ICWG - 2022 - Jan - Boiler Safe Operations - Presentation - Plus Q&A

Speaker:-
Mr. G.S. Baveja
ICWG_JAN_2022_GSB_BOILER SAFE OPERATIONS 25-01-2022 1

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INDEX
• Steam generation fundamental introduction.

• Heat transfer in boilers.
• Boiling and internal circulation.
• Factors affecting boiler design.
• Types of boilers.
• Fire tube boilers
• Water tube boilers.

INTRODUCTION
• Steam is a real gas which does not obey Boyle or
Charle’s law.
• It is produced from water by application of heat.
• In the phase diagram:
• T is the triple point at which all the three phase exist
[ 0.611 bar & 0.01°C].
• C is the critical point at which the liquid phase can be
differentiated from the vapor phase [ 221.2 bar &
374.25°C].
• TC is the equilibrium line between liquid-vapor phase
(saturation line).

PHASE DIAGRAM

PHASE DIAGRAM

FUNDAMENTALS
• Steam generation is the process of turning water into steam by the
application of heat.
• Specific Volume: It is the volume of the unit mass of a fluid in m3/Kg.
• Flow Energy: It is a property of the fluid that express the internal
mechanical energy in the fluid which exists only when the fluid flows.
• Internal Energy: It is the kinetic energy (internal heat energy due to
the movement of molecules) and the potential energy (the relative
positions of the molecules).
• Enthalpy: It is the heat required to bring liquid from 32 °F (0 °C) to its
boiling point.
• Entropy: It is a property defining the degree of disorder in the
system.
• Dryness Fraction: It is the % by weight of dry steam in steam / water
mixture.

SATURATION STATE
• It is the state at which vapour and liquid are in equilibrium.
• In boiling process, both water and steam have the same temperature
which is called saturation temp.
• For each boiling pressure there is only one saturation temp.& vise
versa.
• During boiling process, temperature remains constant, the heat added
is used to change liquid water into steam, this heat in Btu/lb is the
Enthalpy of evaporation.
• The enthalpy of the saturated steam = Enthalpy of evaporation +
Enthalpy of the saturated liquid.
• Saturation temperature at saturation pressure equals the boiling
temperature and condensation temperature at the same pressure.

SUPERHEATING
• As long as steam and water are in contact, temp. will remain the
same (saturation temp. for the given pressure).
• To produce superheated steam, it should be superheated out of

contact with water.
• Rate of rising temp. depends on the pressure.
• Enthalpy required for raising temperature of water to a certain degree

ddecreases with increasing pressure.
• Critical Point is a point at which water evaporate without boiling and

that occurs at 705.4 °F & 3206 lb/in2 about (374.1 °C & 221 bar G)

STEAM TABLE AND MOLLIER CHART
 Steam table: It contains data on saturated water and steam
organized by both temperature and pressure.
 Mollier chart: It is the graph between temp. and entropy.
 It illustrates steam properties graphically.
 It shows that if we heat a pound (0.45 Kg) of water:
a) Temperature rises with increasing volume slightly.
b) Boiling, increasing volume greatly and constant Temperature.
c) When all water evaporated on further heating volume continues
increasing and the temperature rises; this called superheating.
 As the pressure increase:
a) Heat required for reaching boiling temperature increase.
b) Heat required to boil the water decrease.

MOLLIER CHART

WATER STEAM CYCLE IN BOILER

CONTINUED…
 From F to A to B (liquid water warm up)
 B: Evaporation begins
 B to C: (mixture of water decreasing and
steam increasing called saturated steam)
 C: evaporation completed, steam still
saturated,
 C to D: (steam is superheated)
 D: superheated steam sent to turbine)
 Steam generation process depends mainly

on heat addition
 Heat transfer in boilers is achieved by

conduction, convection and radiation from the
hot combustion products (flue gases), bodies
and flame.

TYPES OF HEAT TRANSFER
1. Conduction: It is the heat transfer from part of material to another by
heating the molecules, so that its vibration increases and is
transferred to the adjacent molecules. Heat conductance is measured
as thermal conductivity in Btu/hr/ft²/°F/ft.
2. Convection: It is the heat transfer by the heated material itself;
heated fluids with lower density will rise and cooler portion (heavier)
will displace it and then become heated in turn and displaced. It is of
two types- natural convection and forced convection
3. Radiation: It’s the heat transfer which does not require transmission
medium; and the amount of radiation from the hot body depends on :
 Size, shape and substance
 Temperature of radiating body
 Doubling the absolute temperature will cause radiation to increase by
16 times
TEMPERATURE GRADIENT IN BOILER TUBES
 Temperature gradient
through the boiler
tubes depends on the
resistance of thin fluid
films on both sides:
• Gas film
• Steam-water film
 [Steam film only in the
superheater]
RELATION BETWEEN SURFACE AREA AND
HEAT ABSORBED

BOILER DESIGN TO ACHIEVE EFFICIENCY
Boilers are designed to achieve maximum efficiency:
 Water walls - Depends on furnace radiation heat and is 9
% of the total heating surface but account for 48 % of heat
absorption.
 Boiler Bank - Depends on convective heat transfer and is
33 % of heating surface but absorb 20 % of the heat.
 Super-heater – May use both radiation and convective
heat and is 9 % of the boiler heating surface but it absorb
16 % of heat in the furnace.
 Economizer - 6 % of the heating surface but absorb 6 %
of the total heat.
BOILER DESIGN TO ACHIEVE EFFICIENCY

STEAM GENERATION EFFICIENCY
 Efficiency is the fraction of the heat released in the
furnace that is absorbed by water in the boiler.
 Increased boiler surface leads to increase in heat
absorption but at some point, the increasing surface
outweighs the gain in efficiency.
 Steam generating unit efficiency is the ratio of steam
output in the system to heat input in the fuel.
 Supercritical steam generation unit produce steam at
pressure above the critical point when water turns to
steam without actual boiling.

CIRCULATION IN BOILER
Two types of circulation is there:
Natural circulation-
1. In water tube circuit, steam / water
mixture is displaced by heavier
unheated water column coming
through the down comer.
2. It depends upon the density
difference between steam and water
and also on frictional losses.
Forced circulation- It is done
1. Using a pump to overcome
resistance
2. May be used at high pressure when
natural circular forces are small
3. Useful at low load cases when more
water is circulated than steam is
generated

FACTORS AFFECTING BOILER TYPE & SELECTION
 Boiler should be selected to achieve maximum reliability, safety
and economy.
 Safety codes and standards.
 Steam characteristics required for users (pressure –
temperature - quality).
 Consumers’ characteristics
i. Load changes
ii. Consumers Process criticality.
 Unit size
i. Lowest stresses.
ii. Highest internal circulation.
 Fuel
 Environmental requirements

TYPES OF BOILERS
Fire tube boilers
 Hot combustion gases passes in series of tubes
immersed in water.
 Upper limit of pressure is about 16 Bar.
 Capacity is about 7 ton/hr.
 Inexpensive
 Flexible operation due to high amount of water in the
shell.
 Large water surface area provide dry steam.

TYPES OF BOILERS
WATER TUBE BOILER
 Hot combustion gas passes over tubes containing water.
 Heat transfer areas
i. Radiant heat transfer area
ii. Convection heat transfer area
 Capacity start from 8.5 MW and / or pressure 24 Bar.
 Packaged boiler
i. Boiler equipped and shipped complete with burners,
instruments & accessories.

TYPES OF BOILERS
WATER TUBE BOILER
Types of Water tube boiler
i. A type
ii.D type
iii.0 type

PACKAGED BOILER
• Two Lower smaller drums
surface and one large
upper drum heat
• Steam production in the
center furnace wall tube
entering in the drum
• Large combustion room
easy to fit super heater
• Most flexible
• Least amount in tube
exposed to radiation
TYPES OF WATER TUBE BOILERS
There are three main types of water tube boilers:

 .“D” Style - One steam drum and one lower drum, centered
over each other with furnace offset to one side and one
generating bank.
 “A” Style - One steam drum and two lower drums set in shape
of “A”. Furnace is in the center of boiler with two generating
banks.
 “O” Style - One steam drum and one lower drum, centered over
each other with furnace in center and two generating banks.
WHY D TYPE?
• Large combustion chamber volume.
• Super-heaters and Economizer can be added with relative
areas.
• Oil, gas or combination burners can be located in one of
the end walls or between tubes.
• High degree of flexibility.
• Enable gases direction and maximum residence time in
the boiler

ANY QUESTIONS PLEAS?

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INDEX
• Introduction.
• Deaerator and feed water system.
• Water circulation and heating system.
• Superheater and de-superheater.
• Economizer.
• Combustion system.
• Draft System.
• Steam distribution system

INTRODUCTION TO BOILER SYSTEM
• Steam is produced from water by the application of
convected or radiated heat.
• The chemically treated feed water first enters a deaerator
where the trapped air in the water is stripped off by steam.
• The deaerated feed water is pumped through a feed
water heater and is sent to a drum located at the top of
the boiler called the steam drum.
• The water from the steam drum flows down through a
downcomer and enters another drum at the bottom of the
boiler called mud drum.
• From the mud drum the water flows up through heating
tubes back into the steam drum.

