PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY

PROJECT

By-Ayush Dowerah
[SEMICONDUCTORS]
Class-12 A
This project aims to throw a light on subject of
semiconductor and their uses in our life and its
N.P.S International
working principles.
School
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all I am thankful to my teacher Mr. Rajesh

Kapoor for giving me the opportunity to do this
wonderful project on Semiconductors and also guiding
and helping me to complete this project.

I would also like to thank my school for allowing us

the opportunity to undertake such projects and also
providing us with the requisite facilities for the same.

Lastly I would like to thank my parents and all my

friends who have helped and have been there with me
and supported me to complete this project within the
given time frame.
INDEX

S.No Topic Page

. No.

1. Introduction 1
2. Semiconductor-Definition and 2
Theory
3. Types of Semiconductors 4
4. Electrical Resistivity of 8
Semiconductors
INTRODUCTION

Most of the solids can be placed in one of the two classes:

Metals and insulators. Metals are those through which
electric charge can easily flow, while insulators are those
through which electric charge is difficult to flow. This
distinction between the metals and the insulators can be
explained on the basis of the number of free electrons in
them. Metals have a large number of free electrons which act
as charge carriers, while insulators have practically no free
electrons.

There are however, certain solids whose electrical

conductivity is intermediate
between metals and
insulators. They are called
‘Semiconductors’. Carbon,
silicon and germanium are
examples of semiconductors.
In semiconductors the outer
most electrons are neither so
rigidly bound with the atom as
in an insulator, nor so loosely
bound as in metal.
At absolute zero a semiconductor becomes an ideal insulator
SEMICONDUCTORS-THEORY AND
DEFINITION

Semiconductors are the materials whose electrical

conductivity lies in between metals and insulator. The
energy band structure of the semiconductors is similar to the
insulators but in their case, the size of the forbidden energy
gap is much smaller than that of the insulator. In this class of
crystals, the forbidden gap is of the order of about 1ev, and
the two energy bands are distinctly separate with no
overlapping. At absolute “0” temperature, no electron has
any energy even to jump the forbidden gap and reach the
conduction band. Therefore the substance is an insulator.
But when we heat the crystal and thus provide some energy to
the atoms and their electrons, it becomes an easy matter for
some electrons to jump the small energy gap and go to
conduction band. Thus at higher temperatures, the crystal
becomes a conductors. This is the specific property of the
crystal which is known as a semiconductor.
 Image showing the energy band
structures in different materials

Effect of temperature on conductivity of Semiconductor

At 0K, all semiconductors are insulators. The valence band

at absolute zero is completely filled and there are no free
electrons in conduction band. At room temperature the
electrons jump to the conduction band due to the thermal
energy. When the temperature increases, a large number of
electrons cross over the forbidden gap and jump from valence
to conduction band. Hence conductivity of semiconductor
increases with temperature.
TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semi-

conductors. In a pure semiconductor, each atom behaves as
if there are 8 electrons in its valence shell and therefore the
entire material behaves as an insulator at low temperatures.
A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of 1.1ev to
shake off the valence electron. This energy becomes available
to it even at room temperature. Due to thermal agitation of
crystal structure, electrons from a few covalent bonds come
out. The bond from which electron is freed, a vacancy is
created there. The vacancy in the covalent bond is called a
hole.
This hole can be filled by some other electron in a covalent
bond. As an electron from covalent bond moves to fill the
hole, the hole is created in the covalent bond from which the
hole is opposite to that of the negative electron, a hole
behaves as a positive charge carrier. Thus, at room
temperature, a pure semiconductor will have electrons and
holes wandering in random directions. These electrons and
holes are called intrinsic carrier
As the crystal is neutral, the number of free electrons will be
equal to the number of holes. In an intrinsic semiconductor, if
ne denotes the electron number density in conduction band,
nh the hole number density in valence band and n i the number
density or concentration of charge carriers, then
ne = nh = ni

extrinsic semiconductors
As the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is poor, so
intrinsic semiconductors are of little practical importance. The
conductivity of pure semiconductor can, however be
enormously increased by addition of some pentavalent or a
trivalent impurity in a very small amount (about 1 to
106 parts of the semiconductor). The process of adding an
impurity to a pure semiconductor so as to improve its
conductivity is called doping. Such semiconductors are called
extrinsic semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductors are of
two types :

