EXPERIMENT A1

RIGHT SIDE PAGE

Aim:
To prepare a temporary mount to observe pollen germination
Principle:
In nature, pollen grains germinate on the compatible stigmas of the carpel. Pollen grains can also be
induced to germinate in a synthetic medium. During germination, intine (inner wall) of pollen grain
emerges out as pollen tube through one of the germ pores in exine (outer wall).
Requirements:
Calcium nitrate, boric acid, sucrose, distilled water, petridish, slides, cover slips, brush, needle,
microscope, and mature pollen grains of Tradescantia/balsam/Jasmine/lily/pomegranate/grass
/Vinca/China rose/Petunia.
Procedure:
(i) Prepare the pollen germination medium by dissolving 10g sucrose, 30mg calcium nitrate and
10mg boric acid in 100mL distilled water. Alternatively 10% sucrose solution can also be used.
(ii) Take a drop of medium or 10% sucrose solution on a cover slip and sprinkle mature pollen
grains on the drop.
(iii) Invert the cover glass on to a slide.
(iv) After 10 minutes, observe the slide under compound microscope.
Observation:
Several pollen grains seen germinated and put forth pollen
tubes.
Discussion:
Although pollen grains of many species germinate in this
medium, the percentage of germinations and the time takes
for germination varies in different species. Draw germinating
pollen grains and label.

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 EXPERIMENT A2

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Aim:
To study plant population density by quadrat method.
Principle:
Density represents the numerical strength of a certain plant species in the community per unit area.
The number of individuals of the species in any unit area is its density. The unit area may be as
small as 5 square cm to as large as 10 square metre depending on the size and nature of the plant
community under study. For herbaceous vegetation a metre square quadrat is normally used.
Density which gives an idea of degree of competition is calculated as follows.
Density= Total number of individual(s) of the species in all the sampling unit (S)
Total number of sampling units studied (Q)
The value thus obtained is then expressed as number of individuals per unit area. When the
measured unit area is divided by the number of individuals the average area occupied by
each individual is obtained.
Requirements:
Prepared 1m X 1m quadrate, field to study.
Procedure:
(i) In the selected site of study place the quadrate and make sure that the vegetation is not damaged
while laying the quadrate.
(ii) List the names of the plant species seen in the quadrat (if the name is not known mark these as
species A or B etc., and the same species if seen in other quadrats assign the same alphabet).
(iii) Count the number of individuals of each species present in the quadrat and record the data as
shown in the table.
(iv) Similarly make nine more quadrats randomly in the site of study and record the names and
number of individuals of each species.
Observations:
Record the total number of species seen in the ten quadrats. This will give an idea about the
composition of the vegetation. There will be difference in the species composition in the quadrats
made in shady areas, exposed areas with bright sunlight, dry or wet areas etc
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I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

A
B

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Discussion:
Plants growing together exhibit mutual relationships among themselves and also with the
environment. Such a group of plants in an area represent a community. The number of individuals
of a species varies from place to place, making it necessary to take many random sample areas for
reliable results. Density values are significant because they show relative importance of each
species. With increasing density the competition stress increases and the same is reflected in poor
growth and lower reproductive capacity of the species. Data on population density are often very
essential in measuring the effects of reseeding, burning, spraying and successional changes .

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 EXPERIMENT A3
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Aim:
To study plant population frequency by quadrat method
Principle:
Frequency is concerned with the degree of uniformity of the occurrence of individuals of a species
within a plant community. It is measured by noting the presence of a species in random sample
areas (quadrats) which are distributed as widely as possible throughout the area of study. Frequency
is the number of sampling units (as %) in which a particular species (A) occurs. The frequency of
each species (sps.A or sps.B or sps. X etc) is expressed in percentage and is calculated