BOILER SYSTEM

ANOTHER SCHEMATIC OF BOILER SYSTEM

VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF BOILER
 Deaerator and Feed water system
 Water Circulation and Heating system
 Superheater, De-Superheater and Heat Recovery system
 Combustion system
 Draft system
 Steam Distribution system

USE OF DEAERATOR
• The purpose of deaerator is to remove the air bubbles trapped in the water, before it is sent
to steam drum.
• The air bubbles have O2 and CO2 which can cause corrosion inside the steam drum.
• The water containing air bubbles is made into contact with steam injected at the bottom of
deaerator, which strips the air from water.

FEED WATER SYSTEM

WATER CIRCULATION AND HEATING SYSTEM
It consists of:
• Steam Drum
• Mud Drum
• Downcomer
• Heating Tubes

STEAM DRUM
 It is located at a higher elevation in the boiler system and is connected with
the mud Drum at a lower level with tubes.
 In steam drum, the steam is separated from the water steam mixture
returning from mud drum.
 A small portion of the water from the Steam Drum is drained regularly to
eliminate the accumulation of solid deposits present in the feedwater and it is
called blowdown.
 Baffles are placed at the nozzle return to prevent any entrainment of water
droplets by steam.
 Steam separator
o Baffle ( low pressure )

o Chevron ( low pressure )
o Centrifugal type ( high pressure)

WATER CIRCULATION AND HEATING TUBES
 The feed water after mixing with the saturated water in the steam
drum flows down through the tubes called downcomer (not exposed
to heat) to the mud drum.
 The water from the mud drum flows up to the steam drum via various
heating tubes exposed to flue gases and burner flame.
 The water circulates continuously between the steam drum and the
mud drum by natural circulation.
 Natural circulation is due to the density difference between steam

and water which is called natural convection.

WATER CIRCULATION AND HEATING TUBES...

MUD DRUM
• The function of the mud
Drum is to facilitate
water circulation and to
remove deposits from
the water.
• The sludge and other

impurities deposit as
solids and are removed
by blowing down a small
quantity of water which
is called blowdown.

STEAM SUPERHEATER
 The saturated steam leaving the Steam Drum is further heated in a heat
exchanger called Superheater to prevent any water droplet formation by
cooling.
 There are two Superheaters, primary and secondary.
 The saturated steam from the Steam Drum initially enters the primary
Superheater where it is heated by radiaitive heat from the flue gas.
 The superheated steam enters then equipment called De-

Superheater(also known as attemperator) where a small controlled
quantity of water is injected to control the final steam temperature.
 Finally the steam enters the secondary Superheater where it is further

heated by convective heat transfer from flue gas & is sent for distribution.

STEAM SUPERHEATER

ADVANTAGES OF SUPERHEATER AND ITS TYPES
Advantages of superheater:
• Increase the thermodynamic efficiency.
• More dry steam.
• Less tendency to condense in the last stages of turbine.
• Most critical temperature concern especially in unstable conditions like
start up; shutting down; load change because heat transfer is between
gas and steam.
Types of Superheater:
• Internal superheater
• External superheater (used when internal superheater is not applicable)
• Super heaters for packaged boilers
• Radiant
• Convective- Horizontal and pendent type

DE-SUPERHEATER OR ATTEMPERATOR

DE-SUPERHEATER OR ATTEMPERATOR…
It is done by the injection of water with temperature near to the
saturation temperature of steam to be cooled to minimize time of
desuperheating.
• Quality of spray water is important
o Dissolved salts
o Treated water (02, CO2 and pH).
Design of desuperheater:

• Injection paint (efficient logged pipe).
• Efficient drainage of the pipe work after desuperheater.
• Water trap is required.
• Suitable water treated source

TEMPERATURE CONTROL METHODS
1. Fire side control:
• Gas direction.
• Gas recirculation.
• Combustion Air
2. Steam side control:
• Spray type.
• Heat exchangers.
Reasons for variation in Steam Temperature are as follows:
• Changing in excess air.
• Changing in feed water temperature.
• Fuel changes.
• Cleanliness of heat absorbing surfaces.

ECONOMIZER AND ITS TYPES
• The cold water is heated in heat exchanger called
economizer before it is sent to steam drum.
• It is located in the recovery section of the boiler after the
secondary Superheater.
• Its use increases the boiler efficiency and saves energy.
Economizer TYPES
• (Horizontal tube - Vertical tube)
• Level 1-10 m.
• Breadth and high according to the capacity.
• Ordinary cast iron is suitable for unit (20 bar Vertical type).
• Strengthen cast iron is suitable for higher pressure and temperature.
ECONOMIZER

COMBUSTION SYSTEM
 The burners are used as combustion devices to generate
heat.
 The boiler delivers air and fuel to the combustion chamber
where it is mixed properly and then ignited to burn
efficiently.
 Burners are normally placed vertically on the side wall to
provide adequate heating to the heating tubes.
 The area where the burners are located inside the boiler
is surrounded with flames and hence it is called the
firebox.
 The primary and secondary air flows can be adjusted
using air registers to provide a stable flame and an
efficient combustion.

BURNER

CLASSIFICATION OF BURNERS
Based on the type of fuel used, burners are classified as:
• Gas Burners are used for gaseous fuel and is of two
types:
i. A raw gas burner
ii. A pre-mixed burner.
• Oil Burners are used for liquid fuel.
• Combination Oil and Gas Burners are used for

simultaneous use of liquid and gaseous Fuel.

TYPES OF BURNERS

GAS BURNER
• In a raw gas burner gaseous fuel enters the firebox
directly and mixes with the secondary air. No primary air
is used for this burner.
• In a pre-mixed burner, the gas flows through a narrow
nozzle and inspirits combustion air prior to ignition at the
burner tip. There are again two types of premixed burners:
• In one type the entire combustion air is inspirited at the
nozzle. In the other type the gaseous fuel is first mixed
with the inspirited primary air at the nozzle and is further
mixed with secondary air just before the combustion point.

GAS BURNERS…

LARGE NOZZLE MIX TYPE BURNER

OIL BURNER
 For efficient combustion, the fuel oil is broken into a fine
mist and this process is called atomization.
 The oil flows through the inner rube and the atomizing
steam flows through the outer tube at a higher pressure.
 The steam mixes with the oil and also atomizes the oil,
which is injected radially, mixed with the air and then
burnt.
 Both primary and secondary air are used for the
combustion and are mixed with the fuel oil before the
combustion point.

CONTINUED…

COMBINATION OIL AND GAS BURNER
• It can be operated
with fuel gas alone or
fuel oil alone or with
both oil and gas.
• It consists of a oil
burner in the center
surrounded by four to
twelve gas burners.

DRAFT SYSTEM
 The flow of the gases takes places due to the pressure difference
between the heating section in the boiler and the atmosphere and this
pressure difference is called draft.
 In boilers, draft is controlled using dampers.
 Natural draft boiler is the one in which air is supplied by natural air
convection. The air registers of the individual burners are used to
control the combustion air flow.
 Forced draft boiler is the one in which the air is supplied by fan. The
total combustion air flow to the boiler is controlled by adjusting the
vane opening of forced-draft fan.

STEAM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
 The steam generated by the boiler is called high pressure
(HP) steam and is sent to HP header.
 Medium pressure steam is generated by the discharge of
high-pressure steam users or by letting down some high-
pressure steam to the medium pressure steam header
also known as MP header. It is used in towers as stripping
steam, to heat process fluids, to atomize liquid fuels or to
create vacuum in ejectors
 Low pressure steam is generated by the discharge of high
pressure and medium pressure steam users or by letting
down some of the medium pressure steam to a low-
pressure steam header also known as LP header.

STEAM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

•
USE OF HP STEAM
It is used to drive rotational equipment such as turbines.

USE OF MP STEAM
It is normally used in towers as stripping steam, to heat process
fluids, to atomize liquid fuels or create vacuum in ejectors.

USE OF LP STEAM
Used as stripping steam & to heat process fluids, to purge
process vessels, to regenerate catalyst beds in reactors.


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SESSION 3
COMBUSTION FUNDAMENTALS

COVERAGE
• Introduction.
• combustion reactions.
• Stoichiometric & actual combustion
• Combustion condition

INTRODUCTION
 Heat of combustion of fuel radiated to the furnace walls is
used for the production of steam.
 Combustion begins in the burner throat and is completed

in the furnace.
 For complete combustion, a proper ratio of fuel and air is

required in the furnace.
 Complete combustion is essential for efficient and smoke

free operation.

CONDITIONS FOR COMPLETE COMBUSTION
• Temperature to support combustion.
• Turbulence to bring air into contact with unburned fuel.
• Time in the high temperature and turbulent zone for
combustion to be completed.
o The reaction which takes place very rapidly with large

conversion of chemical energy to sensible energy
o Rate of combustion reaction "exothermic reaction"
increases with increasing temperature.
o Increasing surface area increases the reaction rate.

