once
hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element. Users may be involved in the
factory production of pre-cast units, such as panels, beams, road furniture, or may make
7
cast-in-situ concrete such as building superstructures, roads, dam. These may be supplied
with concrete mixed on site, or may be provided with "ready-mixed" concrete made at
permanent mixing sites.
ii. Portland cement is also used in mortars (with sand and water only) for plasters and
screeds, and in grouts (cement/water mixes squeezed into gaps to consolidate
foundations, road-beds, etc).
2.3 STANDARDS FOR CLASSIFICATION PORTLAND CEMENT
2.3.1 General
There are different standards for classification of Portland cement. The two major standards are
the:
i. ASTM C150 used primarily in the U.S.

ii. European EN-197. EN 197 cement TYPEs CEM I, II, III, IV, and V do not
correspond to the similarly-named cement TYPEs in ASTM C 150.
2.3.1.1 ASTM C150

There are five types of Portland cements with variations of the first three according to ASTM
C150.
1) Type I Portland cement is known as common or general purpose cement. It is generally

assumed unless another type is specified. It is commonly used for general construction
especially when making precast and precast-prestressed concrete that is not to be in
contact with soils or ground water. The typical compound compositions of this type are:
Compound C3S C2S C3 A C4AF MgO SO3 Ignition Free CaO

loss
Percentage 55 19 10 7 2.8 2.9 1 1
A limitation on the composition is that the (C3A) shall not exceed 15%.
2) Type II is intended to have moderate sulfate resistance with or without moderate heat of
hydration. This type of cement costs about the same as type I. Its typical compound
composition is:
Compound C3 S C2 S C3A C4AF MgO SO3 Ignition Free

loss CaO
Percentage 51 24 6 11 2.9 2.5 0.8 1
A limitation on the composition is that the (C3A) shall not exceed 8% which reduces its
vulnerability to sulfates. This type is for general construction that is exposed to moderate sulfate
8
attack and is meant for use when concrete is in contact with soils and ground water especially in
the western United States due to the high sulfur content of the soil. Because of similar price to
that of Type I, Type II is much used as general purpose cement, and the majority of Portland
cement sold in North America meets this specification.
Note: Cement meeting (among others) the specifications for type I and II has become commonly
available on the world market.
3) Type III is has relatively high early strength. Its typical compound composition is:
Compound C3S C2 S C3A C4AF MgO SO3 Ignition Free
loss CaO
Percentage 57 19 10 7 3 3.1 0.9 1.3
This cement is similar to Type I, but ground finer. Some manufacturers make a separate clinker
with higher C3S and/or C3A content, but this is increasingly rare, and the general purpose clinker
is usually used, ground to a specific surface typically 50-80% higher. The gypsum level may also
be increased a small amount. This gives the concrete using this type of cement a 3 day
compressive strength equal to the 7 day compressive strength of types I and II. Its 7 day
compressive strength is almost equal to types I and II 28 day compressive strengths. The only
downside is that the 6 month strength of type III is the same or slightly less than that of types I
and II. Therefore the long-term strength is sacrificed a little. It is usually used for precast concrete
manufacture, where high 1-day strength allows fast turnover of molds. It may also be used in
emergency construction and repairs and construction of machine bases and gate installations.
4) Type IV Portland cement is generally known for its low heat of hydration. Its typical
compound composition is:

loss CaO
Percentage 28 49 4 12 1.8 1.9 0.9 0.8
The percentages of (C2S) and (C4AF) are relatively high and (C3S) and (C3A) are relatively low.
A limitation on this Type is that the maximum percentage of (C3A) is 7, and the maximum
percentage of (C3S) is 35. This causes the heat given off by the hydration reaction to develop at a
slower rate. However, as a consequence the strength of the concrete develops slowly. After 1 or 2
years the strength is higher than the other Type s after full curing. This cement is used for very
large concrete structures, such as dams, which have a low surface to volume ratio. This type of
cement is generally not stocked by manufacturers but some might consider a large special order.
9
This Type of cement has not been made for many years, because Portland-pozzolan cements and
ground granulated blast furnace slag addition offer a cheaper and more reliable alternative.
5) Type V is used where sulfate resistance is important. Its typical compound composition
is:

loss CaO
Percentage 38 43 4 9 1.9 1.8 0.9 0.8
This cement has a very low (C3A) composition which accounts for its high sulphate resistance.
The maximum content of (C3A) allowed is 5% for type V Portland cement. Another limitation is
that the (C4AF) + 2 (C3A) compositions cannot exceed 20%. This type is used in concrete that is
to be exposed to alkali soil and ground water sulfates which react with (C3A) causing disruptive
expansion. It is unavailable in many places although its use is common in the western United
States and Canada. As with type IV, type V Portland cement has mainly been supplanted by the
use of ordinary cement with added ground granulated blast furnace slag or tertiary blended
cements containing slag and fly ash.
Types Ia, IIa, and IIIa has the same composition as types I, II, and III. The only difference is
that in Ia, IIa, and IIIa an air-entraining agent is ground into the mix. The air-entrainment must
meet the minimum and maximum optional specification found in the ASTM manual. These types
are only available in the eastern United States and Canada but can only be found on a limited
basis. They are a poor approach to air-entrainment which improves resistance to freezing under
low temperatures.
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2.3.1.2 EN 197
EN 197-1 defines 5 classes of common cement that comprise Portland cement as a main
constituent. These classes differ from the ASTM classes.
Comprising Portland cement and up to 5% of minor additional

I Portland cement
constituents
Portland-composite
II Portland cement and up to 35% of other single constituents
cement
III Blast furnace cement Portland cement and higher percentages of blast furnace slag
IV Pozzolanic cement Portland cement and up to 55% of Pozzolanic constituents
V Composite cement Portland cement, blast furnace slag and Pozzolana or fly ash
Constituents that are permitted in Portland-composite cements are blast furnace slag, silica fume,
natural and industrial Pozzolana, silicious and calcareous fly ash, burnt shale and limestone.
White Portland cement

White Portland cement differs physically from the gray form only in its color, and as such can fall
into many of the above categories (e.g. ASTM Type I, II and/or III). However, its manufacture is
significantly different from that of the gray product, and is treated separately.
Safety
When cement is mixed with water a highly alkaline solution (pH ~13) is produced by the
dissolution of calcium, sodium and potassium hydroxides. Gloves, goggles and a filter mask
should be used for protection. Hands should be washed after contact. Cement can cause serious
burns if contact is prolonged or if skin is not washed promptly. Once the cement hydrates, the
hardened mass can be safely touched without gloves.
Environmental effects
Portland cement manufacture can cause environmental impacts at all stages of the process. These
include emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and vibration when
operating machinery and during blasting in quarries, consumption of large quantities of fuel
during manufacture, release of CO2 from the raw materials during manufacture, and damage to
countryside from quarrying. Equipment to reduce dust emissions during quarrying and
manufacture of cement is widely used, and equipment to trap and separate exhaust gases are
11
coming into increased use. Environmental protection also includes the re-integration of quarries
into the countryside after they have been closed down by returning them to nature or re-
cultivating them.
Epidemiologic Notes and Reports Sulfur Dioxide Exposure in Portland Cement Plants, from the
Centers for Disease Control, states "Workers at Portland cement facilities, particularly those
burning fuel containing sulfur, should be aware of the acute and chronic effects of exposure to
SO2 [sulfur dioxide], and peak and full-shift concentrations of SO2 should be periodically
measured."
An independent research effort of AEA Technology to identify critical issues for the cement
industry today concluded the most important environment, health and safety performance issues
facing the cement industry are atmospheric releases (including greenhouse gas emissions, dioxin,
NOx, SO2, and particulates), accidents and worker exposure to dust. [8]
The CO2 associated with Portland cement manufacture falls into 3 categories:
• CO2 derived from decarbonation of limestone,
• CO2 from kiln fuel combustion,
• CO2 produced by vehicles in cement plants and distribution.
Source 1 is fairly constant: minimum around 0.47 kg CO2 per kg of cement, maximum 0.54,
typical value around 0.50 worldwide.
Source 2 varies with plant efficiency: efficient precalciner plant 0.24 kg CO2 per kg cement, low-
efficiency wet process as high as 0.65, typical modern practices (e.g. UK) averaging around 0.30.
Source 3 is almost insignificant at 0.002-0.005. So typical total CO2 is around 0.80 kg CO2 per
kg finished cement. This leaves aside the CO2 associated with electric power consumption, since
this varies according to the local generation TYPE and efficiency. Typical electrical energy
consumption is of the order of 90-150 kWh per tonne cement, equivalent to 0.09-0.15 kg CO2 per
kg finished cement if the electricity is coal-generated.
Overall, with nuclear- or hydroelectric power and efficient manufacturing, CO2 generation can be
as little as 0.7 kg per kg cement, but can be as high as twice this amount. The thrust of innovation
for the future is to reduce sources 1 and 2 by modification of the chemistry of cement, by the use
of wastes, and by adopting more efficient processes. Although cement manufacturing is clearly a
very large CO2 emitter, concrete (of which cement makes up about 15%) compares quite
favorably with other building systems in this regard.
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2.4 CONCRETE
Concrete is a construction material composed of cement (commonly Portland cement) as well as

