Paper 4

Course Biology

Confidence Not Confident

Last Edited @January 28, 2024 5:38 PM

Chap 12:Respiration
Definitions
Explanation
Outline the process of oxidative phosphorylation:

NADH splits and releases protons and electrons

Electrons will jump from electron carrier to carrier and pass through the electron
transport chain located at the cristae

THe jumping of electrons provide and releases energy for the proton pumps to
pump protons from the matrix into the intermembrane space by active transport
against concentration gradient

This decreases the pH in the intermembrane space and creates a proton

concentration gradient between the intermembrane space and matrix

Protons then diffuse across the ATP synthase down the gradient to the matrix
again

When H+ diffuses across the ATP synthase, ATP is made by chemiosmosis by

ADP + Pi = ATP

The final electron acceptor is the oxygen and it will combine with protons to
form H2O

Explain why ATP is needed in the first part of glycolysis:

To phosphorylate the glucose

Paper 4 1
 Stop glucose from leaving the cell

Activates glucose

Explain what happens to pyruvate in the link reaction in aerobic respiration:

It is decarboxylated to produce CO2

It is dehydrogenated to reduce NAD into NADH

The remaining molecule of 2C combines with CoA to form acetyl CoA

Describe the differences between the process of chemiosmosis in mitochondria

and the process of chemiosmosis in chloroplasts:

In mitochondria, it is oxidative phosphorylation. In choloroplast, it is

photophosphorylation

In mitochondria, it occurs at the cristae, while choloroplast is at thylakoid

membrane

IN mitochondria, NADH and FADH2 gives protons and electrons. In

choloroplast, it is water

In mitochondria, protons move into intermembrane space, in choloroplast, it

moves into thylakoid lumen

Oxygen is final electron acceptor while NADP is final electron acceptor

Makes H20, makes NADPH

Explain why the link reaction only occurs when oxygen is available:

Pyruvate converted to acetyl CoA in link reaction

NAD needed in link reaction where it becomes reduced

NADH goes to ETC

ETC only works if oxygen is present to serve as final electron accepter

So that NAD is regenerated

Chap 13:Photosynthesis
Definitions

Paper 4 2
 Limiting factor: Reaction that is affected by more than one factor and factor is in short
supllyl which restricts the rate of reaction
Explanation
Describe the relationship between the function of a chloroplast and its
structure:

It has stroma which is the site of light independent reaction like the calvin cycle

Stroma contains RuBP and

Stroma is colourless so that light can pass through it and reach the thylakoids

Stroma contains water for photolysis

It has thylakoid stacked to form granum and granum is connected by the lamella

Each thylakoid has a thylakoid membrane which is the site of light dependent
reaction

It contains photosystem 1 and 2 as well as the electron transport chain

Thylakoid membrane have a large surface area to absorb more light

It has starch grain to store starch

Outline the main features of cyclic photophosphorylation:

Electron is excited by light in photosystem 1

Electrons pass along ETC

Protons pumped into thylakoid lumen

Protons diffuse back through ATP synthase

ATP is synthesised by chemiosmosis

Describe the functions of the internal membranes of the chloroplast in

photosynthesis

Site for light dependent stage and photolysis

Thylakoids stacked to form grana to increase surface area for maximising

absorption of light

Paper 4 3
 Thylakoid lumen present and membrane impermeable to proton for establishing
proton gradient

Thylakoid membrane contains ETC and ATP Synthase

Primary pigments are surrounded by accessory pigments to form light harvesting

clusters

Accessory pigments absorb photons from sunlight and pass it to primary

pigments for exciting electrons

Electrons emitted from photosystem and moves along ETC

ATP is synthesised by chemiosmosis

Describe the differences in the absorption spectra of the three photosynthetic

pigments shown in Fig. 2.1 and explain how these differences help red algae to
survive in deep water:

Chlorophyll a absorbs from

Cholorophyll a has peak absorption in

Phycoerythrin absorbs from

Phycoerythrin has peak absorption in

Phycocyanin absorbs from

Phycocyanin has peak absorption in

Red algae lives in deep water so only can get green and yellow light

Cholorophyll a absorbs little green and yellow light

Accesory pigments absorb wavelengths of light not absorbed by chlorophyll a

Combined pigments absorb greater range of wavelengths

Increases rate of light dependent stage

Explain why light intensity can be a limiting factor in photosynthesis:

Photons is needed for light dependent stage

To produce NADPH and ATP

Light is also needed to open stomata for CO2 to enter

Paper 4 4
 Explain how very dry conditions cause CO2 concentration to become the main
limiting factor of photosynthesis in plants.