BASIC CONCEPTS
• Mole: 1 mole is defined as the amount of substance
contained in 12gm of carbon.
e.g. For 6gm of carbon, no. of moles= 6/12 = 0.5
moles
• Molar volume: The volume of 1 mole of an ideal gas

is called the molar volume which is constant (at given
T & P) what ever be the components of this gas .
e.g. 1Kg -Mole of 02 & 1Kg-Mole of CO2 will occupy
the same volume at the same T &P.
COMBUSTION FUNDAMENTAL LAWS
• Conservation of matter: Matter can neither be created nor be
destroyed.
i.e. Sum of masses of reactants will be equal to the sum of masses
of combustion products.
• Conservation of energy: Energy can neither be created nor be

destroyed.
i.e. Sum of energies entering a combustion process should be equal
to the sum of energies leaving the reaction.
• Law of combining weights: All substances combine in definite

weight relationships proportional to the molecular weights of
constituents.

COMBUSTION FUNDAMENTAL LAWS…
 Ideal gas law: Volume of an ideal gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature and inversely proportional to its absolute
pressure .Proportional constant is the same for one mole of any ideal
gas. i.e. V= R T /P
 Avogadro's law: It states that equal volumes of different gases at the

same (T&P) contains the same number of molecules.
 Dalton law: Total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of partial

pressure exerted by each gas if it were to occupy the same volume
alone at the same temperature.
 Amagat's law: Total volume occupied by a mixture of gases is equal

to the sum of volumes of each gas at the same (P&T).

Flame type Description
FLAME AND ITS Premixed Such as Bunsen flame, Where
CLASSIFICATION flame fuel is mixed with air before
igniter diffusion
Diffusion Such as candle flame, Where fuel
flame and air are drawn into flame
 It is the rapid region by diffusion
exothermic Stationary Such as Bunzen burner
reaction region flame
where high Propagating Such as Carburate
flame
temperature is
Laminar Flame laminar flow slow for
due to the
flame hydrocarbon 1/2 m/s
energy evolved
Turbulent Turbulent flow fast for
during reaction. flame hydrocarbon 1-5 m/s

CALORIFIC VALUE & COMBUSTION OF FUEL
• Amount of heat evolved when a unit weight or volume of fuel is burnt
completely and the combustion products are cooled to standard
temperature 25 0C is called calorific value.
• Gross calorific value HG
• Net calorific value HN
• Theoretical amount of oxygen required for complete burning of fuel is

expressed as equivalent air.
• Actual complete combustion takes place when it is smoke free and
the furnace and fuel burning equipment provides the necessary
temperature, turbulence to contact air and time in high temperature
and turbulent region for combustion to complete.

Purpose:
Extra amount of air is considered to insure complete

EXCESS combustion.
AIR High excess air reduce radiation heat and increases

convection heat which increases flue gas temperature.
Excess air depends on
Fuel type
Burner design
Excess air for gas burner 5 - 30%
Excess air for oil burner 15 - 30%
Excess air is controlled by 02 analyzer

EFFECTS OF LEVEL OF EXCESS AIR
Level of excess air Result
•Optimum excess air •Higher level of CO2

•Lowest CO
•No visible smoke
•Lower excess air •higher CO

•lower CO2
•lower NOx
•Higher excess air •high 02

•lowest CO
•high NOx
•Stoicheometric ratio of air •Low CO

•Maximum Expected level of CO2
•Very low level of 02
COMBUSTION CONDITION
A. Flame condition: The combustion condition of fuel at the burner can
be monitored by observing the following:
a. Color – Depends upon the type of fuel used and combustion condition.
b. Shape
c. Position of the flame
For gas burner:
Flame color/ Combustion condition

characteristics
Blue Proper combustion
Yellow Incomplete combustion due to slightly shortage of air flow
Blue white Incomplete combustion due to slightly higher air flow
Longer flame Incomplete combustion due to very low primary air
Flame lifts off the base Poor combustion due to excess primary air

FOR OIL BURNER
Adjustment of flame condition can be done by manipulating:
• The primary air registers
• The secondary air register
• The atomizing steam flow at the burner.
Flame color / Combustion condition
Characteristics
•Orange Proper combustion
•Light orange Incomplete combustion due to slightly higher air
or atomizing steam flow
•Red Incomplete combustion due to slight shortage of
air or atomizing steam flow
•Dark red Incomplete combustion due to shortage of air flow
or improper atomization
•Flame lifts off the base Poor combustion due to excess primary air
STACK CONDITION

FLAME OUT OF BURNER
Causes:
• Too little air flow.
• Too high air flow.
• Rapid fuel flow rate change.
• Very low fuel pressure at burner inlet.
Burner design play important role in flameout.

• If combustion rate goes out limits of fuel flow rate there will be a
flameout.
• Flameout due to high fuel flow rate is fire dangerous.

BURNER CHARACTERISTICS CURVE

GAS BURNER CHARACTERISTICS CURVE
In gas burner stable operating condition is

determined by fuel gas pressure at burner inlet.

OIL BURNER CHARACTERISTICS CURVE
In oil burner stable condition is determined by fuel

oil pressure and atomizing steam pressure.


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INDEX
• Introduction.
• Boiler control system.
• Level control.
Two element control.
Three element control.
• Steam temperature control.
• Steam pressure control.
• Fuel control.
• Oxygen control.
• Cross limit control.

INTRODUCTION OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM
Features:
• Continuous attention to the control and process
application
• Can compute and remember.
• Digital control can reason and forecast beyond the data
programmed into because it does not only measure the
deviation but also the rate of this deviation.
Advantages:
• Continuous monitoring.
• Continuously changing to keep process condition in most
efficient and effective manner.
COMPONENTS OF CONTROL SYSTEM
• Instruments for measuring
• Controller-
o To compare & reduce the difference between measured and
set points.
• Final control element-
o To maintain the desired conditions.
• Information transition system-
o Communicate the monitor variable to the controller and transfer
commands from controller to the final control element.
• Interface
o Through this control system can be calibrated, programmed or
modified.
GENERAL CONTROL SYSTEM
 Open loop: Controlled variable is not used to control the
system inputs.

CLOSE LOOP
• Controlled variable is used to control one of the process
variables.

FEEDBACK & FEEDFORWARD CONTROL
Feedback control:
• Process variable measuring device produce an electrical or
pneumatic signal proportional to the measured variable and
then sends to controller that compares it with the set point.
• Controller sends a signal to the controlling element which asks
a change in the situation of this element if there is any
difference between measured variable and set point.
Feedforward control:
• It measures and compensates for process disturbance before
they are caused, then changing the controlled variables.

FEEDFORWARD CONTROL

COMBINED FEEDFORWARD & FEEDBACK CONTROL
 These are usually combined together for more accuracy.

 Output of one controller is used to provide “set point” of another
controller cascade control.

BOILER CONTROL SYSTEM
Objective:
• Stable continuous steam quality.
• Safe emergency operation.
• Best performance.
Various Elements of boiler control system:
• Three element feed control
• Steam temperature control
• Steam pressure
• Fuel control
• combustion air control
• oxygen Control

TWO ELEMENT CONTROL

CONVENTIONAL LEVEL CONTROL

THREE ELEMENT LEVEL CONTROL
In this, steam flow should be considered for drum level
control, this is done by adding the steam flow rate as feed
forward signal to the out put of the level control.

STEAM TEMPERATURE CONTROL
It is very important especially with
load changes and is achieved
in:
 First superheater .
 Desuperheater.
 Second superheater

STEAM TEMPERATURE CONTROL WITH AIR FLOW
Air flow signal can feed forward the output of main steam
controller to take action before steam temperature decrease.

STEAM PRESSURE CONTROL
In steam drum, if steam consumption increase, steam pressure
decrease and vice versa. Control system should keep constant
pressure with all cases.

STEAM PRESSURE CONTROL USING STEAM FLOW RATE
AS FEEDFORWARD SIGNAL
Steam flow can be added as a compensation signal to the output

of steam pressure controller to increase the stability of the
pressure of the produced steam .

STEAM PRESSURE CONTROL USING CASCADED STEAM
FLOWRATE
Steam flow controller can be added and steam pressure controller act
as cascade set point with steam flow controller.

FUEL CONTROL
 The boiler master signal define the fuel amount demand.
 Increase signal fuel burner master signal represents the

set point for fuel flow rate controller.
 In case of dual fuel burner, master signal will be splitted

into fuel oil and fuel gas demands by fuel bias.
 Changes in fuel composition (calorific value) can be

corrected by adding compensation corrector.

COMBUSTION AIR CONTROL
Total air flow rate is controlled by adjusting vanes of forced Draft Fan.
Inlet dampers adjust Forced Fan draft & hence the combustion air flow.
 Each burner's air flow is adjusted by air registers.
 Air demand or set point is defined by the boiler master signal.

OXYGEN CONTROL
 Necessary for efficient and safe operation.
 Controlled by oxygen controller or by adjustable oxygen bias.

OXYGEN CONTROL USING A BIAS

AIR CROSS LIMIT
Air demand can be calculated based on
 Master signal
 Instantaneous fuel flow rate
o At stable condition both ways are the same.

o At load change time they are different and air cross limit will select the higher
value.