other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate (generally a coarse
aggregate such as gravel, limestone, or granite, plus a fine aggregate such as sand), water, and
chemical admixtures. Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and placement due
to a chemical process known as hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the
other components together, eventually creating a stone-like material. Concrete is used to make
pavements, architectural structures, foundations, and motorways/roads, bridges/overpasses,
parking structures, brick/block walls and footings for gates, fences and poles.
Concrete is used more than any other man-made material in the world. As of 2006, about 7.5
cubic kilometers of concrete are made each year—more than one cubic meter for every person on
Earth. Concrete powers a US $35-billion industry which employs more than two million workers
in the United States alone. More than 89,000 km of highways in the United States are paved with
this material. Reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete are the most widely used modern
kinds of concrete functional extensions. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete
2.4.1 History of concrete
Opus caementicium laying bare on a tomb near Rome. In contrast to modern concrete structures,
the concrete walls of Roman buildings were covered, usually with brick or stone. During the
Roman Empire, Roman concrete (or Opus caementicium) was made from quicklime, pozzolanic
ash/Pozzolana, and an aggregate of pumice. Its widespread use in many Roman structures, a key
event in the history of architecture termed the Concrete Revolution, freed Roman construction
from the restrictions of stone and brick material and allowed for revolutionarily new designs both
in terms of structural complexity and dimension.
Concrete, as the Romans knew it, was in effect a new and revolutionary material. Laid in the
shape of arches, vaults and domes, it quickly hardened into a rigid mass, free from many of the
internal thrusts and strains which trouble the builders of similar structures in stone or brick.
Modern tests show Opus caementicium similarly strong as modern Portland cement concrete in
its compressive strength (ca. 200 kg/cm2). However, due to the absence of reinforced steel, its
tensile strength was far lower and its mode of application was also different:
Modern structural concrete differs from Roman concrete in two important details:
i. First, its mix consistency is fluid and homogeneous, allowing it to be poured into
forms rather than requiring hand-layering together with the placement of
aggregate, which, in Roman practice, often consisted of rubble.
13
ii. Second, integral reinforcing steel gives modern concrete assemblies great
strength in tension, whereas Roman concrete could depend only upon the
strength of the concrete bonding to resist tension.
The widespread use of concrete in many Roman structures has ensured that many survive to the
present day. The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are just one example of the longevity of concrete,
which allowed the Romans to build this and similar structures across the Roman Empire. Many
Roman aqueducts and Roman bridges have masonry cladding to a concrete core, a technique they
used in structures such as the Pantheon, the dome of which is concrete. The secret of concrete
was lost for 13 centuries until 1756, when the British engineer John Smeaton pioneered the use of
hydraulic lime in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate. Portland cement was
first used in concrete in the early 1840s. This version of history has been challenged however, as
the Canal du Midi was constructed using concrete in 1670.
Recently, the use of recycled materials as concrete ingredients is gaining popularity because of
increasingly stringent environmental legislation. The most conspicuous of these is fly ash, a by-
product of coal-fired power plants. This has a significant impact by reducing the amount of
quarrying and landfill space required, and, as it acts as a cement replacement, reduces the amount
of cement required to produce a solid concrete. As cement production creates massive quantities
of carbon dioxide, cement-replacement technology such as this will play an important role in
future attempts to cut carbon dioxide emissions.
Concrete additives have been used since Roman and Egyptian times, when it was discovered that
adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set under water. Similarly, the Romans knew that
adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it
more frost-resistant. In modern times, researchers have experimented with the addition of other
materials to create concrete with improved properties, such as higher strength or electrical
conductivity. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete
2.4.2 Composition of concrete
There are many types of concrete available, created by varying the proportions of the main
ingredients below. The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete
will be mixed and delivered, and how it will be placed to form this structure.
2.4.2.1 Cement
Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of
concrete, mortar, and plaster. English engineer Joseph Aspdin patented Portland cement in 1824;
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it was named because of its similarity in colour to Portland limestone, quarried from the English
Isle of Portland and used extensively in London architecture. It consists of a mixture of oxides of
calcium, silicon and aluminium. Portland cement and similar materials are made by heating
limestone (a source of calcium) with clay, and grinding this product (called clinker) with a source
of sulfate (most commonly gypsum). The manufacturing of Portland cement creates about 5
percent of human CO2 emissions. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete
2.4.2.2 Water
Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration.
The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and allows it to flow more
easily. Less water in the cement paste will yield a stronger, more durable concrete; more water
will give an easier-flowing concrete with a higher slump. Impure water used to make concrete can
cause problems when setting or in causing premature failure of the structure.
Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same time. As the reactions
proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bond together the individual sand
and gravel particles, and other components of the concrete, to form a solid mass.
Reaction:
Cement chemist notation: C3S + H2O → CSH (gel) + CaOH
Standard notation: Ca3SiO5 + H2O → (CaO)•(SiO2)•(H2O)(gel) + Ca(OH)2
Balanced: 2Ca3SiO5 + 7H2O → 3(CaO)•2(SiO2)•4(H2O)(gel) + 3Ca(OH)2
2.4.2.3 Aggregates
Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural gravel and
crushed stone are mainly used for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from construction,
demolition and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial replacements of natural
aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates, including air-cooled blast furnace slag
and bottom ash are also permitted. Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or
crushed glass are sometimes added to the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed
aggregate" finish, popular among landscape designers.
2.4.2.4 Reinforcement
Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression load.
However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can crack, allowing
15
the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete solves these problems by adding either metal reinforcing
bars, glass fiber, or plastic fiber to carry tensile loads.
2.4.2.5 Chemical admixtures
Chemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the concrete
to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. In normal use,
admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement, and are added to the concrete at the time
of batching/mixing. The most common types of admixture are:
• Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Typical materials used
are CaCl2 and NaCl.
• Retarders slow the hydration of concrete, and are used in large or difficult pours where
partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable. A typical retarder is table sugar,
or sucrose (C12H22O11).
• Air entrainments add and distribute tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which will reduce
damage during freeze-thaw cycles thereby increasing the concrete's durability. However,
entrained air is a trade-off with strength, as each 1% of air may result in 5% decrease in
compressive strength.
• Plasticizers (water-reducing admixtures) increase the workability of plastic or "fresh"
concrete, allowing it to be placed more easily, with less consolidating effort.
Superplasticizers (high-range water-reducing admixtures) are a class of plasticizers which
have fewer deleterious effects when used to significantly increase workability.
Alternatively, plasticizers can be used to reduce the water content of a concrete (and have
been called water reducers due to this application) while maintaining workability. This
improves its strength and durability characteristics.
• Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.
• Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel bars in concrete.
• Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete.
• Pumping aids improve pump ability, thicken the paste, and reduce dewatering – the
tendency for the water to separate out of the paste.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete
2.4.2.6 Mineral admixtures and blended cements
There are inorganic materials that also have pozzolanic or latent hydraulic properties. These very
fine-grained materials are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties of concrete
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(mineral admixtures), or as a replacement for Portland cement (blended cements). Fly ash: A by
product of coal fired electric generating plants; it is used to partially replace Portland cement (by
up to 60% by mass). The properties of fly ash depend on the type of coal burnt. In general,
silicious fly ash is pozzolanic, while calcareous fly ash has latent hydraulic properties.
• Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS or GGBS): A by product of steel
production, is used to partially replace Portland cement (by up to 80% by mass). It has
latent hydraulic properties.
• Silica fume: A by-product of the production of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys. Silica fume
is similar to fly ash, but has a particle size 100 times smaller. This results in a higher
surface to volume ratio and a much faster pozzolanic reaction. Silica fume is used to
increase strength and durability of concrete, but generally requires the use of
Superplasticizers for workability. High Reactivity Metakaolin (HRM): Metakaolin
produces concrete with strength and durability similar to concrete made with silica fume.
While silica fume is usually dark gray or black in color, high reactivity Metakaolin is
usually bright white in color, making it the preferred choice for architectural concrete
where appearance is important.
2.4.3 Concrete production
The processes used vary dramatically, from hand tools to heavy industry, but result in the
concrete being placed where it cures into a final form. When initially mixed together, Portland
cement and water rapidly form a gel, formed of tangled chains of interlocking crystals. These
continue to react over time, with the initially fluid gel often aiding in placement by improving
workability. As the concrete sets, the chains of crystals join up, and form a rigid structure, gluing
the aggregate particles in place. During curing, more of the cement reacts with the residual water
(Hydration). This curing process develops physical and chemical properties. Among other
qualities, mechanical strength, low moisture permeability, and chemical and volumetric stability.
2.4.4 Mixing concrete