% Frequency or Frequency Index =

Number of sampling units (quadrats) in which the species occurs /
Total number of sampling units (quadrats) employed for the study
Requirements:
Prepared 1m X 1m quadrate, field to study.
Procedure:
(i) In the selected site of study, place a 1m X 1m quadrate and make sure that the vegetation is not
damaged while laying the quadrat.
(ii) List the names of the plant species seen in the quadrat (if the name is not known mark these as
species A or B etc. and if the same species is seen in other quadrats assign the same alphabet)
(iii) Similarly lay nine more quadrats randomly in the site of study and record the names of
individuals of each species.
(iv) Calculate the percentage frequency of occurrence using the formula given.
Observations:
Record the total number of species seen in the ten quadrats. This will give an idea about the
composition of the vegetation. There will be difference in the species composition in the quadrats
made in shady areas, exposed areas with bright sunlight, dry or wet areas etc. Observe that the
frequency of occurrence is not the same for all species.
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I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

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Discussion:
Variation in distribution of a species is caused by factors like soil conditions, quantity and dispersal
of gemmules, vegetative propagation, grazing, predation, diseases and other biotic activities. Also
frequency values differ in different communities. They are influenced by micro-habitat conditions,
topography, soil and many other environmental characteristics. Thus unless frequency is not
correlated with other characters such as density, frequency alone does not give correct idea of the
distribution of a species.
Frequency determinations by means of sample areas are often needed in order to check general
impressions about the relative values of species. Many species having low cover or population
density also rate low in frequency, but some may have high frequency because of their uniform
distribution. Usually if the cover and population density are high, the frequency will be high. The
plants with high frequency are wide in distribution .

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 EXPERIMENT A4
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Aim:
To prepare a temporary mount of onion root tip to study mitosis.
Theory:
All organisms are made of cells. For an organism to grow, mature and maintain tissue, new cells
must be made. All cells are produced by divisioning of pre-existing cells. Continuity of life depends
on cell division. There are two main methods of cell division: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is very
important to life because it provides new cells for growth and replaces dead cells. Mitosis is the
process in which a eukaryotic cell nucleus splits in two, followed by division of the parent cell into
two daughter cells. Each cell division consists of two events: cytokinesis and karyokinesis.
Karyokinesis is the process of division of the nucleus and cytokinesis is the process of division of
cytoplasm.
Events during Mitosis
1. Prophase:
1. Mitosis begins at prophase with the thickening and coiling of the chromosomes.
2. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus shrinks and disappears.
3. The end of prophase is marked by the beginning of the organization of a group of fibres to
form a spindle.
2. Metaphase
1. The chromosome become thick and two chromatids of each chromosome become clear.
2. Each chromosome attaches to spindle fibres at its centromere.
3. The chromosomes are arranged at the midline of the cell.
3. Anaphase
1. In anaphase each chromatid pair separates from the centromere and move towards the opposite
ends of the cell by the spindle fibres.
2. The cell membrane begins to pinch at the centre.
4. Telophase
1. Chromatids arrive at opposite poles of cell.
2. The spindle disappears and the daughter chromosome uncoils to form chromatin fibres.
3. The nuclear membranes and nucleolus re-form and two daughter nuclei appear at opposite
poles.
4. Cytokinesis or the partitioning of the cell may also begin during this stage.
The stage, or phase, after the completion of mitosis is called interphase. It is the non dividing
phase of the cell cycle between two successive cell divisions. Mitosis is only one part of the cell