FUEL CROSS LIMIT
Fuel demand can be calculated based on
 Master signal
 Instantaneous air flow
o At stable load condition both ways are the same.

o At load change, they are different and fuel cross limit will select the lower
value.


.

.
SESSION 5
BOILER OPERATION PRINCIPLES

INDEX
• Introduction to Boiler and combustion system hazard
code NFPA 85.
• Boiler start up.
o Cold start up.
o Hot start up.
• Steam sending.
• Load change.
• Operation checks and maintenance.
• Emergency Operation.
• Boiler Shutdown
• Optimum Operation.
FUNDAMENTALS OF BOILER COMBUSTION SYSTEM
Scope:
o For the design, installation, operation, training, and
maintenance as they relate to the safety of combustion
systems.
o For the strength of the structure, operation and
maintenance procedures, combustion and draft control
equipment, safety interlocks, alarms, trips, and other
related controls that are essential for safe equipment
operation.
o Coordination of the design and operating procedures of
the boiler furnace or HRSG system.

FUNDAMENTALS OF BOILER COMBUSTION
SYSTEM…
Purpose:
o Operating safety and to prevent uncontrolled fires,
explosions, and implosions in equipment.
o Design, installation, operation, training and maintenance

of pulverized fuel systems, boilers, HRSGs, and their
systems for fuel –burning, air supply, and combustion
products removal.
o The coordination of operating procedures, control

systems, interlocks, and structural design.

MANUFACTURE, DESIGN & ENGINEERING
o The owner in cooperation with the manufacturer, ensure
that the unit is not deficient in apparatus that is necessary
for Safe Operation wrt pressure parts, fuel-burning system
equipment, air & fuel metering, light off and maintenance
of stable flame.
o All fuel systems include provisions to prevent foreign
substances from interfering with fuel supply.
o An evaluation to determine the optimum integration of
manual and automatic safety features.
o Design of burner or fuel feed piping & equipment with its
construction to prevent hazardous concentrations of
combustible gases that exist under normal operations.
INSTALLATION
 The party responsible for the erection and installation of the
equipment should ensure that all apparatus is installed and
connected in accordance with the system design.
 The system is not operated until safeguards have been tested
and operated as a system.
 The safety interlock system and protective devices should be
tested jointly by the organization responsible for the system
design and those who operate and maintain such a system.
 Documentation of the plant equipment, the system, and
maintenance activities should be accurately updated to reflect
changes in the status of equipment and operating procedures.

CO-ORDINATION OF DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND
OPERATION
 During the planning and engineering phases of

plant construction, the design should be
coordinated with operating personnel.
 The integration of the various components,

including boiler or HRSG, burner, fuel and air
supply equipment, controls, interlock and safety
devices, operator and maintenance functions,
and communication and training, is the
responsibility of the owner and the operating
company.
MAINTENANCE, OPERATION, TRAINING AND SAFETY
It includes:
• Maintenance and equipment inspection
• Training
o Operator Training
o Maintenance Training

EQUIPMENTS REQUIREMENT
It includes but not limited to:
 Structural design
 Functional requirements for fuel-burning system
 Burning management system logic
 Flame monitoring and tripping systems
 Combustion control system
 Power supply
 Operating information

SCOPE AND PURPOSE
Scope:
o It applies only to single boilers with a fuel input rating of 12,500
MBtu/hr (3.663 MW) or greater.
o Boilers that fires the fuels such as Natural gas, other gas having good
calorific value, Fuel Oil, Gas and oil that are fired simultaneously for
fuel transfer, Gas and Oil that are fired simultaneously and
continuously.
Purpose:
o To establish minimum requirements for the design, installation,
operation, and maintenance of single burner boilers, their fuel-burning
systems, and related systems.
o To contribute to safe operation.
o To prevent furnace explosion.

EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENT
• Fuel supply (oil and gas)
• Alternate fuel firing
• Fuel burning equipment
• Combustion control system
• Interlock system
• Flame safety shutdown system
• Electrical equipment
• Operating System
• System firing oil and gas fuels simultaneously
• Dual Oil atomizer in a single burner

COLD STARTUP
A- Starting preparation and checks:
 All peep and manholes are closed.
 Safety equipments and Interlocks (No bypass is activated).
 Utilities like Power, IA, PA and cooling water are ready.
 Feed water system.
 Dosing system.
 Tanks are ready.
 Fuel system- Fuel is available, Shut down valves are closed, Vent valves are opened.
 The Feed water control valve, blow down and drain valves, Main steam stop valve , All
bypass valves for central valve are closed.
 The Vent valves on the steam line, Feed water stop valve, Root valves and fitting valves for
water level gauges, Drain valves for main steam line, Stop valve for spray water, Stop valves
for all instruments and controlling equipments , Economizer drain, stack drain, are opened.
 Control system Loops are set at Manual Mode.
 Air register and dampers are in proper position.

COLD STARTUP…
B – Water Filling:
 B. F. W Pump start
 Level control loop of steam drum
 Steam drum level 50 ÷ 100 mm below N. W. L
 Cheek level Gauges
C – Firing:
For initial firing by lower gas burner
 Uniform combustion is required.
 Uniform expansion is required.
 Start up curve should be followed.
 Excessive rise of tube temperature of S. Heater should be avoided.

COLD STARTUP…
Firing:
1. Select the fuel type (fuel gas).
2. Furnace purge
o It is started only when the permissive condition is proved.
o Inlet vane open to allow air flow corresponds 25 % MCR.
o Timer start for purge time (5 Min).
o If one of the purge permission is lost during this period purge will be tripped.
o Purge completion alert will be displayed.
Condition For Purge Permission:

o E. S. D pushes bottom releaser.
o No flame.
o No Boiler trip condition.
o Normal level in steam drum.
o Ignition isolation solenoids, Main gas and Fuel gas isolation valves are closed and vent valves are opened.
o Fuel oil isolation valves, Atomizing valves and all purge valves are closed.
o All air register open.
o F. D. Fan running
o Combustion air flow > 25 % MCR.

COLD STARTUP…
Firing:
3. Leak Test:
o Checks pressure drop in fuel system for a few minutes.
4. MFT Reset
o Fuel isolation valves to be opened.
o Fuel vent or return valves to be closed.
o Fuel flow control valve opened in minimum position.
o Burner air register is closed.
5. Ignition:
o Lower burner ignition start
o Burner ignition shut off valves are open & Burner ignition vent valves are closed
o Burner ignition Trans spark.
o Burner flame rod ON appears (i.e. pilot flame is detected)
o If no pilot flame is detected within few seconds, (20 second) ignition shut off valves are
closed and ignition vent valves are opened.
o Notice flame and combustion condition.

COLD STARTUP…
Firing:
6. Upper burner ignition
o The same procedures as lower burner.
7. Boiler load 25 % of MCR

o Manual Mod is turned to Auto control mode.
8. Load increase by master controller.
9. Fuel Oil Firing

o No leak test.
o MFT reset.
o Open fuel oil return and shut off valve.
o Open fuel oil control valve in minimum position.
o Lower burner ignition.

COLD STARTUP…
Burner ignition start:
• Open ignition shut off valve for pilot fuel gas
• Close pilot ignition vent valve
• Burner ignition trans sparking (20 sec)
• Pilot flame to be detected on
• Open Atomizing air valve
• Open fuel oil shut off valve
• Flame detection
• Air register open
• Pilot shut down after (25 sec)
• Close isolation valve
• Open vent valve

COLD STARTUP…
For burner ignition:
At 1.5 Bar:
• Close drain valves on steam lines.
• Close level column vent valves.
• Close level Drum vent valves.
• Reduce superheater drain valves.
At 5 Bar
• Close steam lines vents.
At 10 Bar
• Open start up vent manually to control temperature during pressure
build up.

COLD STARTUP…
At starting period:
• Watch water specification carefully.
• Watch Steam drum level, temperature and pressure and boiler conditions.
• Furnace (flame, flue gases) and Super heater condition.
• Leakage from manholes or flanges and Feed water control
• At boiler load higher than 25 % of MCR and stable water level of steam drum feed water loop
is changed to Auto mode
Air flow control
• At low load high excess air ratio is required so air flow is controlled manually by O 2 meter.
• FD fan inlet dumpers is put in auto mode at load > 25 %.
Fuel flow control.

• After air flow and feed water loops are in auto mode Fuel flow control is to be changed to
auto mode.
Desuperheater spray water control
• After load > 25 % and stable boiler condition.