Cement being mixed with sand and water to form concrete. Thorough mixing is essential for the
production of uniform, high quality concrete. Therefore, equipment and methods should be
capable of effectively mixing concrete materials containing the largest specified aggregate to
produce uniform mixtures of the lowest slump practical for the work. Separate paste mixing has
shown that the mixing of cement and water into a paste before combining these materials with
aggregates can increase the compressive strength of the resulting concrete. The paste is generally
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mixed in a high-speed, shear-type mixer at a w/cm (water to cement ratio) of 0.30 to 0.45 by
mass. The cement paste premix may include admixtures, e.g. accelerators or retarders,
plasticizers, pigments, or fumed silica. The latter is added to fill the gaps between the cement
particles. This reduces the particle distance and leads to a higher final compressive strength and a
higher water impermeability. The premixed paste is then blended with aggregates and any
remaining batch water, and final mixing is completed in conventional concrete mixing equipment.
High-Energy Mixed Concrete (HEM concrete) is produced by means of high-speed mixing of
cement, water and sand with net specific energy consumption at least 5 kilojoules per kilogram of
the mix. It is then added to a plasticizer admixture and mixed after that with aggregates in
conventional concrete mixer. This paste can be used itself or foamed (expanded) for lightweight
concrete. Sand effectively dissipates energy in this mixing process. HEM concrete fast hardens in
ordinary and low temperature conditions, and possesses increased volume of gel, drastically
reducing capillarity in solid and porous materials. It is recommended for precast concrete in order
to reduce quantity of cement, as well as concrete roof and siding tiles, paving stones and
lightweight concrete block production.
2.4.5 Workability
Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly with the
desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability depends on
water content, aggregate (shape and size distribution), cementitious content and age (level of
hydration), and can be modified by adding chemical admixtures. Raising the water content or
adding chemical admixtures will increase concrete workability. Excessive water will lead to
increased bleeding (surface water) and/or segregation of aggregates (when the cement and
aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having reduced quality. The use of an
aggregate with an undesirable gradation can result in a very harsh mix design with a very low
slump, which cannot be readily made more workable by addition of reasonable amounts of water.
Workability can be measured by the Concrete Slump Test, a simplistic measure of the plasticity
of a fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2 test standards. Slump, as
shown in photograph 2 below, is normally measured by filling an "Abrams cone" with a sample
from a fresh batch of concrete. The cone is placed with the wide end down onto a level, non-
absorptive surface. It is then filled in three layers of equal volume, with each layer being tamped
with a steel rod in order to consolidate the layer. When the cone is carefully lifted off, the
enclosed material will slump a certain amount due to gravity. A relatively dry sample will slump
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very little, having a slump value of one or two inches (25 or 50 mm). A relatively wet concrete
sample may slump as much as six or seven inches (150 to 175 mm).
Slump can be increased by adding chemical admixtures such as mid-range or high-range water
reducing agents (super-plasticizers) without changing the water/cement ratio. It is bad practice to
add excessive water upon delivery to the jobsite; however in a properly designed mixture it is
important to reasonably achieve the specified slump prior to placement as design factors such as
air content, internal water for hydration/strength gain, etc. are dependent on placement at design
slump values.
High-flow concrete, like self-consolidating concrete, is tested by other flow-measuring methods.
One of these methods includes placing the cone on the narrow end and observing how the mix
flows through the cone while it is gradually lifted.
Photograph 2: A photograph showing a slump (true slump) which is a measure of workability
2.4.6 Curing
In all but the least critical applications, care needs to be taken to properly cure concrete, and
achieve best strength and hardness. This happens after the concrete has been placed. Cement
requires a moist, controlled environment to gain strength and harden fully. The cement paste
hardens over time, initially setting and becoming rigid though very weak, and gaining in strength
in the days and weeks following. In around 3 weeks, over 90% of the final strength is typically
reached though it may continue to strengthen for decades.
Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first three days is critical. Abnormally fast drying
and shrinkage due to factors such as evaporation from wind during placement may lead to
increased tensile stresses at a time when it has not yet gained significant strength, resulting in
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greater shrinkage cracking. The early strength of the concrete can be increased by keeping it
damp for a longer period during the curing process. Minimizing stress prior to curing minimizes
cracking. High early-strength concrete is designed to hydrate faster, often by increased use of
cement which increases shrinkage and cracking.
During this period concrete needs to be in conditions with a controlled temperature and humid
atmosphere. In practice, this is achieved by spraying or ponding the concrete surface with water,
thereby protecting concrete mass from ill effects of ambient conditions. One method of curing
would be ponding – submerging setting concrete in water, and wrapping in plastic to contain the
water in the mix.
Properly curing concrete leads to increased strength and lower permeability, and avoids cracking
where the surface dries out prematurely. Care must also be taken to avoid freezing, or overheating
due to the exothermic setting of cement (the Hoover Dam used pipes carrying coolant during
setting to avoid damaging overheating). Improper curing can cause scaling, reduced strength,
poor abrasion resistance and cracking.
2.4.7 Properties of concrete
2.4.7.1 Strength
Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly lower tensile strength. It is
fair to assume that a concrete sample's tensile strength is about 10%-15% of its compressive
strength. As a result, without compensating, concrete would almost always fail from tensile
stresses – even when loaded in compression. The practical implication of this is that concrete
elements subjected to tensile stresses must be reinforced with materials that are strong in tension.
Reinforced concrete is the most common form of concrete. The reinforcement is often steel; rebar
(mesh, spiral, bars and other forms). Structural fibers of various materials are available. Concrete
can also be prestressed (reducing tensile stress) using internal steel cables (tendons), allowing for
beams or slabs with a longer span than is practical with reinforced concrete alone. Inspection of
concrete structures can be non-destructive if carried out with equipment such as a Schmidt
hammer, which is used to estimate concrete strength.
The ultimate strength of concrete is influenced by the water-cementitious ratio (w/c), the design
constituents, and the mixing, placement and curing methods employed. All things being equal,
concrete with a lower water-cement (cementitious) ratio makes a stronger concrete than that with
a higher ratio. The total quantity of cementitious materials (Portland cement, slag cement,
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Pozzolana) can affect strength, water demand, shrinkage, abrasion resistance and density. All
concrete will crack independent of whether or not it has sufficient compressive strength. In fact,
high Portland cement content mixtures can actually crack more readily due to increased hydration
rate.
As concrete transforms from its plastic state, hydrating to a solid, the material undergoes
shrinkage. Plastic shrinkage cracks can occur soon after placement but if the evaporation rate is
high they often can actually occur during finishing operations, for example in hot weather or a
breezy day. In very high-strength concrete mixtures (greater than 10,000 psi) the crushing
strength of the aggregate can be a limiting factor to the ultimate compressive strength. In lean
concretes (with a high water-cement ratio) the crushing strength of the aggregates is not so
significant.
The internal forces in common shapes of structure, such as arches, vaults, columns and walls are
predominantly compressive forces, with floors and pavements subjected to tensile forces.
Compressive strength is widely used for specification requirement and quality control of
concrete. The engineer knows his target tensile (flexural) requirements and will express these in
terms of compressive strength.
Reactive Powder Concrete, also known as Ultra-High Performance Concrete, can be even
stronger, with strengths of up to 116,000 PSI (800 MPa). These are made by eliminating large
aggregate completely, carefully controlling the size of the fine aggregates to ensure the best
possible packing, and incorporating steel fibers (sometimes produced by grinding steel wool) into
the matrix. Reactive Powder Concretes may also make use of silica fume as a fine aggregate.
Commercial Reactive Powder Concretes are available in the 25,000-30,000 PSI strength range.
2.4.7.2 Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity of concrete is a function of the modulus of elasticity of the aggregates
and the cement matrix and their relative proportions. The modulus of elasticity of concrete is
relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as matrix
cracking develop. The elastic modulus of the hardened paste may be in the order of 10-30 GPa
and aggregates about 45 to 85 GPa. The concrete composite is then in the range of 30 to 50 GPa.
2.4.7.3 Expansion and shrinkage
Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion. However, if no provision is made for
expansion, very large forces can be created, causing cracks in parts of the structure not capable of
withstanding the force or the repeated cycles of expansion and contraction. As concrete matures it
continues to shrink, due to the ongoing reaction taking place in the material, although the rate of
shrinkage falls relatively quickly and keeps reducing over time (for all practical purposes
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concrete is usually considered to not shrink due to hydration any further after 30 years). The
relative shrinkage and expansion of concrete and brickwork require careful accommodation when
the two forms of construction interface. Because concrete is continuously shrinking for years after
it is initially placed, it is generally accepted that under thermal loading it will never expand to its
originally placed volume.
2.4.7.4 Cracking
All concrete structures will crack to some extent. One of the early designers of reinforced
concrete, Robert Maillart, employed reinforced concrete in a number of arched bridges. His first
bridge was simple, using a large volume of concrete. He then realized that much of the concrete
was very cracked, and could not be a part of the structure under compressive loads, yet the
structure clearly worked. His later designs simply removed the cracked areas, leaving slender,
beautiful concrete arches. The Salginatobel Bridge is an example of this.
Concrete cracks due to tensile stress induced by shrinkage or stresses occurring during setting or
use. Various means are used to overcome this. Fiber reinforced concrete uses fine fibers
distributed throughout the mix or larger metal or other reinforcement elements to limit the size
and extent of cracks. In many large structures joints or concealed saw-cuts are placed in the
concrete as it sets to make the inevitable cracks occur where they can be managed and out of
sight. Water tanks and highways are examples of structures requiring crack control.
2.4.7.5 Shrinkage cracking
Shrinkage cracks occur when concrete members undergo restrained volumetric changes
(shrinkage) as a result of drying, autogenous shrinkage or thermal effects. Restraint is provided
either externally (i.e. supports, walls, and other boundary conditions) or internally (differential
drying shrinkage, reinforcement). Once the tensile strength of the concrete is exceeded, a crack
will develop. The number and width of shrinkage cracks that develop are influenced by the
amount of shrinkage that occurs, the amount of restraint present and the amount and spacing of
reinforcement provided.
Plastic-shrinkage cracks are immediately apparent, visible within 0 to 2 days of placement, while
drying-shrinkage cracks develop over time. Autogenous shrinkage also occurs when the concrete
is quite young and results from the volume reduction resulting from the chemical reaction of the
Portland cement.
2.4.7.6 Tension cracking
Concrete members may be put into tension by applied loads. This is most common in concrete
beams where a transversely applied load will put one surface into compression and the opposite
surface into tension due to induced bending. The portion of the beam that is in tension may crack.
22
The size and length of cracks is dependent on the magnitude of the bending moment and the
design of the reinforcing in the beam at the point under consideration. Reinforced concrete beams
are designed to crack in tension rather than in compression. This is achieved by providing
reinforcing steel which yields before failure of the concrete in compression occurs and allowing
remediation, repair, or if necessary, evacuation of an unsafe area.
2.4.7.7 Creep
Creep is the term used to describe the permanent movement or deformation of a material in order
to relieve stresses within the material. Concrete which is subjected to long-duration forces is
prone to creep. Short-duration forces (such as wind or earthquakes) do not cause creep. Creep can
sometimes reduce the amount of cracking that occurs in a concrete structure or element, but it
also must be controlled. The amount of primary and secondary reinforcing in concrete structures
contributes to a reduction in the amount of shrinkage, creep and cracking.
2.4.8 Physical properties
The coefficient of thermal expansion of Portland cement concrete is 0.000008 to 0.000012 (per
degree Celsius) (8-12 1/MK). The density varies, but is around 150 pounds per cubic foot (2400
kg/m³).
2.4.9 Environmental Concerns