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cycle. Most of the life of a cell is spent in interphase. Interphase consist of three stages call G1, S
and G2.
Mitosis in Onion Root Tip
The meristamatic cells located in the root tips provide the most suitable material for the study of
mitosis. The chromosome of monocotyledonous plants is large and more visible, therefore, onion
root tips are used to study mitosis. Based on the kind of cells and species of organism, the time
taken for mitosis may vary. Mitosis is influenced by factors like temperature and time
Materials Required:
Acetocarmine stain, Burner, Water, N/10 Hydrochloric acid, Coverlips, Aceto-alcohol fixative,
Blotting paper, Watch glass, Glass slides, Onion, Forceps, Blade, Dropper, Needle, Compound
microscope.
Procedure:
(i) Take an onion and place it on the tile.
(ii) Carefully remove the dry roots present using a sharp blade.
(iii) Grow root tips by placing the bulbs in a beaker filled with water.
(iv) New roots may take 3–6 days to grow.
(v) Cut off 2–3 cm of freshly grown roots and let them drop into a watch glass.
(vi) Using a forceps, transfer them to the vial containing freshly prepared fixative of aceto-alcohol
(1:3 :: glacial acetic acid: ethanol).
(vii) Keep the root tips in the fixative for 24 hours.
(viii) Using a forceps, take one root and place it on a clean glass slide.
(ix) Using a dropper, place one drop of N/10 HCl on the root tip followed by 2–3 drops of
acetocarmine stain.
(x) Warm it slightly on burner. Care should be taken that the stain is not dried up.
(xi) Carefully blot the excess stain using filter paper.
(xii) Using a blade, cut the comparatively more stained tip portion of the root, retain it on the slide
and discard the remaining portion.
(xiii) After that, put one drop of water on the root tip.
(xiv) Mount a cover slip on it using a needle.
(xv) Now, slowly tap the cover slip using the blunt end of a needle so that the meristematic tissue of
the root tip below the cover slip is properly squashed and spread as a thin layer of cells.
(xvi) This preparation of onion root tip cells is now ready for the study of mitosis.
(xvii) Place the slide under the compound microscope and observe the different stages of mitosis.
(xviii) Various stages of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

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Observations:
Each stage of a whole mitosis procedure can be easily observed. The parent cell is divided into two
different parts and produces two daughter cells in each of which, nuclei are present.
Conclusion:
The mitosis procedure is essential for a living being as the generation of new cells is integrally
connected to the mitosis process. Dead cells are eliminated as well with the help of this process.
Each of the required materials for this experiment plays a significant individual role in observing
the overall procedure of a mitosis process. Understanding the process can help an individual in
studying each and every step of mitosis and analyzing the changes, undertaken in chromosomes.
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 EXPERIMENT A5
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Aim:
To isolate DNA from plant materials such as spinach, green peas, papaya and any other available
plant material.
Principle: Recombinant DNA technology has allowed breeders to introduce foreign DNA in
other organisms including bacteria, yeast, plants and animals. Such organisms are called Genetically
Modified Organisms (GMOs). Thus rDNA technology involves isolation of DNA from a variety
of sources and formation of new combination of DNA.
Requirements:
Plant materials, mortar and pestle, beakers, test tubes, ethanol, etc.
Procedure:
 Take a small amount of plant material and grind it in a mortar with a little amount of water and
sodium chloride.
 Make it into a solution and filter it.
 To this filterate, add liquid soap solution or any detergent solution and mix it with a glassrod.
 Then tilt the test tube and add chilled ethanol and leave it aside in the stand.
 After half-an-hour we can observe the precipitated DNA as fine threads.
 DNA that separates can be removed by spooling DNA that separates can be removed by
spooling.

Observation:
DNA appears as white precipitate of very fine threads on the spool.
Inference:
Thus DNA can be isolated from the plant cell nucleus by this technique.
Precautions:
· All the glassware must be thoroughly cleaned and dried.
· The chemicals used for the experiments must be of standard quality.
· If ordinary ethanol is used, the time duration for obtaining precipitated DNA may extend
further.