COLD STARTUP CURVE

HOT START UP
• After recent shut down,follow start up curve
• Start up with furnace purge in case of immediate start after shut down.
• Avoid thermal shock.
Steam sending to process:
• Steam pipes should be carefully drained.
• Drains are opened.
• Steam traps are opened.
• Gradually heat up steam pipes to avoid hammering.
• Boiler side pressure is less than normal press by 2-3 kg / cm at this stage.
Tie in value opened slightly after:
• Line is heated.
• No condensate is there.
• Good steam temperature.
• Increase Boiler pressure to normal pressure.
• Gradually close main steam release valve
ICWG_Jan_2022_GSB_Boiler Safe Operations 25-01-2022 14

1
HOT START UP…
Load change:
Linear (Ramp / constant)
Max 10 % according to;
Control system capability and tuning.
Furnace Volume.
Boiler load and capacity.
Steam drum level and volume.
Automatic.
Sudden Load Change
Max 20 % according to;
Control system capability and tuning.
Furnace volume.
Boiler load and design capacity.
Steam drum volume and level.

HOT START UP…
Operational checks and maintenance:
• Routine checks during shift.

• Weekly checks.
• Monthly checks.
• Annual checks.

HOT START UP…
Routine checks during shift:
• Firing condition monitoring measures and checks.
o Flue gas analysis -O2, Nox, Sox, CO, Particulate temperature, Temperature
o Fuel / Air ratio
o Flame- Shape , Color, Touching
• Steam drum water level
o High Liquid Level - Carry Over, Steam quality reduced
o Low Liquid Level- Boiler is dangerous, Immediate action is required
• Steam Pressure
o Sudden decrease in steam pressure increase drum water level (Swilling effect).
o Sudden increase in steam pressure decrease steam drum level (Shrinking) increase
the steam temperature.
• Feed water Pressure.
• Condensate temperature.
HOT START UP…
Routine checks during shift…
• Feed water Temperature.
o Decrease feed water temperature, decrease the efficiency, and increase fuel
consumption.
• Condensate tank water level.
• Water quality management:
o Feed water analysis.
o Boiler water (BD) analysis.
o Steam analysis.
o Dosing system, deaerator and blow down are used to control this item.
• Machinery conditions: For Turbines & Pumps:

o Lubrication oil & temperature.
o Turbine speed, vibration and noise.
o Steam condition in and out of turbines.
o Motors & Fans condition.
HOT START UP…
Weekly checks:
• Flame scanner
• Automatic combustion system
Monthly checks:
• Interlocks.
• Instruments.
• Fuel leakage.
• Electromagnetic valves.
• Inspection and cleaning greases.
• Flame detectors inspection.
• Glass cleaning.

HOT START UP…
Annual inspection and maintenance:
• Check fire side, water side and boiler internals for deposits and corrosion.
• Check for the superheater.
• Check burner threat and refractory for size, thickness and angle.
• Check position of air register.
• Clean gun tips.

• Clean electrode rod of pilot.
• Check safety valves.
• Clean connecting pipes for level gauges and water column.
• Check auxiliary equipment and instruments such as FDF, control valves and
level gauges.
• Inspection parameters should be recorded for changes detection.

HOT START UP…
Emergency Operation:
Needs skilled and well trained operator for this.
• Low water level

o Fast define the reason if it was sudden load, big change or another
reason (boiler feed water system, blow down, measuring instrument).
o Immediately recover the level or stop boiler immediately.
o Water level to be recovered gradually.
o Reduce boiler pressure and cool down the boiler.
o Gradually reduce air flow rate.
o Inspect the boiler.
o Fix the problem reason.
o Restart up the boiler.

HOT START UP…
• Tube Failure- It can be discovered by furnace observation through sight
glasses, Steam or water leakage around the boiler, Stack and by Material
balance. The recommended actions to be taken are:
o Shut down the boiler.
o Maintain water level.
o Cool down the boiler gradually.
o Stop FDF if the furnace was flooded.
o Make the necessary actions.
o In case of serious failure operators should be careful.
• Instrument air failure

o Control system and interlock system should avail safe trip.
o B. F. water control valve fail to close.

HOT START UP…
• Superheater tube failure- It is caused due to:
o Deposits and corrosion at gas side.
o Reaction of V2O2 + Na2O on the metal surface forming slag
o High excess air & high metal temperature
o Sticky film of slag adhering to the tube surface
o Trap the flying ash and flux magnetite film corroding the metal
o Deposits at gas side cause high metal temperature and unbalanced combustion
gas flow in the superheater.
• Plant air failure

o Change fuel type to fuel gas.
• Instrument air failure

o Control system and interlock system should avail safe trip
o B. F. water control valve fail to close

HOT START UP…
• Power failure:
o It occurs when system is without emergency power source.
o Short time power failure can be withstood depending on the hold up
capacity and equipments used.
o If there is long time power failure, then stop the boiler.
o With emergency power source, boiler can continue running.
• Cooling water failure:
o Boiler should be tripped in case of no emergency cooling system.
• Boiler shut down:
o Coordinate with consumption plants.
o Decrease the boiler load.

HOT START UP…
Boiler shut down…
• At 25% load
o Combustion system is auto manual.
o B. F. W. system is auto manual.
o Raise steam drum level 250 mm above NWL.
o Control the 02 percentage in the flue gas.
• At 20% load
o Distinguish the upper burner.
o Check for no flame visually.
• Purge the furnace with air flow about 30% of MCR for 5 minutes.
• Boiler master temperature decreasing rate should be the same as the
increasing rate in the start Up if the boiler is required to be cooled.

HOT START UP…
Boiler shut down…
• Close the main steam valve and control the pressure using main
steam vent valve.
• If the boiler wanted to be kept in Bank/NG condition:
o All drain valves, vent valves and FD fan inlet valve should be closed.
o Raise the level of Oxygen scavenger before the boiler stops.
o Stop the auxillary equipments.
o Stop chemical dosing system.

SAFE OPERATION
• Safety precautions should be followed by skilled operator.
• NFPA standards are required.
• Rules and recommendation in design, burner interlock, burner
sequence control; trip system and operation precautions.
• Never allow fuel accumulation.
• Minimum purge rate 25% of rate at MCR.
• Spark producing device must be ready.
• A positive air flow through burners into the furnace and up to the
stack.
• Adequate fuel pressure for proper burner operation.
• In case of liquid fuel, fuel temperature and pressure must be
maintained for proper atomizing.

EFFICIENT OPERATION
Operator should be aware about the following:
• Steam generation fundamentals.
• Boiler operation fundamentals.
• Boiler design data.
• Control system data and capability.
• Cause & efficient and corrective actions.

EFFICIENT OPERATION
Operator should be aware about his Boiler operation which
includes:
o Boiler start up.
o Boiler water treatment.
o Emergency operation and shutdown.
o Normal shut down.
o Boiler preservation.
o Boiler inspection.
o Efficiency evolution and optimization.

EFFICIENT OPERATION…
BOILER EFFICIENCY: Optimization of boiler efficiency will be through:
 Combustion control
o Excess air control
o Fuel preparation
o Stack gas analyzers and attemperation.
Heat recovery system
o Economizers & Condensate recovery
o Flash steam
 Reduce heat losses
o Insulation & reduce blow down
o Steam
 Boiler water treatment
 Routine maintenance

• Efficiency related maintenance:
o Combustion efficiency
o Control system
o Burners
o Fuel treatment

• Methods of Boiler efficiency evaluation:
o Direct method (input output method)
o Total heat input = heat contained the fuel input
o Fuel firing rate * C. V. of fuel
o Total heat output = heat contained in steam
o Steam flow is determined by measuring device or by heat balance
calculation.
• Efficiency = heat output / heat input * 100

• Inaccuracies In Efficiency Calculation- It is due to:
o Fluctuation in fuel characteristics (Mo, Su)
o Error in measuring devices (steam flow)
• Indirect method (heat loss method)-

o Efficiency = 100 – percentage of losses bases on L. C. V or G. C. V
• Losses is due to:

o Dry flue gas
o Refuse
o Moisture and hydrogen
o Surface loss
• Total percentage loss = the sum of the above losses.

• Causes of Loss in Efficiency:
❖ Dry flue gas loss = K(Ts – Ta)/ CO2 %

o K is constant factor depends on the type of fuel
o In case of N gas, k = 0.4 based on G.C.V
o K=0.45 based on L. C.V
❖ Refuse losses = R* C. V of refuse / G. C. V * 100

Or = R* C. V of refuse/ L. C.V *100
o R: quantity of refuse / Kg of fuel = A/100-Rc
o A: % of ash in fuel by weight
o Rc = % of combustible in refuse by weight

❖ Losses due to moisture in fuel
Moisture loss % = K / G. C. V%
Or = K / L. C. V%
o K: is constant depending on Stack temp, Percent of moisture fuel and Losses due
to hydrogen in fuel.
❖ Hydrogen losses % = K/G.C.V %

Or = K/L. C. V %
❖ Losses due to radiation and convection only

= (K* A / FF* G. C. V )* 100
Or = (K* A / FF* L. C. V)* 100
o A: Surface area
o FF: Fuel Firing rate Kg/H


.

.

INDEX
• Water impurities and analysis.

• Water purification process outlines.