CO2
The cement industry is one of two primary producers of carbon dioxide (CO2), creating up to 5
percent of worldwide emissions of this gas. The embodied carbon dioxide (ECO2) of a tonne of
concrete varies with mix design and is in the range of: 75-176kg CO2/tonne 0.075 - 0.176tonne
CO2/tonne. Cement manufacture contributes greenhouse gases both directly through the
production of carbon dioxide when calcium carbonate is heated, producing lime and carbon
dioxide, and also indirectly through the use of energy, particularly if the energy is sourced from
fossil fuels. The cement industry produces 5% of global man-made CO2 emissions, of which 50%
is from the chemical process, and 40% from burning fuel.
Oxygen depletion
Concerns have been raised from concrete's use in closed atmosphere environments due to
findings of the Biosphere 2 project. It was found that the respiration rate was faster than the
photosynthesis resulting in a slow decrease of oxygen. A mystery accompanied the oxygen
decline: the corresponding increase in carbon dioxide did not appear. This concealed the
underlying process until an investigation by Jeff Severinghaus and Wallace Broecker of Columbia
23
University’s Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory using isotopic analysis showed that carbon
dioxide was reacting with exposed concrete inside Biosphere 2 to form calcium carbonate,
thereby sequestering the carbon dioxide and, as part of it, the oxygen that had disappeared. After
being poured, concrete can absorb CO2 and O2 for up to 5 years until fully cured.
Surface Runoff
Surface runoff, when water runs off impervious surfaces, such as non-porous concrete, can cause
heavy soil erosion. Urban runoff tends to pick up gasoline, motor oil, heavy metals, trash and
other pollutants from sidewalks, roadways and parking lots. The impervious cover in a typical
city sewer system prevents groundwater percolation five times than that of typical woodland of
the same size. A 2008 report by the United States National Research Council identified urban
runoff as a leading source of water quality problems.
Urban heat
Both concrete and asphalt are the primary contributors to what is known as the urban heat island
effect.
Concrete Dust
Building demolition and natural disasters such as earthquakes often release a large amount of
concrete dust into the local atmosphere. Concrete dust was concluded to be the major source of
dangerous air pollution following the Great Hanshin Earthquake.
Health Concerns
Additives in concrete, including useful additives and unwanted additives, can cause health
concerns. Radioactive materials are among those that have been added concrete dwellings.
Furthermore, radioactive substances can "enter" concrete after formation from nuclear leakage or
detonation. Wildfires sprinkle heavy metals onto concrete structures, which then absorb them.
Poisonous substances may also be added to the mixture for making concrete by unscrupulous
makers. Dust from rubble or broken concrete upon demolition or crumbling may cause serious
health concerns depending on what had been in the concrete.
2.4.10 Damage modes
Fire
Due to its low thermal conductivity, a layer of concrete is frequently used for fireproofing of steel
structures. However, concrete itself may be damaged by fire. Up to about 300 °C, the concrete
undergoes normal thermal expansion. Above that temperature, shrinkage occurs due to water loss;
however, the aggregate continues expanding, which causes internal stresses. Up to about 500 °C,
the major structural changes are carbonation and coarsening of pores. At 573 °C, quartz
undergoes rapid expansion due to Phase transition, and at 900 °C calcite starts shrinking due to
24
decomposition. At 450-550 °C the cement hydrate decomposes, yielding calcium oxide. Calcium
carbonate decomposes at about 600 °C. Rehydration of the calcium oxide on cooling of the
structure causes expansion, which can cause damage to material which withstood fire without
falling apart. Concrete in buildings that experienced a fire and were left standing for several years
shows extensive degree of carbonation.
Concrete exposed to up to 100 °C is normally considered as healthy. The parts of a concrete
structure that is exposed to temperatures above approximately 300 °C (dependent of
water/cement ratio) will most likely get a pink color. Over approximately 600 °C the concrete
will turn light grey, and over approximately 1000 °C it turns yellow-brown. One rule of thumb is
to consider all pink colored concrete as damaged that should be removed. Fire will expose the
concrete to gases and liquids that can be harmful to the concrete, among other salts and acids that
occur when gasses produced by fire come into contact with water.
Aggregate expansion
Various types of aggregate undergo chemical reactions in concrete, leading to damaging
expansive phenomena. The most common are those containing reactive silica, that can react (in
the presence of water) with the alkalis in concrete (K2O and Na2O, coming principally from
cement). Among the more reactive mineral components of some aggregates are opal, chalcedony,
flint and strained quartz. Following the reaction (Alkali Silica Reaction or ASR), an expansive gel
form that creates extensive cracks and damage on structural members. On the surface of concrete
pavements the ASR can cause pop-outs, i.e. the expulsion of small cones (up to 3 cm about in
diameter) in correspondence of aggregate particles.
When some aggregates containing dolomite are used, a dedolomitization reaction occurs where
the magnesium carbonate compound reacts with hydroxyl ions and yields magnesium hydroxide
and a carbonate ion. The resulting expansion may cause destruction of the material. Far less
common are pop-outs caused by the presence of pyrite, an iron sulfide that generates expansion
by forming iron oxide and ettringite. Other reactions and recrystallizations, e.g. hydration of clay
minerals in some aggregates, may lead to destructive expansion as well.
Sea water effects
Concrete exposed to sea water is susceptible to its corrosive effects. The effects are more
pronounced above the tidal zone than where the concrete is permanently submerged. In the
submerged zone, magnesium and hydrogen carbonate ions precipitate a layer of brucite, about 30
micrometers thick, on which a slower deposition of calcium carbonate as aragonite occurs. These
layers somewhat protect the concrete from other processes, which include attack by magnesium,
chloride and sulfate ions and carbonation. Above the water surface, mechanical damage may
25
occur by erosion by waves themselves or sand and gravel they carry, and by crystallization of
salts from water soaking into the concrete pores and then drying up. Pozzolanic cements and
cements using more than 60% of slag as aggregate are more resistant to sea water than pure
Portland cement.
Bacterial corrosion
Bacteria themselves do not have noticeable effect on concrete. However, anaerobic bacteria
(Thiobacillus) in untreated sewage tend to produce hydrogen sulfide, which is then oxidized by
aerobic bacteria present in biofilm on the concrete surface above the water level to sulfuric acid
which dissolves the carbonates in the cured cement and causes strength loss. Concrete floors
lying on ground that contains pyrite are also at risk. Using limestone as the aggregate makes the
concrete more resistant to acids, and the sewage may be pretreated by ways increasing pH or
oxidizing or precipitating the sulfides in order to inhibit the activity of sulfide utilizing bacteria.
2.4.11 Chemical damage
Carbonation
Carbon dioxide from air can react with the calcium hydroxide in concrete to form calcium
carbonate. This process is called carbonation, which is essentially the reversal of the chemical
process of calcination of lime taking place in a cement kiln. Carbonation of concrete is a slow and
continuous process progressing from the outer surface inward, but slows down with increasing
diffusion depth. Carbonation has two effects: it increases mechanical strength of concrete, but it
also decreases alkalinity, which is essential for corrosion prevention of the reinforcement steel.
Below a pH of 10, the steel's thin layer of surface passivation dissolves and corrosion is
promoted. For the latter reason, carbonation is an unwanted process in concrete chemistry.
Carbonation can be tested by applying Phenolphthalein solution, a pH indicator, over a fresh
fracture surface, which indicates non-carbonated and thus alkaline areas with a violet color.
Chlorides
Chlorides, particularly calcium chloride, have been used to shorten the setting time of concrete.
However, calcium chloride and (to a lesser extent) sodium chloride have been shown to leach
calcium hydroxide and cause chemical changes in Portland cement, leading to loss of strength, as
well as attacking the steel reinforcement present in most concrete.
Sulfates
Sulfates in solution in contact with concrete can cause chemical changes to the cement, which can
cause significant microstructural effects leading to the weakening of the cement binder.
26
Distillate Water
Distillate water can wash out calcium content in concrete, leaving the concrete in brittle
condition. Source of distillate water such as steam or hot water.
Leaching
Leaching is a self healing of cracks with chemical process in concrete.
2.4.12 Physical damage