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 EXPERIMENT B1
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Aim:
To study the flowers adapted to pollination by different agents such as wind, insects and birds.
Principle:
The process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma of a flower is called pollination.
Pollination can be carried out by different agents such as wind, water, birds, insects, etc.
Requirements:
Fresh flowers of maize or any other cereal/ gram, any insect pollination
flowers like Salvia, Calotropis, Ocimum and Asteraceae flowers.
Procedure:
Place the given flower on a slide and observe it with the help of hand lens. Note down the
adaptations of the flowers meant for pollination by the external agents.
Wind Pollinated Flowers – Anemophily:
Most of the conifers and angiosperms exhibit wind pollination. Such flowers do not produce nectar
and fragrance. In the flowers the microsporangia hang out of the flower. As the wind blows, the
light-weight pollen blows with it. The pollen gets accumulated on
the feathery stigma of the flower. These flowers appear even
before the leaves when the
spring commences. Few
examples of such flowers
include:
(i) Rice
(ii) Corn
(iii) Oats
(iv) Maize
(v) Barley
(vi) Papaya
Diagnostic Features:
(i) The flowers are small, inconspicuous, colourless, odourless and nectarless.
(ii) Anthers and stigmas are commonly exerted.
(iii) Pollen grains are light, small, powdery and produced in large numbers.
(iv) The stigmas are large, sometimes feathery and branched adapted to catch the pollens.
Insect Pollinated Flowers – Entemophily:
The flowers pollinated by insects are bright-coloured and produce nectar. The fragrance of the
flowers attracts the insects. The pollen is sticky, large, heavy and rough so that stick to the body of

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the insects. The stigmas are also sticky so that the pollens depositing are not dispersed. Nectar
guides are present on the petals. Few examples of the flowers pollinated by insects are:
(i) Aster
(ii) Lithops
(iii) Magnolia
Diagnostic Features:
(i) The flowers are showy, brightly coloured and scented.
(ii) The flowers produce nectar or edible pollen.
(iii) Anthers and stigmas are commonly inserted.
(iv) Stigmas are usually unbranched and flat or lobed.
Flowers Pollinated By Birds:
Many species of small birds, such as hummingbirds and sun birds are pollinators for plants such as
orchids and other wildflowers. Flowers visited by birds are usually sturdy and are oriented in a way
to allow the birds to stay near the flower without getting their wings entangled in the nearby
flowers. The flower typically has a curved, tubular shape, which allows access for the bird’s beak.
Brightly-colored, odorless flowers that are open during the day are pollinated by birds. As a bird
seeks energy-rich nectar, pollen is deposited on the bird’s head and neck and is then transferred to
the next flower it visits. Botanists determine the range of extinct plants by collecting and identifying
pollen from 200-year-old bird specimens from the same site.
Few examples of flowers pollinated by birds include:
 Hibiscus
 Fuchsias
 Verbenas
 Beebalms
 Bromeliads
Diagnostic Features:
(i) The flowers are tubular and curved.
(ii) The flowers are odourless and bright-coloured.
(iii) The flowers have a curved, tubular shape that allows
access for the bird’s beak.
Pollination by Bats : chiropterophily
In the tropics and deserts, bats are often the pollinators of nocturnal flowers such as agave, guava,
and morning glory. The flowers are usually large and white or pale-colored so that they can be
distinguished from their dark surroundings at night. The flowers have a strong, fruity, or musky
fragrance and produce large amounts of nectar. They are naturally-large and wide-mouthed to
accommodate the head of the bat. Asthe bats seek the nectar, their faces and heads become
covered with pollen, which is then transferred to the next flower .
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 EXPERIMENT B2
RIGHT SIDE PAGE
Aim:
To observe pollen germination on stigma through permanent slide.
Materials Required
1. Microscope
2. Permanent slide
Procedure
The permanent slide is placed under a microscope and the pollen germination is observed.
Theory
Pollination refers to the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the
same or different flower through biotic or abiotic means. The complete process of pollination is as
listed below:
 Once the pollen grains are deposited on the stigma, it starts to germinate with the absorption
of nutrients and water.
 A small pollen tube is produced through the style to the ovary.
 The tube cell moves out of the pollen grain and through one of the germ pores forms a
pollen tube.
 The nucleus of the tube moves down to the tip of the pollen tube.
 The generative cells also pass into it and soon divide to form two male gametes.
 During double fertilization, one of the two sperms fuses with the egg cell of the ovule. This
helps in embryo development.
 The other cell combines with another subsidiary nuclei of the ovule that helps in the
formation of the endosperm.
 The growing ovule is transformed into a seed .
Observation:
The germination of pollen grains in nutrient rich
medium can be seen as the vegetative cells enlarge.
The nucleus grows and gives rise to a pollen tube
which emerges from one of the germ pores.
Followed by the growth of the pollen tube, two
male gametes (spherical or lenticular in shape) are
formed. The pollen grains that germinate are
known as viable pollen grains whereas the pollen
grains which do not germinate are known as non-
viable pollen grains.
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 EXPERIMENT B3