WATER IMPURITIES
Constituent Chemical Formula Difficulties Caused Means of Treatment
•Hardness Calcium, magnesium, Chief source of scale in heat Softening, distillation,

barium, and strontium exchange equipment, boilers, internal boiler water
salts expressed as pipelines etc.; curds with soap; treatment, surface active
CaCO3 interferes with dyeing, etc agents, reverse osmosis
etc.
•Alkalinity Bicarbonate (HCO3)-1, Foaming and carryover of Lime soda
Carbonate (CO3)-2, solids with steam; Softening, acid treatment,
and hydroxyl (OH)-1, embrittlement of boiler steel; hydrogen zeolite softening,
expressed as CaCO3 bicarbonate and carbonate demineralization,
produce CO2 in steam, a source dealkalization by anion
of corrosion. exchange, distillation,
degasifying.
•Sulfate (SO4)-2 Adds to solids content of water, Demineralization,
but, in itself, is not usually distillation, reverse
significant; combines with osmosis, electro
calcium to form calcium sulfate dialysis
scale
•Chloride Cl-1 Adds to solid content and Demineralization,
increases corrosive character distillation, reverse
of water. osmosis, electrodialysis.
ANALYSIS
Alkalinity: It is the acid neutralizing capacity of water.
o Total alkalinity (M) Methyl orange end point pH 4.3
o Partial alkalinity P Phenolphthalein end point pH 8.3
o It is due to HCO3-, CO3-2, OH-
Hardness:
o It is caused by Ca++ and Mg ++ ions.
o The source of most scale formation in cooling circuits and boilers.
o Less than 17 ppm as calcium carbonate → water is considered soft.
o 17 to 60 ppm as calcium carbonate → water is considered slightly hard.
o More than 180 ppm as calcium carbonate → water is considered very
hard.
o Hardness due to bicarbonate → is considered temporary hardness.

ANALYSIS…
 Water analysis conversions
o Water analysis is expressed in p.p.m or p.p.b.
o Hardness and alkalinity is expressed in p.p.m. of calcium carbonate.
 Biological analysis
o BOD - Biological Oxygen Demand & COD- chemical oxygen demand
o Measure of oxygen consumed in the oxidation of organic and oxidizable inorganic materials in
water.
 Organic matter
o Measurement for biological contamination with organic matter.
o SRB (Sulfate Reducing Bacteria)
o Measurement of contamination of SRB.
 Free chlorine
o The residual chlorine after reacting with organic matters and inorganic mater.
o Langelier Scaling Index (LSI), Ryznar Scaling Index (RSI):

WATER PURIFICATION PROCESS OUTLINES
 Disinfections
o Chlorine Gas, Bromine, Sodom Hypochorid.
o Non oxidizing Biocides.
 Clarification
o To remove suspended solides.
 Filtration
o To completely remove suspended solides and turbidity.
 Desalination
o Partial removal of dissolved salts.
o e.g. reverse osmosis technology.

ION EXCHANGE TECHNOLOGY
 All natural waters contain dissolved salts, which dissociate in water to
form charged ions. Positive charged ions are cations. Negative charged
ions are anions.
 Dissolved salts cause the distortion of polymeric chain in polymerization
reaction with undesired groups leading to off-specs products in
petrochemicals industry.
 Ion Exchangers:
o Exchange one ion for another, hold it temporarily and then release it to a
regenerant solution.
 Exchange Capacity:
o The amount of exchangeable ions that will be hold with a unit quantity
resin (Kilograins / ft3 as CaCo3).

VARIOUS RESINS
 Styrene – Divinyl benzene copolymer
o Styrene cross-linked with Divinyl benzene (very stable, great
exchange capacity, remove all ions including Silicilic and carbonic
acid).
o Macro porous structure (permeable structure & Gel structure)
o Matrix structure highly cross-linked polystyrene divinyl benzene matrix
(has great resistance to thermal degradation and oxidizing agents).
 Acrylic Structure Resins

o Greet resistance to organic fouling.

EFFECT OF CROSS LINKING ON TOTAL CAPACITY

EFFECT OF CROSS LINKING ON WATER RETENTION

RESIN MANUFACTURING
Cation ion exchange resin manufacturing process consist of following steps:
1. Polymerization
2. Two monomers of styrene and divinyl benzene are mixed in suspension

system by a mixture at speed that breaks mixture into small spheres

RESIN MANUFACTURING…
2. Sulfonation or (Amination)
o By treating with sulfuric acid at specific temperature, acid concentration
and time.
o Solvent is used during this step to make resin swelling.
o Resin in this case is in H+ form, Na + is required the resin should be

treated by NaOH.
o Weak cation ionic resin is manufactured by treating with carboxylic acid.
o Anionic resin is manufactured by treating with Amines.
o Resin cleaning is done by warm water.

TYPES OF ION EXCHANGE RESIN
 SAC Strong acid cation.
 WAC Weak acid cation.
 SBA Strong base anion.
 WbA Weak base anion.

SAC- STRONG ACID CATION
 Functional group is sulfonic acid HSO3-.
 Remove all water cations.
 Exchange reaction is reversible.
 Regenerated with mineral acid.
 Function well at all pH ranges.
 Sodium cycle used for softening and hydrogen cycle for decationization.

WAC- WEAK ACID CATION
 Functional group is carboxylic acid –COOH.
 Remove strong cations only (which associated with alkalinity).
 High regeneration efficiency, reduce amount of regenerant.
 Used for softening and dealkalization of high alkalinity waters and in
polisher in conjunction with SAC.
SBA STRONG BASE ANION
 Functional group is quaternary ammonium group.
 Remove all anions.
• Regenerated with strong alkali such as NaOH.

WBA - WEAK BASE ANION
 Functional group is amine group.
 R-NH2 R-NH-R R-N-R2
Primary Secondary Tertiary
 Remove strong anions such as sulfuric, nitric, hydrochloric acids.
 More resistant to organics.
•They used up stream of SBA to improve regeneration and protect the SBA resin.
FACTORS AFFECTING ION EXCHANGE UNIT
PERFORMANCE
 Feed water quality.
 Operation conditions.
o Flow rate
o Pressure.
o Temperature.
 Service cycle changes: It depends on:

o Softener flow
o Hardiness level
o Amount of salt in the regenerant

ION EXCHANGE APPLICATIONS
•Sodium Zeolite Softening:
The removal of scale forming ions such as calcium and magnesium using a
SAC resin in the sodium form to produce soft water with hardness less than 2
ppm.
•Regeneration with 10% NaCl solution.

DEMINERALIZATION
Softening alone is not enough for most high-pressure
boiler and electronic industries. In addition, silica,
alkalinity, and mineral anionic should be removed.
Typical demineralization system consists of:

 Cation exchanger
 Degasser
 Anion exchanger
 Polisher or mixed bed

CATION EXCHANGER
•Free mineral acids (FMA) is the measure of performance of cation exchanger.
•At 100% performance (FMA) is equal to Theoretical mineral acids TMA, where
TMA is the theoretical mineral acidity.
•Regeneration:

DEGASSERS
 Henry’s law is C=KP, where;
o C is the total concentration of gas above solution.
o P is the partial pressure of gas above solution.
o K is the Henry’s law constant
 Applicable for oxygen and nitrogen while not applicable for CO2, H2S,
and NH3 because OF ionization
 In normal atmosphere, the partial pressure of each gas is equal to zero
 Aeration will remove CO2, H2, and NH3 will increase O2 and N2
 pH decreases, removal of CO2 and H2S increases (this is why located
after cation)
 pH increases, removal of NH3 increases
 Heat transfer principles can be applied to gas removal:
o Q = KAΔP

DEGASSERS…
Factors affecting gas removal
 Temperature
 Time
 Air flow
 Contact surface
 pH
Application
The water is sprayed to small droplets at the top of the degassers on
to flow through stream of air in opposite direction where CO2 is
stripped reducing the load on anion exchanger.

TYPES OF DEGASSERS
Vacuum Degassers

TRAY / SPRAY DEGASSERS

ANION EXCHANGER
 After decationization and degasification, water passes through anion
exchanger resin in the hydroxyl form
Regeneration: It is done with NaOH solution 4%.

MIXED BED
 Contain both cation and anion resin mixed together.
 Ion exchange process is repeated many times polishing the water to
very high purity
Regeneration:

BENIFITES OF COUNTER CURRENT REGENERATION
 Less regenerant and less waste.
 Back during regeneration.
 More cycle production.
 High feed T. D. S.
 High produced demineralized water quality.

DEALKALIZATION
Sodium Zeolite / Hydrogen Zeolite System
Carbonic acid is unstable and forms CO2 and water and removed in degasser.