i) ntype semiconductor
ii) ptype semiconductor
N-type semiconductor

When an impurity atom belonging to group V of the periodic

table like Arsenic is added to the pure semiconductor, then
four of the five impurity electrons form covalent bonds by
sharing one electron with each of the four nearest silicon
atoms, and fifth electron from each impurity atom is almost
free to conduct electricity. As the pentavalent impurity
increases the number of free electrons, it is called donor
impurity. The electrons so set free in the silicon crystal are
called extrinsic carriers and the ntype Sicrystal is called n
type extrinsic semiconductor. Therefore ntype Sicrystal will
have a large number of free electrons (majority carriers) and
have a small number of holes (minority carriers).
In terms of valence and conduction band one can think that
all such electrons create a donor energy level just below the
conduction band as shown in figure. As the energy gap
between donor energy level and the conduction band is very
small, the electrons can easily raise themselves to conduction
band even at room temperature. Hence, the conductivity of n
type extrinsic semiconductor is markedly increased.
In a doped or extrinsic semiconductor, the number density of
the conduction band (ne) and the number density of holes in
the valence band (nh) differ from that in a pure
semiconductor. If ni is the number density of electrons is
conduction band, then it is proved that
ne nh = ni2
P-type semiconductor

If a trivalent impurity like indium is added in pure

semi conductor, the impurity atom can provide only three
valence electrons for covalent bond formation. Thus a gap is
left in one of the covalent bonds. The gap acts as a hole that
tends to accept electrons. As the trivalent impurity atoms
accept electrons from the silicon crystal, it is called acceptor
impurity. The holes so created are extrinsic carriers and the p-
type Sicrystal so obtained is called ptype extrinsic
semiconductor. Again, as the pure Sicrystal also possesses a
few electrons and holes, therefore, the ptype sicrystal will
have a large number of holes (majority carriers) and a small
number of electrons (minority carriers).
It terms of valence and conduction band one can think that all
such holes create an accepter energy level just above the top
of the valance band as shown in figure. The electrons from
valence band can raise themselves to the accepter energy
level by absorbing thermal energy at room temperature and
in turn create holes in the valence band.
Number density of valence band holes (nh) in ptype
semiconductor is approximately equal to that of the acceptor
atoms (Na) and is very large as compared to the number
density of conduction band electrons (ne). Thus,
nh~Na > > ne
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF
SEMICONDUCTORS

Consider a block of semiconductor of length l 1 area of cross

section A and having number density of electrons and holes
as ne and nh respectively. Suppose that on applying a
potential difference, say V, a current I flows through it as
shown in figure. The electron current (Ic) and the hole
current (Ih) constitute the current I flowing through the semi
conductor i.e.

(i) I= Ie + Ih

It ne is the number density of conduction band electrons in

the semiconductor and ve, the drift velocity of electrons then

Ie = eneAve

Similarly, the hole current,Ih= enhAvh

From (i)

I = eneAve + enhAvh

I = eA(neve + nhvh)
If ρ is the resistivity of the material of the semiconductor,
then the resistance offered by the semiconductor to the flow of
current is given by :

R = ρ l/A (iii)

Since V = RI, from equation (ii)and(iii) we have

V = RI = ρ l/A eA (neve + nh vh)

V = ρ le(neve + nhvh) (iv)

If E is the electric field set up across the semiconductor, then:

E = V/l (v)

From equation (iv) and (v), we have

E= e (neve + nhvh)

1/ ρ = e (ne ve/E + nh vh/E)

On applying electric field, the drift velocity acquired by the

electrons (or holes) per unit strength of electric field is called
mobility of electrons (or holes). Therefore, mobility of
electrons and holes is given by :
µe = ve/E and h = vh/
1/ ρ = e(ne e + nh h) (vi)

Also, is called conductivity of the material of semiconductor

σ = e (ne e + nh h) (vii)
The relation (vi) and (vii) show that the conductivity and
resistivity of a semiconductor depend upon the electron and
hole number densities and their mobilities. As ne and
nh increases with rise in temperature, therefore, conductivity
of semiconductor increases with rise in temperature and
resistivity decreases with rise in temperature.