RIGHT SIDE PAGE

Aim:
Identification of stages of gamete development, i.e., T.S. of testis and T.S. of ovary through
permanent slides (from grasshopper/mice).To study the discrete stages of gametogenesis in
mammalian testis and ovary
Principle:
In all male and female organisms gamete formation takes place in their gonads, i.e., testis and ovary
respectively. The process of gamete formation, called gametogenesis involves meiotic cell division.
The gametogenic development in testis is called spermatogenesis and in ovary it is oogenesis. They
exhibit marked differences and can be examined in transverse section (T.S.) of these organs.
Requirement:
Permanent slides of T.S. of testis and ovary, compound microscope, lens-cleaning paper and
cleaning fluid.
Procedure:
(i) Clean the slide and microscope’s eye and objective lenses with the help of lens cleaning paper
using any cleaning fluid. (ii) Place the slide on the stage of the microscope and observe first under
lower magnification and then in higher magnification. Observe various stages of gamete
development.
(iii) Record your observations in the notebook and draw labelled diagrams.
Observation:

T.S. of
mammalian testis

T.S. of grasshopper testis

T.S. of mice ovary

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 EXPERIMENT B4
RIGHT SIDE PAGE

Aim:
Study of stages of meiosis using permanent slides
Principle:
Meiosis is a type of cell division in which the number of chromosomes is halved (from diploid to
haploid) in the daughter cells, i.e., the gametes. The division is completed in two phases, meiosis I
and meiosis II. Meiosis I is a reductional division in which the chromosomes of homologous pairs
separate from each other. Meiosis II is equational division resulting in the formation of four
daughter cells. Stages of meiosis can be observed in a cytological preparation of the cells of testis
tubules or in the pollen mother cells of the anthers of flower buds.
Requirement:
Permanent slides of meiosis and compound microscope
Procedure:
Place the slide on the stage of the microscope and search for the dividing cells using lower
magnification. When dividing cells are located observe them under higher magnification.
Observation:
A significant number of cells will be in the Interphase. These cells have a centrally positioned
densely stained nucleus. In case of slide of animal tissue a few mitotically dividing spermatogonial
cells may also be seen.

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 EXPERIMENT B5
RIGHT SIDE PAGE
Aim:
To study the blastula stage of embryonic development in mammals, with the help of permanent
slide.
Principle:
The zygote undergoes a few cycles of mitotic divisions to form a solid ball of cells called morula.
The cells continue to divide and at a later stage a cavity is formed within it. This stage is blastula.
The internal structural details of blastula can be observed in its transverse section.
Requirement:
Permanent slide, chart/model of T.S. of blastula, compound microscope, lens cleaning fluid and
paper
Procedure:
Observe the slide under lower magnification of the microscope. In case of
chart/models/photographs, note the feature of blastula in your practical record and draw labelled
diagram.
Observation:
In transverse section, the blastula appears as a sphere with a cavity, called blastocoel within it (Fig.
8.1). Notice an outer layer of blastomeres called trophoblasts. A cellular mass, adhered to the
trophoblast is present on one end of the blastula. It is called inner cell mass .