In very dry conditions, ABA will be released as a stress response

It will close the stomata and decrease the CO2 diffusing into the chloroplasts

Describe the similarities and differences between cyclic photophosphorylation

and non-cyclic photophosphorylation:

Similarities

Both involves photoactivation of chlorophyll

Both involves ETC

Both produces ATP

Differences:

Photosystem 1 and 2 in non cyclic

NADPH produced in non cyclic

Photolysis in non-cyclic

Water is source of electrons in non cyclic while in cyclic photosystem 1 is

source of electrons

Explain the relationship between the absorption spectrum of the main

chloroplast pigments in a species of plant and the action spectrum for
photosynthesis for that species:

Action spectrum shows the rate of photosynthesis for different wavelengths of

light

Absorption spectrum shows how much each wavelength of light is absorbed

Higher absorption gives photosynthesis

Explain how grana are adapted for their specific role in photosynthesis:

Many thylakoids stack for increased surface area

Large surface area to maximise absorption of light

Grana contain primary pigments to absorb light

Paper 4 5
 It also contain ETC ro release energy

Photosystems are light harvesting structures

Thylakoid space to form proton concentration gradient

THylakoid membrane is impermeable to protons to maintain proton

concentration gradient

ATP synthase to make ATP

Contains oxygen evolving complex for photolysis of water

Chap 14:Homeostasis
Definitions
Homeostasis: Constant maintenance of internal environment of body within narrow
limits using negative feedback despite changes in external environment
Negative feedback: A process in which a change in a parameter is detected by receptor
and will be corrected by an action taken by an effector back to set point

Explanation
Describe the role of abscisic acid in stomatal closure:

It is a stress hormone

It binds to inhibitors on cell surface membrane and inhibits proton pumps

Stimulates Ca2+ uptake

Calcium ions act as second messenger

K+ diffuses out of the guard cell

Water potential of the cell increases

Water leaves guard cells by osmosis down water potential gradient

Guard cell become flaccid and cell volume decreases

Describe how a glucose biosensor works:

Blood on a strip is inserted into biosensor

Paper 4 6
 There is the enzyme glucose oxidase that converts glucose to gluconic acid
hydrogen peroxide

Since it is an oxidation reaction, there is electric current

Current is proportional to glucose concentration

Digital reading is displayed on screen

Describe how hydrogen ions and potassium ions are involved in the opening of a
stoma:

Proton pumps pump protons out of the guard cell

This causes the inside of the guard cell to become negatively charged

K+ ions move down electrochemical gradient into the guard cell by facilitated
diffusion

This decreases the water potential of teh guard cell

Water moves down water potential graident by osmosis into the guard cells

Cell increases in volume

Stoma opens due to thick inner wall

Describe and explain the action of ADH on the cells of the collecting duct when
the water potential of the blood decreases:

ADH binds to receptor on cell surface membrane

Activates G protein and G protein will bind to adenlyl cyclase

Forming cAMP which acts as second messenger

It will stimulate vesicles containing aquaporins to move and fuse with cell
surface membrane

Cells in the lining of collecting duct is now more permeable to water

More water moves down water potential gradient by osmosis into the blood

Increasing water content of blood and blood volume

Describe and explain how the structures in the Bowman’s capsule and its
associated blood supply are adapted to allow ultrafiltration to take place:

Paper 4 7
 Afferent arteriole wider than efferent to

Produce high hydrostatic or blood pressure in capillaries

There are pores in capillary endothelial cells

Basement membrane acts as filter

Prevents large molecules such as proteins and red blood cells from entering the
Bowman’s capsule

There are pores in podocyte cells which allows the filtrate to pass through to
Bowman’s capsule