P-N JUNCTION

A p–n junction is a boundary or interface between two

types of semiconductor material, p-type and n- type,
inside a single crystal of semiconductor. The "p"
(positive) side contains an excess of holes, while the
"n" (negative) side contains an excess of electrons.
The p-n junction is created by doping, for example by
ion implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy
(growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of
dopant on top of a layer of crystal doped with another
type of dopant).

Ap–n junction circuit symbol is shown: t

to the p side.
If an external potential is applied to the terminals of PN
junction, it will alter the potential between the P and N-
regions. This potential difference can alter the flow of
majority carriers, so that the PN junction can be used as
an opportunity for the diffusion of electrons and holes.

If the voltage applied decreases the width of the

depletion layer, then the diode is assumed to be in
forward bias and if the applied voltage increases the
depletion layer width then the diode is assumed to be in
reverse bias. If the width of depletion layer do not alters
then it is in the zero bias state.

 Forward Bias: External voltage decreases

the built-in potential barrier.

 Reverse Bias: External voltage increases

the built-in potential barrier.

 Zero/No Bias: No external voltage is applied.

PN Junction Diode When No External
Voltage is applied

In zero bias or thermal equilibrium state junction potential

provides higher potential energy to the holes on the P-side
than the N-side. If the terminals of junction diode are shorted,
few majority charge carriers (holes) in the P side with
sufficient energy to surmount the potential barrier travel
across the depletion region.

Therefore, with the help of holes, current starts to flow in the

diode and it is referred to as forward current. In the similar
manner, holes in the N side move across the depletion region
in reverse direction and the current generated in this fashion is
referred to as reverse current.

Potential barrier opposes the migration of electrons and holes

across the junction and allow the minority charge carriers to
drift across the PN junction. As a result of it, a state of
equilibrium is established when the majority charge carriers
are equal in concentration on either side of the junction and
when minority charge carriers are moving in opposite
directions.
A net zero current flows in the circuit and the junction is said
to be in dynamic equilibrium. By increasing the temperature
of semiconductors, minority charge carriers have been
continuously generated and thereby leakage current starts to
rise. In general no conduction of electric current takes place
because no external source is connected to the PN junction.

Forward Biased Diode

With the externally applied voltage, a potential difference is
altered between the P and N regions.When positive terminal
of the source is connected to the P side and the negative
terminal is connected to N side then the junction diode is said
to be connected in forward bias condition. Forward bias
lowers the potential across the PN junction.

The majority charge carriers in N and P regions are attracted

towards the PN junction and the width of the depletion layer
decreases with diffusion of the majority charge carriers. The
external biasing causes a departure from the state of
equilibrium and a misalignment of Fermi levels in the P and
N regions, and also in the depletion layer.
So an electric field is induced in a direction converse to that
of the incorporated field. The presence of two different
Fermi levels in the depletion layer represents a state of quasi-
equilibrium. The amount of charge Q stored in the diode is
proportional to the current I flowing in the diode.

With the increase in forward bias greater than the build in

Potential, at a particular value the depletion region becomes
much thinner so that a large number of majority charge carriers
can cross the PN junction and conducts an electric current .
The current flowing up to built in potential is called as ZERO
Current or KNEE current
.

Forward Biased Diode

Characteristics

With the increase in applied external forward bias, the width

of the depletion layer becomes thin and forward current in a
PN junction diode starts to increase abruptly after the KNEE
point of forward I-V characteristic curve.

Firstly, a small amount of current called as reverse saturation

current exists due to the presence of the contact potential and
the related electric field.
While the electrons and holes are freely crossing the junction
and causes diffusion current that flows in the opposite
direction to the reverse saturation current.

The net result of applying forward bias is to reduce the

height of the potential barrier by an amount of eV. The
majority carrier current in the PN junction diode increases by
an exponential factor of eV/kT. As result the total amount of
current becomes I = Is * exp(eV/kT), where Is is constant.