LEFT SIDE PAGE

Page 18 of 35
 EXPERIMENT B6
RIGHT SIDE PAGE

Mendelian Inheritance Using Seeds of Different Colours/ Sizes of Any Plant

Aim:
To study the Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colours/sizes of any plant.
Materials Required and Apparatus:
 Petri Dish
 Enamel Tray
 Pea Seed Samples
Procedure:
 Place 100 pea seeds in an enamel tray.
 Separate the seeds into the round and wrinkled and place them in two separate Petri dishes.
 Note down the number of round and wrinkled seeds. Also, calculate their ratio.
 Repeat the procedure mentioned above for other contrasting traits, such as the colour of the
seeds.
Observation:
 Create a table showing the characteristics of the seed along with the total number observed,
the number of seeds with contrasting characters and the ratio.

(Example) Serial Characteristics Total Seeds showing Ratio

Number number of contrasting
seeds characters

1 Shape of the xxx (X) round seeds; (Y) X: Y

seed wrinkled seeds

2 Colour of the xxx (X) green seeds; (Y) X: Y

seed yellow seeds

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EXPERIMENT B7
RIGHT SIDE PAGE

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 EXPERIMENT B8
RIGHT SIDE PAGE
Aim:
To perform emasculation, bagging and tagging for controlled pollination
Principle:
Conventional plant breeding programmes involve bringing under
human control reproductive processes that lead to seed and fruit
formation. For this controlled pollination is desirable using male and
female parent having desired traits. One of the process that can be
easily brought under human control is emasculation. For this the
knowledge of flower structure, mechanism of pollination, fertilisation
and physiology of flowering is essential for this. In emasculation
technique the stamens are removed before anthesis to obtain female
parent and pollen from the desired male parent is transferred on to
its stigma. Requirement: Ornamental plants/ wild plants bearing large
bisexual flower, magnifying lens, tweezers, small sharp scissors,
brush, alcohol, rubber bands, paper bags, paper clips and tags
Procedure
(i) Select a flower in bud condition where antheses has not occurred.
Open the bud carefully and remove the stamens. Mark this as female
parent plant.
(ii) Cover the emasculated flower with a plastic bag to protect it from
undesired pollen (Bagging). The bag should be held securely in place
with a paper clip/ string/thread. Select the size of bag in accordance with
the flower size. Bags must be transparent with minute pores.

(iii) Bring into physical contact anthers of a desired male

plant containing mature pollen grains with the stigmatic surface
of emasculated female flower. Use tweezers/brush if necessary
to dust the stigmatic surface with pollen.
(iv) Cover the pollinated flower again with the bag
immediately. For identification, label the female parent
(Tagging). Each pollinated flower should bear a label containing
the name of the seed parent, the letter X (to signify a cross), the
name of the pollen parent, and the date on which the cross was effected.