DEALKALIZATION…
 Sodium Zeolite / Chloride anion dealkalization
• Weak acid cation dealkalization

ION EXCHANGE SYSTEM PROBLEMS
Operational Problems
 Feed water quality changes affect product quality and run length
 Improper regeneration
 Channeling and Fouling
 Degradation
Mechanical Problems
 Valves Leakage
 Distributor’s problems (broken, clogged)
 Degeneration System
 Metallurgical System
Instrumental Problems
 Analyzers
 Totalizers
 Gauges

RESIN FOULING AND DEGRADATION
Causes of Fouling:
• Iron and Manganese
• Aluminium
• Hardness Precipitation
• Oil Fouling
• Microbiological Fouling
• Silica fouling

IRREVERSIBLE RESIN DEGRADATION
 Oxidation
Chlorine gas attack resin reducing the strength of bead losing its
shape and rigidity, which destroy the resin.
 Thermal Degradation
In case of acrylic cycle the resin may be overheated and sometimes
in type II strong resin anions.
 Organic fouling and its prevention
This contaminant blocks the strong base sites on a resin. This
blockage causes long final rinses and reduces salt splitting capacity
 Prevention by:
o Pre-chlorination and clarification
o Filtration through activated carbon
o Macro-porous and weak base resin a head of strong base resin
o Specialty resins
TROUBLES
 Pressure Drop
o High
o Low
 Softeners-
o Poor Quality
o Loss of Capacity.
 Hydrogen cation and Weak base anion

o Loss of capacity
o Poor Quality
RESIN STORAGE
 Resin should be packaged in a container that will not
allow it to dehydrate.
 The Cation resin should be stored at a temperature

between 40 F and 120 F.
 Anion resin should be stored at a temperature of 40 F in

the chloride (Cl) form and 40 – 95 F in the hydroxide (OH)
form.
 Cycling resin through periods of freezing and thawing will

cause the resin to crack and break.

BOILER PROBLEMS CAUSED BY WATER
Corrosion: It is caused due to:
• Feed water quality.
• Dissolved gases (O2, CO2).
• Under deposit attack.
• Low pH.
• Mechanical stresses.
Types of Corrosion:
• Galvanic Corrosion
• Caustic Corrosion or Gouging
• Acidic Corrosion
• Oxygen attack
• Stress Corrosion Cracking
TYPES OF CORROSION:
• Galvanic Corrosion- It occurs when
o Two different metals or alloys are coupled together.
o When deposition occurs.
o In welds due to thermal stress or welding materials.
• Caustic Corrosion or Gouging

o Concentration of caustic can occur as a result of steam blanketing which
cause salts concentration (may reach 10.000 ppm) on metal surface.
o Caustic corrosion dissolves magnetite Fe3O4 layer causing corrosion of base
metal and eventual failure.
o It is controlled by:
o Feed water quality (demi water and pure condensate)
o Phosphate / pH control program
o Phosphate hide-out

TYPES OF CORROSION…
• Acidic Corrosion: Low make up or feed water pH cause acid attack in the
preboiler and boiler system.
Common Causes:
o Demineralized water quality.
o Process contamination of condensate.
o Cooling water contamination from condensate.
o Chemical cleaning operations.
• Oxygen attack:
o It is highly corrosive in hot water causing pitting feed water holes, steam
drum, water lines which is characterized by sharp edges at surface.
Sources of Oxygen in boiler water are
o Poor deaerator operation.
o Leakage of air on the system.
o Breathing action of receiving tanks.

TYPES OF CORROSION…
Stress corrosion cracking: It occurs due to combination of corrosion
and high stress.
Three conditions will exist:
o High metal stresses
o Suitable water characteristic
o Concentration of salt of boiler water.
Steam side burning:

o Chemical reaction between steam and tube metal in case of
excessive heat input or poor circulation.
o Insulating superheated steam film formed on tube metal.
o Tube metal temperature arising to 750°F in boiler tube or 950°F -
1000°F in superheater tubes causes the rate of oxidation tube
increased.

CORROSION CONTROL FACTORS
 pH- It depends upon System pressure, System temperature, System
metals, Feed water quality and Chemical treatment program.
• Dissolved oxygen control- It can be accomplished by Mechanical

deaerator followed by chemical oxygen scavenger.
• Temperature and pressure.
• Mechanical and operational factors.
• System corrosion tendency.
• Monitoring and control system.

TYPES OF O2 SCAVANGERS:
 Inorganic (non volatile)
o Contribute to the TDS of the boiler water
 Organic (volatile)
o Do not contribute to the TDS of the boiler water
 Solid
o Sodium bisulfite
o Sodium sulfite
 Non - solids
o Hydrazine
o Hydroquinone
o Deha
o Carbohydrazide
o Ascorbic acid
o Iso – ascorbic acid

CHOICE OF PROPER O2 SCAVANGER
Factors affecting the oxygen scavenger performance:
• Reaction time.
• Decomposit product.
• Residence time in the system.
• Operating condition temo., pressure, pH.
• Reaction with the metal system.
• Structure of the system.
• Attemperator.
• Economizer.
• Steam user.
CORROSION INHIBITORS FOR THE FEEDWATER
AND CONDENSATE LINES
• The combined use of neutralizing and filming amines

shows the better and more stable corrosion inhibition
comparing with their single use.
• The neutralizing amines with the low distribution ratios,

are effective for preventing the corrosion of the initial
condensation zone.
• A high dosage of neutralizing amine is required to control

the corrosion of condensate line satisfactorily when the M-
alkalinity of feedwater is high.

EFFECTS OF BOILER SCALE
• Under deposit attack
• Impede heat transfer
• Tube failure
• Increase fuel consumption
• Increase the temperature and amount of flue gases

to stack leading to more pollution

BOILER DEPOSITS CONTROL
 Water quality control.
 Scale inhibitors.
Mechanism of scale inhibitors:

a. Crystal modification: Adsorption of the charged
group of the polymer on to the surfaces of the
surface nuclei
b. Dispersion: Adsorption of charged polymers on to
the surface of insoluble particles and metal surfaces
c. Complexation: Formation of a soluble complex
with an ion.

SCALE INHIBITORS PROGRAMS
a. Phosphate control: In a pH 11 – 12 phosphate injection
forms CaPO4 precipitate which is non adherent to the metal
surface.
b. Phosphate / Polymer control: Phosphate treatment was

improved by using polymer to promote the formation of
sludge which settle in the mud drum and removed by B. D.
c. Chelan control: Increase the solubility of hardness and

heavy metals by complexing.
d. Chelant / Polymer control: In this, polymer is used to

control the removal of iron oxide passivation film, by using
the exact dose of Chelant according to feed water quality.
CARRY OVER
Carry over: It is the transfer of dissolved matters in boiler water
to steam especially in high pressure boilers due to:
• Concentration of boiler water (metal oxides and sodium salts).
• Contamination of boiler feed water (oils and fats).
• Dissolution of silica to steam.
• Operation conditions.
Carry Over Control: It is done by:

 Water quality control.
 Carryover inhibitors.
 Steam separators.
 Stable operation condition

BOILER DESIGN
 Material Selection: Special alloys such as stainless steel
are used now due to increasing the heat flux in modern
high pressure boilers, to prevent corrosion.
 Deaerator Design: Feed water distribution, Retention

time, Deaerator temperature and pressure, dissolved
oxygen.
 Boiler Design: Heat transfer surfaces layout and

geometry, Water/Steam mixture velocity, Blowdown,
Selection of steam separator, Desuperheater, Sampling
System, Dosing system, Monitoring system.

BOILER OPERATING CONDITIONS
Stable operation conditions:
• Steam drum water level.

• Boiler production rate.
• Boiler pressure.
• Boiler startup and shutdown
• Boiler preservation

BOILER WATER TREATMENT NECESSITY
 SAFETY- To prevent corrosion that form scales which causes
metal overheating.
 ENVIRONMENT- Scales reduce heat transfer efficiency

causing increasing fuel requirements which increase pollution.
 OPERATION-
a. Increase in the amount of fuel consumption increase the
operation cost of the boiler.
b. Blow down saving
c. Uninterrupted production with minimum maintenance cost
and time

METHODS OF STEAM PURITY MEASUREMENT
 Representative steam sampling: In order to have an
accurate analysis sample must be representative.
 Conductivity: Proportional to ions concentrations.
 Sodium tracer technique
 Flame emission spectrophotometer
 Ion chromatography
 Dissolved Oxygen Instrument

PRESERVATION OF BOILERS DURING STOPPAGE
Offline corrosion is caused by:

• Oxygen leakage into the system.
• Low pH due to reaction of O2 with iron to form hydrophilic
acid.
• Clean surface can be attached more than coated
surfaces.
Classification Of Preservation:
• Wet preservation- Hydrazine or nitrite based chemicals
are generally applied.
• Dry preservation- It is usually done using desiccants and
sealing with nitrogen gas.

.

.

EXTERNAL INSPECTION OF BOILER
 Tubes facing the furnace should be cleaned quite
carefully and checked for corrosion, deformation, bulging,
burning and cracking.
 External fouling (slugging) should be kept to minimum.
 Heavy accumulations of slag (greater than 1/8" thick) can

be removed by reducing the firing rate and allowing the
ash deposit to burn off.
 The fire sides should be water washed during outages.

INTERNAL INSPECTION
 Internal Inspection Of Boiler Drum:
o Take off the manhole cover and check whether boiler drum internals
are fixed securely and not contaminated.
o Before entering into the boiler drum, confirm that the steam stop
valve, feed water valve, chemicals injection valve and continuous
blowdown valve are closed firmly.
o Provide appropriate marks to all the valves so that other persons will
not open them inadvertently.
o Upon entering into the boiler drum, check for corrosion and pitting(
corrosion due to dissolved oxygen).
o Pitting can be completely prevented if feed water and boiler water
control is carried out rationally.