Damage can occur during the casting and de-shuttering processes. For instance, the corners of
beams can be damaged during the removal of shuttering because they are less effectively
compacted by means of vibration (improved by using form-vibrators). Other physical damage can
be caused by the use of steel shuttering without base plates. The steel shuttering pinches the top
surface of a concrete slab due to the weight of the next slab being constructed.
2.4.12.1 Types of concrete
Mix design
Modern concrete mix designs can be complex. The design of a concrete, or the way the weights
of the components of a concrete is determined, is specified by the requirements of the project and
the various local building codes and regulations.
The design begins by determining the "durability" requirements of the concrete. These
requirements take into consideration the weather conditions that the concrete will be exposed to
in service, and the required design strength. The compressive strength of a concrete is determined
by taking standard molded, standard-cured cylinder samples. Many factors need to be taken into
account, from the cost of the various additives and aggregates, to the trade offs between, the
"slump" for easy mixing and placement and ultimate performance. A mix is then designed using
cement (Portland or other cementitious material), coarse and fine aggregates, and water and
chemical admixtures. The method of mixing will also be specified, as well as conditions that it
may be used in. This allows a user of the concrete to be confident that the structure will perform
properly. Various types of concrete have been developed for specialist application and have
become known by these names.
Regular concrete
Regular concrete is the lay term describing concrete that is produced by following the mixing
instructions that are commonly published on packets of cement, typically using sand or other
27
common material as the aggregate, and often mixed in improvised containers. This concrete can
be produced to yield a varying strength from about 10 MPa (1450 psi) to about 40 MPa (5800
psi), depending on the purpose, ranging from blinding to structural concrete respectively. Many
types of pre-mixed concrete are available which include powdered cement mixed with aggregate,
needing only water.
Typically, a batch of concrete can be made by using 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts dry sand, 3
parts dry stone, 1/2 part water. The parts are in terms of weight – not volume. For example, 0.028
m3 of concrete would be made using 10kg cement, 4.5 kg water, 19 kg dry sand, 32 kg dry stone
(1/2" to 3/4" stone). This would make 0.028 m3 of concrete and would weigh about 65 kg. The
sand should be mortar or brick sand (washed and filtered if possible) and the stone should be
washed if possible. Organic materials (leaves, twigs, etc) should be removed from the sand and
stone to ensure the highest strength.
High-strength concrete
High-strength concrete has a compressive strength generally greater than 6,000 pounds per square
inch (40 MPa = 5800 psi). High-strength concrete is made by lowering the water-cement (w/c)
ratio to 0.35 or lower. Often silica fume is added to prevent the formation of free calcium
hydroxide crystals in the cement matrix, which might reduce the strength at the cement-aggregate
bond. Note: (1 psi=6894.76 N/m2)
Low w/c ratios and the use of silica fume make concrete mixes significantly less workable, which
is particularly likely to be a problem in high-strength concrete applications where dense rebar
cages are likely to be used. To compensate for the reduced workability, Superplasticizers are
commonly added to high-strength mixtures. Aggregate must be selected carefully for high-
strength mixes, as weaker aggregates may not be strong enough to resist the loads imposed on the
concrete and cause failure to start in the aggregate rather than in the matrix or at a void, as
normally occurs in regular concrete. In some applications of high-strength concrete the design
criterion is the elastic modulus rather than the ultimate compressive strength.
Stamped concrete
Stamped concrete is an architectural concrete which has a superior surface finish. After a concrete
floor has been laid, floor hardeners (can be pigmented) are impregnated on the surface and a mold
which may be textured to replicate a stone / brick or even wood is stamped on to give a superior
textured surface finish. After sufficient hardening the surface is cleaned and generally sealed to
28
give a protection. The wear resistance of stamped concrete is generally excellent and hence found
in applications like parking lots, pavements, walkways etc.
High-performance concrete
High-performance concrete (HPC) and Ultra-high-performance concrete are relatively new terms
used to describe concrete that conforms to a set of standards above those of the most common
applications, but not limited to strength. While all high-strength concrete is also high-
performance, not all high-performance concrete is high-strength. Notable concrete-mixtures are:
Ductal, concrete mixed with titanium oxide. Some examples of such standards currently used in
relation to HPC are:
i. Ease of placement
ii. Compaction without segregation
iii. Early age strength
iv. Long-term mechanical properties
v. Permeability
vi. Density
vii. Heat of hydration
viii. Toughness
ix. Volume stability
x. Long life in severe environments
xi. Depending on its implementation, environmental
Self-consolidating concretes
During the 1980s a number of countries including Japan, Sweden and France developed concretes
that are self-compacting, known as self-consolidating concrete in the United States. This self-
consolidating concrete (SCCs) is characterized by:
i. extreme fluidity as measured by flow, typically between 650-750 mm on a flow
table, rather than slump(height)
ii. no need for vibrators to compact the concrete
iii. Placement being easier.
iv. no bleed water, or aggregate segregation
v. Increased Liquid Head Pressure, Can be detrimental to Safety and workmanship
29
SCC can save up to 50% in labor costs due to 80% faster pouring and reduced wear and tear on
formwork. As of 2005, self-consolidating concretes account for 10-15% of concrete sales in some
European countries. In the US precast concrete industry, SCC represents over 75% of concrete
production. 38 departments of transportation in the US accept the use of SCC for road and bridge
projects. This emerging technology is made possible by the use of polycarboxylates plasticizer
instead of older naphthalene based polymers, and viscosity modifiers to address aggregate
segregation.
Vacuum concretes
The use of steam to produce a vacuum inside of concrete mixing truck to release air bubbles
inside the concrete is being researched. The idea is the steam will remove the air that is trapped
inside the concrete. The steam will condense into water and will create low pressure, pulling out
air from the concrete. This will make the concrete stronger due to there being less air in the
mixture.
Shotcrete
Shotcrete (also known by the trade name Gunite) uses compressed air to shoot concrete onto (or
into) a frame or structure. Shotcrete is frequently used against vertical soil or rock surfaces, as it
eliminates the need for formwork. It is sometimes used for rock support, especially in tunneling.
Shotcrete is also used for applications where seepage is an issue to limit the amount of water
entering a construction site due to a high water table or other subterranean sources. This type of
concrete is often used as a quick fix for weathering for loose soil types in construction zones.
There are two application methods for shotcrete.
• Dry-mix – the dry mixture of cement and aggregates is filled into the machine and
conveyed with compressed air through the hoses. The water needed for the
hydration is added at the nozzle.
• Wet-mix – the mixes are prepared with all necessary water for hydration. The mixes are
pumped through the hoses. At the nozzle compressed air is added for spraying.
For both methods additives such as accelerators and fiber reinforcement may be used.
Pervious concrete
Pervious concrete contains a network of holes or voids, to allow air or water to move through the
concrete. This allows water to drain naturally through it, and can both remove the normal surface-
water drainage infrastructure, and allow replenishment of groundwater when conventional
concrete does not.
30
It is formed by leaving out some or all of the fine aggregate (fines). The remaining large
aggregate then is bound by a relatively small amount of Portland cement. When set, typically
between 15% and 25% of the concrete volume is voids, allowing water to drain at around 70
L/m²/min through the concrete.
Installation
Pervious is installed by being poured into forms, then screeded off, to level (not smooth) the
surface, then packed or tamped into place. Due to the low water content and air permeability,
within 5-15 minutes of tamping, the concrete must be covered with a 6-mil poly plastic, or it will
dry out prematurely and not properly hydrate and cure.
Characteristics
Pervious can significantly reduce noise, by allowing air to be squeezed between vehicle tires and
the roadway to escape. This product cannot be used on major U.S. state highways currently due to
the high psi ratings required by most states. Pervious has been tested up to 4500psi so far.
Cellular concrete
Aerated concrete produced by the addition of an air entraining agent to the concrete (or a
lightweight aggregate like expanded clay pellets or cork granules and vermiculite) is sometimes
called Cellular concrete, lightweight aerated concrete, variable density concrete, foamed concrete
and lightweight or ultra-lightweight concrete. Not to be confused with Aerated autoclaved
concrete this is manufactured off site using an entirely different method.
The variable density is normally described in kg per m3, where regular concrete is 2400 kg/m3.
Variable density can be as low as 300 kg/m3 although at this density it would have no structural
integrity at all and would function as a filler or insulation use only. The variable density reduces
strength to increase thermal and acoustical insulation by replacing the dense heavy concrete with
air or a light material such as clay, cork granules and vermiculite. There are many competing
products that use a foaming agent that resembles shaving cream to mix air bubbles in with the
concrete. All accomplish the same outcome: to displace concrete with air.
Cork-cement composites
Waste Cork granules are obtained during production of bottle stoppers from the treated bark of
Cork oak. These granules have a density of about 300 kg/m³, lower than most lightweight
aggregates used for making lightweight concrete. Cork granules do not significantly influence
cement hydration, but cork dust may. Cork cement composites have several advantages over
31
standard concrete, such as lower thermal conductivities, lower densities and good energy
absorption characteristics. These composites can be made of density from 400 to 1500 kg/m³,
compressive strength from 1 to 26 MPa, and flexural strength from 0.5 to 4.0 MPa.
Roller-compacted concrete
Roller-compacted concrete, sometimes called rollcrete, is a low-cement-content stiff concrete
placed using techniques borrowed from earthmoving and paving work. The concrete is placed on
the surface to be covered, and is compacted in place using large heavy rollers typically used in
earthwork. The concrete mix achieves a high density and cures over time into a strong monolithic
block. Roller-compacted concrete is typically used for concrete pavement, but has also been used
to build concrete dams, as the low cement content causes less heat to be generated while curing
than typical for conventionally placed massive concrete pours.
Glass concrete
The use of recycled glass as aggregate in concrete has become popular in modern times, with
large scale research being carried out at Columbia University in New York. This greatly enhances
the aesthetic appeal of the concrete. Recent research findings have shown that concrete made with
recycled glass aggregates have shown better long term strength and better thermal insulation due
to its better thermal properties of the glass aggregates.
Asphalt concrete
Strictly speaking, asphalt is a form of concrete as well, with bituminous materials replacing
cement as the binder.
Rapid strength concrete
This type of concrete is able to develop high resistance within few hours after being
manufactured. This feature has advantages such as removing the formwork early and to move
forward in the building process at record time, repair road surfaces that become fully operational
in just a few hours.
Rubberized concrete
While "rubberized asphalt concrete" is common, rubberized Portland cement concrete
("rubberized PCC") is still undergoing experimental tests, as of 2009.
Polymer concrete
Polymer concrete is concrete which uses polymers to bind the aggregate. Polymer concrete can
gain a lot of strength in a short amount of time. For example, a polymer mix may reach 5000 psi
in only four hours. Polymer concrete is generally more expensive than conventional concretes.
32
Geopolymer or green concrete