The excess free majority charge carrier holes and electrons

that enter the N and P regions respectively, acts as a minority
carriers and recombine with the local majority carriers in N
and P regions. This concentration consequently decreases
with the distance from the PN junction and this process is
named as minority carrier injection.
The forward characteristic of a PN junction diode is non
linear, i.e., not a straight line. This type of forward
characteristic shows that resistance is not constant during the
operation of the PN junction. The slope of the forward
characteristic of a PN junction diode will become very steep
quickly.

This shows that resistance is very low in forward bias of the

junction diode. The value of forward current is directly
proportional to the external power supply and inversely
proportional to the internal resistance of the junction diode.

Applying forward bias to the PN junction diode causes a low

impedance path for the junction diode, allows for conducting
a large amount of current known as infinite current. This large
amount current starts to flow above the KNEE point in the
forward characteristic with the application of a small amount
of external potential.

The potential difference across the junction or at the two N

and P regions is maintained constant by the action of
depletion layer. The maximum amount of current to be
conducted is kept limited by the load resistor, because when
the diode conducts more current than the usual specifications
of the diode, the excess current results in the dissipation of
heat and also leads to severe damage of the device.
Reverse Biased Diode
When positive terminal of the source is connected to the N
side and the negative terminal is connected to P side, then
the junction diode is said to be connected in reverse bias
condition. In this type of connection majority charge carriers
are attracted away from the depletion layer by their
respective battery terminals connected to PN junction.

The Fermi level on N side is lower than the Fermi level on P

side. Positive terminal attracts the electrons away from the
junction in N side and negative terminal attracts the holes
away from the junction in P side. As a result of it, the width
of the potential barrier increases that impedes the flow of
majority carriers in N side and P side.

The width of the free space charge layer increases, thereby

electric field at the PN junction increases and the PN junction
diode acts as a resistor. But the time of diode acting as a
resistor is very low. There will be no recombination of
majority carriers taken place at the PN junction; thus, no
conduction of electric current.

The current that flows in a PN junction diode is the small

leakage current, due to minority carriers generated at the
depletion layer or minority carriers which drift across the PN
junction. Finally, the result is that the growth in the width of
the depletion layer presents a high impedance path which acts
as an insulator.
In reverse bias condition, no current flows through the PN
junction diode with increase in the amount of applied
external voltage. However, leakage current due to minority
charge carriers flows in the PN junction diode that can be
measured in micro amperes.

As the reverse bias potential to the PN junction diode

increases ultimately leads to PN junction reverse voltage
breakdown and the diode current is controlled by external
circuit. Reverse breakdown depends on the doping levels of
the P and N regions.

With the increase in reverse bias further, PN junction diode

become short circuited due to overheat in the circuit and
Maximum circuit current flow in PN junction diode .

.
Bibliography

1. www.google.com

2. www. wikipedia.com

3. www.ncert.nic.in

4. NCERT PHYSICS BOOK CLASS 12

Reverse Biased Diode Characteristics:

V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

In the current–voltage characteristics of junction diode, from

the first quadrant in the figure current in the forward bias is
incredibly low if the input voltage applied to the diode is
lower than the threshold voltage (Vr). The threshold voltage
is additionally referred to as cut-in voltage.
Once the forward bias input voltage surpasses the cut-in voltage
(0.3 V for germanium diode, 0.6-0.7 V for silicon diode), the
current spectacularly increases, as a result the diode functions as
short-circuit.

The reverse bias characteristic curve of diode is shown in the

fourth quadrant of the figure above. The current in the
reverse bias is low till breakdown is reached and therefore
the diode looks like as open circuit. When the reverse bias
input voltage has reached the breakdown voltage, reverse
current increases spectacularly.

PN Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics

For ideal characteristics, the total current in the PN junction

diode is constant throughout the entire junction diode. The
individual electron and hole currents are continuous
functions and are constant throughout the junction diode.

The real characteristics of PN Junction diode varies with the applied

external potential to the junction that changes the properties of
junction diode. The junction diode acts as short circuit in forward bias
and acts as open circuit in reverse bias
Conclusion

Semiconductors play a significant role in our daily life.

Semiconductor material has conductivity less than

conductor but higher than insulator. Using

semiconductors we can form various types of diodes such

as PN junction diode, zener diode, light emitting diode

(LED), photodiode etc.