INTERNAL INSPECTION…
 Internal Inspection Of Water Tube:
o Carefully check up the interior of upper and lower drums and the
condition of deposits at the tube end.
o To eliminate the deposits, fully wash the drums and tubes.
o Cut off a part of tube which is subjected to the highest thermal load as
a sample tube and check up deposits of scale.
o Make analysis of the scale for use as the data for chemical cleaning.

 Inspection of steam drum internals:
o Cleaning by pure water is applied when the hard scale formation

inside the superheater tubes is low.
o Acid cleaning is applied when the hard scale inside the tubes is
formed seriously.
o Internal leak of the steam drum internals should be restored carefully.

 Area That Needs To Be Heeded, While Mounting The Internals:
o Fully understand beforehand the manner of assembling and the shaper of internals.
o As the internals are divided in a large number of parts, it is advantageous to assort them into
those being to be mounted above water level and those being to be mounted below water
level to avoid mistake.
o Fully inspect the parts to assure that there is no possibility of steam -water mixture, dry
steam feed water, etc. leaking form joints and being mixed with each other.
o The portion near the dry steam outlet should be completely tight.
o When new packings have been inserted in bolted joints, the bolts should be retightened after
preliminary tightening.

INSPECTION OF SUPERHEATER
 Inspection And Maintenance Of The Superheater:
o When inspecting the furnace, be sure to inspect the superheater too.
o Check the superheater for alignment, deformation and bulging.
o Examine the condition of superheater support fixtures, spacers, etc. and

repair defective parts, if any, immediately.
o Check the superheater, header and steam dun interior for carried-over
solids and if they are found, immediately clean them off and at the same
time, eliminate the cause.

CLEANING OF SUPERHEATER
External Cleaning: If the superheater is contaminated
o Gas does not flow uniformly
o heat conduction rate drops
o localized over-heating which can cause disaster.
Internal Cleaning:
o Feed water and boiler water treatment should be carried out
properly.
o Solid content of steam entering the superheater should be
maintained within specified limits.
o Running under overload or radical load fluctuations should be
avoided.

OTHER INSPECTION
 Inspect and clean the gas side of boiler heating surface and the furnace
wall.
 Complete inspection of boiler interior.
 Elimination of scale form boiler proper and water-cooled wall tubes.
 Inspection of the performance of superheater.
 Checking furnace wall for cracking and peeling-off.
 If cause of tube failure is not found then metallurgical examinations of

tube sections, chemical analysis of deposits, etc should be done.

INSPECTION OF COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT
It is important to:
o Obtaining steam economically.
o To prevent boiler accident.
o To prevent environmental pollution.

REFERENCES
• Steam, its generation and use "Babcock & Wilcox"
• Water treatment and management book
• Boiler and energy designs book
• CE-Betz Prater treatment handbook
• NALCO handbook
• KITB operation manual
• Boiler operation by M. P. Morgan Ramchandra


.
.

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
GS BAVEJA

TO CHECK ADEQUACY OF DEAERATOR
Why deaerator? At high temperatures dissolved Oxygen is corrosive &
detrimental to Boiler tubes and drum.
How to calculate adequacy of Deaerator? The Deaerator is a unit
capable of removing from the water all dissolved oxygen in excess of
0.005 cc/liter ( 7 parts per billion) at all loads up to and including the
rated capacity. (As a thumb rule)
Adequacy of deaeration can be ensured through feed water analysis.:
Partly, dissolved O2 is a guide.
It does not take care of the D/A pressure adequacy.
Whether more nos. of tubes connecting to drum have higher risk of
leak: Yes, it is true.
Also please explain DSH using HE I may be in a position to guide if I
get more details &drawing of DSH

SUPEHEATER / BLOW DOWN/ FLAME SCANNER
1) Platen or Primary superheater – What kind of superheater is it? Radiant or
convective? Both possible. However, preferred to have in Radiant zone.
2) Final or Secondary superheater – What kind of superheater is it? Radiant or
convective? Generally, placed in convective zone
3) In our case, blow down is done in steam drum instead of mud drum.
Blowdown valves are connected to the steam drum. Whether it is correct as
explained by you earlier that blowdown should be done in mud drum. Its
manufacturer prerogative where to put the Blowdown. The purpose of
Blowdown from Boiler steam drum is to remove salt or silica content. From
Mud drum it also removes hard particle of sand / silt which is heavier and
gets deposited at the bottom of Mud drum.
Flame sensing device – Pl explain about Infrared cameras installed in boiler for
sensing of flame: Today Burner flame detectors are used to ensure proper
performance of the burners. It works on the principle of Wave length &
spectrum.

SUPERHEATER - RADIANT

SUPERHEATER

PENDENT TYPE SUPERHEATER

SUPERHEATER - CONVECTIVE

SUPER HEATER – RADIANT OR RADIATIVE

SUPERHEATER – SECONDARY/PRIMARY
PLACED IN CONVECTIVE AREA

RADIANT VS CONVECTIVE SUPERHEATERS
.PRINCIPLE OF DEFINING CONVECTIVE &

RADIANT SUPERHEATERS

RADIANT VS CONVECTIVE SUPERHEATERS

SPECIFIC ISSUE EXPERIENCED

SUPE-HEATER / BLOW DOWN/ FLAME SCANNER
Explain about Tube leakage detection system installed in boiler ? In
case of minor leak inside the furnace will be detected by presence of
erratic flame. Too much of moisture on the flue gas and low heat pick up
by the boiler tubes.
Q Kindly explain the latest online cleaning systems: There are online
cleaning systems for Condenser tube by way of pushing rubber /sponge
balls. One need to explore there are parties who offer online cleaning of
boiler tubes by chemical and or mechanical means.
Kindly share more details on Burners /Burner Gun Assembly: I shall
cover in today’s sessions hopefully it shall explain.
Take practical example with data in any operating boiler, you had...it will
give more explicit understanding participants: You point is well taken, for
future programs.

COAL FIRED BOILERS
WHAT IS THE LIFE OF BEDCOILS IN CASE OF COAL FIRED BOILERS:
Different boiler components show different wear behavior
depending on the location and operating temperature. The main
components of a fluidized bed boiler may be listed as follows:
Furnace and other evaporating surfaces, Solids separator and
return (only in CFB boilers). Super heaters and other flue gas
cooling elements, Fuel feeding, Ash discharge systems, Flue gas
cleaning, Air and flue gas blowers etc.
How much is the Life of Boilers? But most of these plants are
built to last 30 to 50 years, long enough to pay off the hundreds
of millions it takes to build them. (To meet Biden's 2035 goal,
many plants will inevitably have to be switched off before the end
of their natural lifespan.)

BED COIL ARRANGEMENT-FLUIDIZED BED COAL
FIRED

COAL FIRED BOILERS
Key points for new oil/gas fired boiler specifications, PGTR test,
safety features: Right choice is of multifuel firing capacity and
good turn down ratio to meet varying load requirements.
We are facing furnace shell cracking for FO boiler capacity of 16
tph and 20 tph fire tube . OEM says this is due to flame
impingement by steam atomizing burner suggesting to install
refractory tiles near by furnace, is there any other solution? I
wishes to know more details about problem
Resonators In Burners: It relates to combustor resonator, its
some embodiment comprises the combustor resonator of the
non-homogeneous annular space had between burner assembly
resonator housing. The combustor resonator can also comprise
resonator neck / passage with heterogeneous length & geometry.
ID/FD FANS, STACKS
ID/FD Fan variable frequency drive vs hydraulic control ?
Variable frequency drive if done through electronically or thyristor based
control, it really will be energy saving. Hydraulic control helps in
composite control of both ID/FD Fans as well as dampers. Hydraulic
system provides better & finer controls of dampers as well.
RCC stack chimney vs steel stack chimney?
Both are ok, if these meet the requirements of environmental emission
standards. The type & quantity of fuel burnt will warrant the height of
stack for easy dispersion of flue gas.. Every manufacturer looks at cost
cutting. There are many factors which govern the choice. Location,
availability of plot space, ID/FD Fan and air / flue gas duct arrangement.

THANKS……

ICWG - 2022 - Jan - Boiler Safe Operations - Presentation - Plus Q&A

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Speaker:-

Mr. G.S. Baveja

ICWG_JAN_2022_GSB_BOILER SAFE OPERATIONS 25-01-2022 1

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• Steam generation fundamental introduction.

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• To produce superheated steam, it should be superheated out of

• Rate of rising temp. depends on the pressure.

• Enthalpy required for raising temperature of water to a certain degree

• Critical Point is a point at which water evaporate without boiling and

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 Steam generation process depends mainly

 Heat transfer in boilers is achieved by

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There are three main types of water tube boilers:

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o Baffle ( low pressure )

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 Natural circulation is due to the density difference between steam

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• The sludge and other

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 There are two Superheaters, primary and secondary.

 The superheated steam enters then equipment called De-

 Finally the steam enters the secondary Superheater where it is further

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Design of de- superheater:

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