Geopolymer concrete is a greener alternative to ordinary Portland cement made from inorganic
aluminosilicate (Al-Si) polymer compounds that can utilize 100% recycled industrial waste (e.g.
fly ash and slag) as the manufacturing inputs resulting in up to 80% lower carbon dioxide
emissions. Greater chemical and thermal resistance, and better mechanical properties, are said to
be achieved by the manufacturer at both atmospheric and extreme conditions. Similar concretes
have not only been used in Ancient Rome (see Roman concrete) as mentioned but also in the
former Soviet Union in the 1950s and 1960s. Buildings in Ukraine are still standing after 45 years
so that this kind of formulation has a sound track record.
Limecrete
Limecrete or lime concrete is concrete where cement is replaced by lime.
Refractory Cement
High-temperature applications, such as masonry ovens and the like, generally require the use of
refractory cement; concretes based on Portland cement can be damaged or destroyed by elevated
temperatures, but refractory concretes are better able to withstand such conditions.
Concrete cloth
A recent innovation is the concrete cloth. It consists of a three-dimensional fiber matrix,
containing a specially formulated dry concrete mix. A PVC backing on one surface of the cloth
ensures the material is completely waterproof, while hydrophilic fibers on the opposite surface
aid hydration by drawing water into the cement. Concrete cloth can be used to rapidly create
waterproof, fireproof, fiber-reinforced thin concrete forms across a wide range of applications:
rapid track way or landing surfaces, structural reinforcement, ground stabilization, ballistic
protection and sterile concrete shelters.
Innovative mixtures
On-going research into alternative mixtures and constituents has identified potential mixtures that
promise radically different properties and characteristics. One university has identified a mixture
with much smaller crack propagation that does not suffer the usual cracking and subsequent loss
of strength at high levels of tensile strain. Researchers have been able to take mixtures beyond 3
percent strain, past the more typical 0.1% point at which failure occurs. Other institutions have
identified magnesium silicate (talc) as an alternative ingredient to replace Portland cement in the
mix. This avoids the usual high-temperature production process that is very energy and
greenhouse-gas intensive and actually absorbs carbon dioxide while it cures.
33
CHAPTER 3
3.1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

It is intended to perform various tasks in order to come up with reliable data and these tasks
include:
i. Concrete mix design in order to emerge with the ratio and have a target mean strength for
comparison.
ii. Prepare samples for compressive strength test.
iii. Slump test of which the slump will be maintained throughout for all the mixes.
iv. Cubes of 100x100x100 (mm) will be used due to limited availability
v. The control samples will be a production of concrete using one TYPE of cement only
which will help in determining the target mean strength and will then be compared with
concrete samples produced by the following mixes:
CEMENT TYPES
No. of
Cements for Type A Type B Type C Type D
control
concrete mix
No. of Type A + Type B Type B + Type A Type C + Type A Type D + Type A
Cements to
Type A + Type C Type B + Type C Type C + Type B Type D + Type B
produce
concrete
Type A + Type D Type B + Type D Type C + Type D Type D + Type C
sample
Table 1: Intended mix types
Strength test will be performed after 7 days, 21 days and after 28 days which will be
tabled for ease of comparison.
vi. The control sample will determine the mix design which will be on unrestricted design.
In this case the following specifications will be considered:
a. Characteristic compressive strength, 30N/mm2 at 28 days i.e. 5% defective rate (k=1.64)
b. Portland Pozzolana cement (PPC)
c. Slump required, 10-30mm (for floor slab)
d. Maximum aggregate size 20mm
34
e. Maximum free water/cement ratio, 0.55
f. Minimum cement content, 290kg/m3
3.1.1 MIX DESIGN PROCEDURE
The procedure will be in 5 stages:

1.) Selecting target water/cement ratio;
To get this the standard deviation must first be obtained from the graph below:
Derive the margin from the following formulae:
M=k x s………………………………………………………….. 1
Where M=the margin
K=a value appropriate to the ‘percentage defectives’ permitted below the characteristic
strength in this case k=1.64
S=the standard deviation
Determine the target mean strength from
fm= fc + M………..……………………………………………………..2
Where fm= the target mean strength
fc =the specified characteristic strength
M=the margin
Next, obtain a value for the strength of a mix made with free water/cement ratio of 0.5 according
to the specified age, the TYPE of cement, and the aggregate to be used as shown in the table
below:
Type of cement Type of coarse Compressive strengths (N/mm2)
aggregate AGE (DAYS)
3 7 28 91
Ordinary uncrushed 18 27 40 48
Portland cement
(OPC) or
Sulphate
resisting cement crushed 23 33 47 55
(SRPC)
35
Rapid Crushed 30 40 53 60
hardening
Portland cement
(RHPC) Uncrushed 25 34 46 53
Apply this value the graph showing the relationship between compressive strength and free
water/cement ratio, and for the target mean strength determined. Compare with the maximum free
water/cement ratio specified and use the lower of these two values.
2.) Select free water content
Determine the free water content depending upon the TYPE and maximum size of the aggregate
to give a concrete of the specified slump.
3.) Determine the cement content
Cement content = free-water content …………………………………………..3
Free-water cement ratio
Check the resulting value against any maximum or minimum value specified. If the calculated
value is below the specified minimum, adopt this minimum value.
4.) Determine the total aggregate content
a) Find the relative density or specific gravity and estimate the density of the fully
compacted concrete, depending upon the free-water content and the specific gravity of
the combined aggregate obtained from, fig 5.
b) From the estimated density calculate the total aggregate content from
Total aggregate content = D-Wc-Wfw ……………………………………….4
Where D = the wet density of concrete (kg/m3)
Wc = the cement content (kg/m3)
Wfw= the free water content (kg/m3)
5.) Select fine course aggregate contents
a) Carry out a sieve analysis on the fine aggregate and plot the results on the
grading chart provided. Compare the grading with the zone limits provided.
b) Select the proportion of fine aggregate for the given maximum aggregate size,
required slump and derived free-water/cement ratio…..fig 6
c) Then;
Fine aggregate content=total aggregate content x proportion of fines…………..5
Coarse aggregate content=total aggregate content – fine aggregate content…..6
d) For combined coarse aggregate use the following ratio as a guide;
36
1:2 for combination of 10 and 20mm material

1:1.5:3 for combination of 10, 20, and 40mm material.
6.) From the quantities of the consistent materials obtained per m3, calculate the batch weights
to give a yield sufficient to cast 3 cubes.
7.) Prepare the mix and carry out the slump, the compacting factor. Cast the cubes and mark
them for identification.
8.) Place the specimens in the curing tank for 24 hours and test the cubes and cylinders at 7
days, 21 days and 28 days. The results are tabulated as shown in the data section.
3.1.2 SIEVE ANALYSIS
This is an operation of dividing a sample of aggregate into fractions, each consisting of particles
of the same size.
Apparatus required
i. Balance accurate to 0.5% of mass of test sample
ii. Test sieves as per BS 882
iii. Oven capable of maintaining constant temperature to within 5%.
iv. Mechanism of shaking sieves.
v. Chart for recoding results.
Procedure
vi. Dry the test samples to a constant mass by oven drying at not more than 105(+-)5 0C
vii. Take an approximate sample from the original sample by riffling.
viii. Weigh out the required sample
ix. Stand the sieve of the largest mesh size in the tray and put the weighed sample on to the
sieve. (Make sure the sieves are dry and clean before using them)
x. Shake the sieve horizontally with a jerking motion in all directions for at least 2 minutes
and until no more than a trace of a sample passes. Ensure that all material passing falls
into the tray.
xi. Weigh any material retained on the sieve.
xii. The results will be tabulated in the table below. The cumulative weight passing each
sieve will be calculated as a percentage of the total sample to the nearest whole number.
xiii. A grading curve for the sample will be plotted in the grading chart.
37
3.1.3 WATER ABSORPTION
The absorption of the aggregate can influence such properties of concrete as the bond between it
and the cement paste and may thus exert some influence on the strength of the concrete, chemical
stability and resistance to abrasion (A.M.Neville, 1981).
3.1.4 SLUMP TEST
The slump test is the most well-known and widely used test method to characterize the
workability of fresh concrete. The inexpensive test, which measures consistency, is used on job
sites to determine rapidly whether a concrete batch should be accepted or rejected.
The apparatus consists of a mold in the shape of a frustum of a cone with a base diameter of 8
inches, a top diameter of 4 inches, and a height of 12 inches. The mold is filled with concrete in
three layers of equal volume. Each layer is compacted with 25 strokes of a tamping rod. The
Abrams’cone, shown in photograph 3, is lifted vertically upward and the change in height of the
concrete is measured.
Photograph 3: The Abram’s cone before slump test
38
3.1.5 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
Compressive strength of cement indicates the compressive strength of cement concrete cubes.
Many other properties of concrete are related to compressive strength of cement, because cement
is used in structure in the form of mortar or concrete.
Fig 2. Showing the placement of the concrete cube for compression