Chap 15:Control & Coordination

Definitions
Explanation
Ca2+ATPase pumps calcium ions from the cytoplasm into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum when the fibre is no longer stimulated. Suggest the consequences to the
sarcomere of the action of the golden mantella toxin:

Ca2+ stays in cytoplasm

Ca2+ remains binding to the troponin

Tropomyosin still shifted and does not cover the active site actin

Myosin-actin cross bridges still exist

Sarcomere shortened and contracted

Describe the role of calcium ions in a cholinergic synapse:

Ca2+ uptake by diffusion into presynaptic knob through voltage gated calcium
ion channel

Ca2+ stimulates the movement of vesicles containing acetylcholine to the

presynaptic membrane and fuse with pre synaptic membrane

Resulting in exocytosis of acetylcholine

Paper 4 8
 Describe how the contact of cell A with Na+ can result in an action potential in
sensory neurone B:

Na+ions enter the chemoreceptorcell by facilitated diffusion through the

chemoreceptor cells

Cell surface membrane gets depolarised and the threshold potential is reached to
generate receptor potential

Receptor potential opens Ca2+ voltage gated ion channel and Ca2+ diffuses into
chemoreceptor cells by facilitated diffusion

Ca2+ stimulates the movement of vesicles containing neurotransmitter to the

cell surface membrane and fuse with it

Leads to exocytosis of neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitter diffuses across synaptic cleft and binds with receptor on

postsynaptic membrane and opens Na+ ion channel

Na+ ions diffuse into sensory neurone and sensory membrane depolarised

Treshold potential is reached and generates action potential

When asked for difference in structure and functions of sensory and motor
neurones

structures:

Cell body of sensory neurones are located in middle of neurone between

dendrons and axons

Cell body of motor neurones located at the end of neurone

Cell body of sensory located at ganglion

Cell body of motor locataed at CNS

Sensory has dendrons and axons

motor has axons only

Sensory has short axons

Motor has long axons

Sensory has dendrites attached from dendrons

Paper 4 9
 Motor has dendrites attached from cell body

Sensory has no dendrites extending from cell body

Motor has dendrites extending from cell body

Functions:

Sensory carries / transmits impulse from receptors to CNS

Motor neurones carries / transmits impulse from CNS to effectors

When asked for role of amylase:

To break down starch into maltose in the endosperm, and maltose into glucose to
be used in the embryo for respiration

When asked about myelinated vs non-myelinated:

Myelinated only has Na+ channel at nodes of ranvier, so depolarisation only

occurs at nodes of ranvier. Myelinated has long local circuits, which leads to
saltatory conduction or the jumping of impulses

When asked about muscle contraction:

Do not forget that T-tubules gets depolarized first before Ca2+ ions released
from sarcoplasmic reticulum

When asked why muscle relaxation decreases gradually:

Myosin head detaches from actin at different times

When asked to compare endocrine system and nervous system:

Communication

Nature of communication

Mode of transmission

Speed of transmission

Duration

Effects

Response

Paper 4 10
 When asked about venus flytrap mechanism:

Mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy,

if two or more sensory hairs are touched in a period of 20-35 seconds,

cell membrane depolarises,

action potential generated,

action potential spreads over lobe

Proton pumps pumps protons into cell walls cell walls loosen

Ca2+ enters cell

Water enters cell by osmossis

Cells become turgid

Lobes change from convex to convcave

Trap shuts in 0.3s

When asked about role of synapse:

Ensure one way transmission

Communication between neurones

Interconnetion of nerve pathways

When asked about structure of motor neurone:

Motor neurone has a long axon and does not have dendrons; the axon is
insulated with myelin sheath with nodes of ranvier. The cell body of motor
neurone is located at end of neurone or at the CNS, the nucleus is located in cell
body and there are a lot of mitochondria and rough endoplasmic reticulum in the
cell body. There are dendrites extending or attached from cell body

When asked about structure of sensory neurone:

Sensory neurone has long dendrons and short axons, its cell body is located at
ganglion between dendrons and axons. The nucleus is located in cell body and
has many mitochondrian and rough endoplasmic reticulum in the cell body. It
does not have dendrites attached or extending from its cell body. Schawnn cells
surround the axon and it has nodes of ranvier

Paper 4 11