Testing of the compressive strength
1. Place the test cube on the platform of compression testing machine without any packing
between the Cube and the steel platens of the testing machine. Make sure the smooth flat surface
face up for uniform distribution of loading and for uniform failure.
2. Apply the load on smooth surface on the cube steadily and uniform starting from zero
till the cubes fails.
3. Test 3 such cubes at the end of 7 days of curing. 3 cubes at the end of 21 days of curing and 3
cubes after 28 days of curing.
4. Record the crushing load.
5. Calculate the compressive strength of each cube by dividing crushing load by crushing area
of the cube . The compressive strength shall be average of the strength of the 3 cubes for each
period of curing………………………………………………………………………………….7
3.1.6 LEVEL OF EFFECT OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
To determine the level of the effect of compressive strength, the following formulae will be
adopted:
= (Difference/control mix)* 100……….………………………………..8
39
Photograph 4: Cylindrical and cubical moulds for concrete specimens used for compressive
strength test
Photograph 5: Moulds filled with concrete before curing.
40
Photograph6: The compressive test machine
Photograph 7: The setting of the cube in the compressive test machine before crushing
41
Photograph 8: Crushing of cubes before failure
42
CHAPTER 4
4.0 DATA COLLECTION
4.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS RESULTS
Coarse Aggregate Sieve Analysis Results

Sieve sizes Wt. Wt. % retained Cumulative Cumulative
(mm) retained passing (g) % retained % passing
(g)
50 0 5294.3 0.00 0.00 100.00
38.1 0 5294.3 0.00 0.00 100.00
20 987 4307.3 18.64 18.64 81.36
15 1184 3123.3 22.36 41.01 58.99
10 1691 1432.3 31.94 72.95 27.05
5 636.3 796.0 12.02 84.96 15.04
2.36 40 756.0 0.76 85.72 14.28
<2.36 756 0.0 14.28 100.00 0.00
Sample weight 5294.3 g
43
Graph1: showing the coarse aggregate sieve analysis results
44
Fine Aggregate Sieve Analysis Results

Sieve sizes (mm) Wt. Wt. % retained Cumulative Cumulative
retained passing (g) % retained % passing
(g)
5.0 39.0 1193.00 3.17 3.17 96.83
2.0 47.0 1146.00 3.81 6.98 93.02
1.2 211.5 934.50 17.17 24.15 75.85
0.6 245.5 689.00 19.93 44.07 55.93
0.3 515.0 174.00 41.80 85.88 14.12
0.2 98.0 76.00 7.95 93.83 6.17
0.1 76.0 0.00 6.17 100.00 0.00
Sample weight 1232.0 g
Graph2: showing the fine aggregate sieve analysis results
45
4.2 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN TABLE
STAGE ITEM VALUES UNITS

1 1.1 characteristic strength at 28 days 30 N/mm2
defective rate 0.05
K 1.64
1.2 standard deviation 8 N/mm2
1.3 Margin 13.12 N/mm2
1.4 target mean strength 43.12 N/mm2
1.5 cement TYPE PPC
1.6 aggregate TYPE: coarse uncrushed
aggregate TYPE: fine uncrushed
1.7 free-water/ cement ratio 0.47
1.8 maximum free-water/ cement ratio 0.55
use the lower value 0.47
2 2.1 Slump 30 mm
2.2 maximum aggregate size 20 mm
2.3 free-water content 160 kg/m3
3 3.1 cement content 340 kg/m3

3.2 maximum cement content
3.3 minimum cement content 290 kg/m3
3.4 modified free-water/cement ratio
4 4.1 relative density of aggregate 2.6 known

4.2 concrete density 2400 kg/m3
4.3 total aggregate content 1900 kg/m3
5 5.1 grading of fine aggregate 3

5.2 proportion of fine aggregate 0.27 fig6
5.3 fine aggregate content 513 kg/m3
5.4 coarse aggregate content 1387 kg/m3
fine coarse
Quantities cement(kg) water (kg) aggregate(kg) aggregate (kg)
per m3 (to
nearest 5 kg) 340 160 513 1387
per trial mix
of 0.05m3 17 8 26 69
46
4.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST RESULTS
The table below tabulates the results of compressive strength test for control sample of
concrete mix made of one type of cement (32.5N/mm2) cement in each batch.
TYPE A CEMENT RESULTS
TYPE A CONTROL MIX
Observation no. 1 2 3
Curing period (days) 7 21 28
Compressive strength
(N/mm2) 21.7 26.5 31.5
TYPE B CEMENT RESULTS
TYPE B CONTROL MIX
Observation no.
1 2 3
(N/mm2) 22.3 27.4 32.7
TYPE C CEMENT RESULTS
TYPE C CONTROL MIX
Curing period (days)
7 21 28
(N/mm2) 20.6 25.5 30.5
TYPE D CEMENT RESULTS
TYPE D CONTROL MIX
(N/mm2) 20.2 25.3 30.5
47
4.4 SLUMP TEST RESULTS
The concrete mix design describes a 30 mm slump.
SLUMP TEST
mm
TYPE A 30
TYPE B 30
TYPE C 30
TYPE D 30
TYPE A+TYPE B 35
TYPE A+TYPE C 70
TYPE A+TYPE D 45
4.5 COMPARISON RESULTS & ANALYSIS
TYPE B
7 21 28
Compressive strength (N/mm2) Type B 22.3 27.4 32.7
Type A 21.7 26.5 31.5
Type A+B
20.5 28.5 37.5
TYPE C
7 21 28
Compressive strength (N/mm2) Type C 20.6 25.5 30.5
Type A 21.7 26.5 31.5
Type A+C
10.6 17 20.3
48
TYPE D
Observation no.
1 2 3
7 21 28
Compressive strength (N/mm2) Type D
20.2 25.3 30.5
Type A 21.7 26.5 31.5
Type A+D
13.5 18 24.5
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
Graph 3: showing the comparison of compressive strength of TYPE A + B with the control
mixes
49
Graph 4: showing the comparison of compressive strength of TYPE A + C with the control
mixes
Graph 5: showing the comparison of compressive strength of TYPE A + D with the control
mixes
50
4.6 TABLE SHOWING TO WHAT LEVEL, IN %AGE, THE STRENGTH OF

CONCRETE IS AFFECTED BY THE MIXING
Difference %
A - (A+B) -6 -19.0
A - (A+C) 11.2 35.6
A - (A+D) 7 22.2
B - (A+B) -4.8 -14.7

C - (A+C) 10.2 33.4
D - (A+D) 6 19.7
4.7 GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
Graph 6: showing the comparison of the effect on compressive strength in %age with
TYPE A being the determining mix
51
Graph 7: showing the comparison of the effect on compressive strength in %age with
TYPE B, TYPE C and TYPE D being the determining mix
52
CHAPTER 5
5.1 DISCUSSION
The main objective of this project is to determine how the compressive strength and other
properties of concrete are affected due to mixing different types of cement. From the research,
which has been greatly supported by various mixing and analysis of the concrete, the results have
been well indicated and analyzed graphically for easy comparison.
To be able to establish a good concrete analysis and have a good observation, control batches
were done following the mix design. Using the four different brands of cement of type
32.5N/mm2 in Kenya, and mixing them together in a batch of concrete, various observations were
made.
One of the first observations is that, for mix of TYPE A + C concrete batch, using the w/c of 0.47
as shown in the concrete mix design table, it did not give a slump of 30mm as required but of
70mm which increases the workability of the concrete and the 28 day compressive strength test is
lowered to 20.3N/mm2 compared to 31.5N/mm2 and 30.5N/mm2 of TYPE A and TYPE C
respectively. Thus, it will take time before attaining the concrete grade required for the 28 day
strength as concrete gains strength with time, everyday for years and years.
The same is observed for the other mixes such of TYPES A + B and for A + D. Only that for
former, the slump achieved was not so low, 35mm, whereas for the latter, 45mm. The
workability, which is one of the physical properties of concrete, is increased and the compressive
strength is lowered. Type A+B concrete mix showed a different behavior as compared to the
other type mixes. This batch showed a tendency of gaining compressive strength at a faster rate.
Considering the different chemical constituents of the different cements, which determine the
strength and purpose of a type of cement, it can also be used here in that the chemicals of the
different cements react with each other during mixing and curing and thus affecting the
properties.
The level of strength of concrete is affected in different percentage levels as is shown in the table
on page 57, and the graphical analysis of the both.
Concrete is best for compressive strength and poor in tensile strength and therefore with steel
bars, it helps in tensile strength. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete. Interfering with the
compressive strength of it for a designed strength may result to weakening of a structure before
53
completion as it has been seen that mixing of the different types of cement will affect the design
strength especially with the mix TYPES of A+C and A+D which are the common types of
cement you find in many Kenyan hardwares as well as both minor and major construction sites.
5.2 CONCLUSION
Different types of cement have different chemical constituents which determine the purpose of
the type of the cement as well as the strength of the particular cement. Without doubt this can also
affect the properties of concrete as they will have the tendency to react together when water is
added.
Mixing different types of cement affects the properties of concrete, in this case, compressive
strength and workability. It is felt in both ways in that the mixing raises the design strength of the
concrete whilst with the case of mix A+C a very low compressive strength is attained in the 28
days. There maybe some chemical reactions between the two cements that resulted to allow
growth in strength. Therefore, it is advisable that mixing of the different types of cement be
discouraged until the chemical analysis of the two cements be done so as to distinctively conclude
if the mixing should be practised or not
The main and specific objectives of the research have been achieved. Therefore the project was a
success. The main objective of this project which is to determine the effect of mixing different
types of cement on the strength and other properties of concrete has been achieved in view of, it
has been shown that with respect to the types of cement mixed, the strength (compressive
strength) is either raised or lowered with reference to the design strength. For the specific
objectives, to determine to what level the strength of concrete is affected by mixing different
types of cement has been graphically represented on pages 57 and 58 which indicates both the
negative and positive rates in percentage.
For the second specific objective, to determine how the other properties of concrete are
influenced by the mixing of different types of cement has been achieved in that, with respect to
workability, the slump an indicator of workability varies with the various mixes. As it has been
shown on page 51, the slumps are different for the mixes. For TYPE A+C with, the slump is the
highest and therefore it can be concluded that for it have the required slump, the w/c should be
changed and less water be used. Workability been a property of concrete has been influenced by
the mixing of the different types of cement which also affects the strength. A high slump concrete
has acquires low strength thus reduces the durability of the concrete. Low durability, poor and
weak structures.
54
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
Due to the time limitation and for thoroughly conducting this research, more research should be
done on this topic by coming up with various mixes that will give a comparison to support this
one. With respect to the research done, structural engineers should discourage the mixing of the
cements until the chemical reactions of the TYPE A+C are done to give a good judgement if to
mix or not to mix because it is for this type of mix that only shows poor performance in strength
development whereas for the TYPE A+B and TYPE A+D mixes indicates a good strength
development. With thorough research, flexural strength can be conducted and specimen be
observed for longer time period, say more 28 days, to be able to see the long term effects to a
structure if mixing is done. Chemical reactions can be done for the cement reactions after they are
mixed to determine how they destroy or build the matrix.
55
REFERENCES
1) A. M. Neville & J.J Brooks Concrete technology, revised edition – 2001 STANDARDS UPDATE
2) Athi River Mining Company (ARM)
3) Cement Admixture Association. "CAA", retrieved 2008-04-02
From http://www.admixtures.org.uk/publications.asp
4) "Concrete Testing" Retrieved 2008-11-10 from
http://technology.calumet.purdue.edu/cnt/rbennet/concrete%20lab.htm.
5) Experimental Study on Strength, Modulus of Elasticity, and Damping Ratio of Rubberized
Concrete
6) G C Bye, Portland Cement 2nd Ed, Thomas Telford, 1999, ISBN 07277-2766-4, pp 206-8
7) Kenya Bureau Of Standards (KEBS)
8) Kosmatka, S.H.; Panarese, W.C. (1988). Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. Skokie,
IL, USA: Portland Cement Association. pp. 17, 42, 70, 184. ISBN 0-89312-087-1.
9) Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and Placing Concrete
10) Neville, A.M. (1996). Properties of concrete. Fourth and final edition standards. Pearson,
Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-582-23070-5. OCLC 33837400.
11) "Thermal Coefficient of Portland Cement Concrete". Portland Cement Concrete Pavements
Research. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/pccp/thermal.cfm. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
56
APPENDIX
57
TYPE A CONTROL MIX
Observation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
no.
Curing 7 7 7 21 21 21 28 28 28
period (days)
Load of 21.5 21.9 21.7 26.6 26.5 26.5 30.9 31.8 31.7
failure
(tonnes)
Compressive 21.5 21.9 21.7 26.6 26.5 26.5 30.9 31.8 31.7
strength
(N/mm2)
AVERAGE 21.7 26.5 31.5
TYPE B CONTROL MIX
Observation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
no.
Curing 7 7 7 21 21 21 28 28 28
period (days)
Load of 21.9 22.5 22.6 27.7 27 27.5 32.9 32.6 32.5
failure
(tonnes)
Compressive 21.9 22.5 22.6 27.7 27 27.5 32.9 32.6 32.5
strength
(N/mm2)
AVERAGE 22.3 27.4 32.7
TYPE C CONTROL MIX
Observation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
no.
Curing 7 7 7 21 21 21 28 28 28
period (days)
Load of 20.8 20.7 20.3 25.5 25.4 25.6 30.7 30.1 30.6
failure
(tonnes)
Compressive 20.8 20.7 20.3 25.5 25.4 25.6 30.7 30.1 30.6
strength
(N/mm2)
AVERAGE 20.6 25.5 30.5
58
TYPE D CONTROL MIX
Observation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
no.
Curing 7 7 7 21 21 21 28 28 28
period (days)
Load of 20.3 20.2 20.2 25.2 25.4 25.3 30.5 30.5 30.5
failure
(tonnes)
Compressive 20.3 20.2 20.2 25.2 25.4 25.3 30.5 30.5 30.5
strength
(N/mm2)
AVERAGE 20.2 25.3 30.5
59
TYPE A + TYPE B
Observation no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Curing period 7 7 7 21 21 21 28 28 28
(days)
Load of failure 20.5 20.5 22.5 28.5 28.5 28.5 36.7 37.5 37
(tonnes)
Compressive 20.5 20.5 20.5 28.5 28.5 28.5 37.7 37.5 37.3
strength (N/mm2)
AVERAGE 20.5 28.5 37.5
TYPE A + TYPE C
Observation no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Curing period 7 7 7 21 21 21 28 28 28
(days)
Load of failure 10.5 10.8 10.5 17 16.8 17 20.1 20.3 20.2
(tonnes)
Compressive 10.5 10.8 10.5 17 17 17 20.2 20.5 20.2
strength (N/mm2)
AVERAGE 10.6 17 20.3
TYPE A + TYPE D
Observation no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Curing period 7 7 7 21 21 21 28 28 28
(days)
Load of failure 13.5 13.5 13.5 18 18 18 24 24.5 24
(tonnes)
Compressive 13.5 13.5 13.5 18 18 18 24.5 24.5 24.4
strength (N/mm2)
AVERAGE 13.5 18 24.5
60

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JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, CONSTRUCTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL

FINAL YEAR PROJECT

EFFECTS OF MIXING DIFFERENT TYPES OF CEMENT

Loise Wanjiku Kahiga

1.2 PROBLEM JUSTIFICATION

1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

1.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2 PORTLAND CEMENT

Photograph 1: A pallet with Portland cement

2.2.1 History of Portland cement

There are three fundamental stages in the production of Portland cement:

1. Preparation of the raw mixture

CRUSHING Crushed STOCK

Clinker PYRO- Kiln feed BLENDING Raw meal

CLINKER Clinker FINISH PACKING

Fig1: Clinker production process

Use of Gypsum in Cement:-

2.2.3 Use of Portland cement

i. ASTM C150 used primarily in the U.S.

2.3.1.1 ASTM C150

1) Type I Portland cement is known as common or general purpose cement. It is generally

Compound C3S C2S C3 A C4AF MgO SO3 Ignition Free CaO

Compound C3 S C2 S C3A C4AF MgO SO3 Ignition Free

Compound C3S C2 S C3A C4AF MgO SO3 Ignition Free

Compound C3S C2 S C3A C4AF MgO SO3 Ignition Free

Comprising Portland cement and up to 5% of minor additional

IV Pozzolanic cement Portland cement and up to 55% of Pozzolanic constituents

White Portland cement

Concrete is a construction material composed of cement (commonly Portland cement) as well as

2.4.2.5 Chemical admixtures

2.4.3 Concrete production

2.4.4 Mixing concrete

Photograph 2: A photograph showing a slump (true slump) which is a measure of workability

2.4.7 Properties of concrete

2.4.9 Environmental Concerns

2.4.11 Chemical damage

2.4.12 Physical damage

2.4.12.1 Types of concrete

Geopolymer or green concrete

3.1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Table 1: Intended mix types

b. Portland Pozzolana cement (PPC)

c. Slump required, 10-30mm (for floor slab)

d. Maximum aggregate size 20mm

e. Maximum free water/cement ratio, 0.55

f. Minimum cement content, 290kg/m3

3.1.1 MIX DESIGN PROCEDURE

The procedure will be in 5 stages:

1:2 for combination of 10 and 20mm material

3.1.2 SIEVE ANALYSIS

3.1.3 WATER ABSORPTION

3.1.4 SLUMP TEST

Photograph 3: The Abram’s cone before slump test

3.1.5 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

Fig 2. Showing the placement of the concrete cube for compression

3.1.6 LEVEL OF EFFECT OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Photograph 5: Moulds filled with concrete before curing.

Photograph6: The compressive test machine

Photograph 8: Crushing of cubes before failure