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 EXPERIMENT B9
RIGHT SIDE PAGE
Aim:
To identify common disease-causing organisms and the symptoms of the diseases.
Principle:
There are quite a large number of organisms that are parasitic/pathogenic to humans. These
organisms substantialy damage the human body and cause diseases, which may even be fatal
sometimes. These organisms exhibit characteristic features in their external morphology. Symptoms
of the diseases caused by them are also specific. Requirement: Preserved specimens/permanent
slides/photographs of Ascaris, Entamoeba, Plasmodium, Ring-worm fungus and compound
microscope
Procedure:
Observe the preserved specimens/slides/photographs and note down the features in the practical
record book. Take care to observe all the minute
details and draw labelled diagrams of the pathogens.
Observation:
A. Entamoeba
(i) It is unicellular.
(ii) Shape of the cell is irregular due to pseudopodia.
(iii) A single nucleus is present eccentrically in the cell.
(iv) *In the nucleus a peripheral ring of granule of
nucleoprotein and central karyosome are
observed. Rest of the space in the nucleus looks
empty.
(v) A few food vacuoles may be seen in the cytoplasm. Contractile vacuoles are absent.
(vi) *Mature quadri-nucleated cysts may be present.
{Note: Entamoeba is an intestinal parasite in humans
and causes amoebic dysentery. The symptoms of the
disease are frequent loose, mucus filled watery stools,
abdominal pain and spasms.}
Systematic position:
Phylum – Protozoa
Class – Rhizopoda
Type – Entamoebahistolytica
* Distinctive feature of the pathogen
B. Plasmodium vivax
(i) It is an intracellular endoparasite seen easily within the RBC of the infected person.
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(ii) It is unicellular.
(iii) The most diagnostic stage of the parasite is
"signet ring" stage in the erythrocytes,
within which it appears as a rounded body.
(iv) It has a big vacuole inside, and the
cytoplasm is accumulated at one place
containing the nucleus. Because of the above
mentioned features, the parasite appears as a
ring. Search the stage in the blood film slide,
find the signet-ring stage, and draw its labeled diagram.
{Note: It is a protozoan parasite causing malaria in humans. When an infected female anopheles
mosquito bites a healthy person, it injects the infective stage, sporozoite, into the peripheral
blood vessels. The infective stage undergoes several rounds of multiplication in liver and
erythrocytes.}
Symptoms: Intermittent high fever with chills followed by profuse sweating at an interval of
alternate days.
Systematic position:
Phylum – Protozoa
Class – Sporozoa
Type – Plasmodium vivax
C. Ascaris:
The external features of round worm are as follows:
(i) Body long (20 to 40 cm), cylindrical (5 to 6 mm diameter) with no segmentation.
(ii) Sexes are separate; the females are longer than
the males.
(iii) Both the ends are pointed; posterior end of
male is ventrally curved.
(iv) Mouth is situated at the anterior end, and is
surrounded by three lips, one present mid-dorsally
and rest two lips are situated ventro-laterally (for
viewing these lips a magnifying lens is needed).
(v) Single longitudinal lines are present on the
dorsal, ventral and on the two lateral sides, all along
the length of the body. Out of these the lateral lines
are comparatively more distinct than the others lines.
(vi) Excretory pore is present on the ventral surface slightly behind the anterior end.
(vii) In addition to the ventrally curved posterior tip, the male worm has a pair of penial spicules

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very close to the cloacal opening.
(viii) In case of female specimen a female genital aperture is present mid-ventrally about one third
distance from the anterior end.
Systematic position:
Phylum – Aschelminthes
Class – Nematoda
Type – Ascarislumbricoides
{Note: Round worm or Ascaris is one of the common parasite found in the intestine of human
beings.}
Symptoms:
(a) Irregular bowel, (b) Occasional vomiting, (c) Anaemia
D. Trichophyton (Ringworm fungus):
It is a fungus that feeds on keratin of the skin of
human beings.
The features as observed under the microscope
are:
1. Texture of hyphae is waxy, glabrous to cotton
like.
2. Unstained hyphae are white, yellowish brown to
reddish brown in colour.
Systematic position:-
Kingdom – Fungi
Class – Deuteromycetes
Type – Trichophytonrubrum
Symptoms
Ringworm is a contagious fungal infection of the skin. Infected area of skin is itchy, red, raised,
scaly patches (with sharply defined edges). It is more red on the periphery than in the center
creating a ring like appearance.

Page 26 of 35
 EXPERIMENT B10
RIGHT SIDE PAGE
Root nodules in leguminous plants:
Root nodules are commonly found in the roots of leguminous plants. They are formed due to
association with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, Rhizobium. Rhizobia is the general term used for different
genera of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, e.g. Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Azorhizobium, etc. Plants
cannot take atmospheric nitrogen directly. These bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia,
which can be taken up by plants and utilized in the synthesis of essential macromolecules such as
amino acids, nucleotides, etc.It is an effective way to supplement the soil and increase its nitrogen
content. It is used as a biofertilizer and reduces the use of chemical fertilizers. Plants are grown in
rotation with legumes as once the legume plants die, nitrogen is released in the soil making it
available for other plants.
Root nodules are commonly found in the leguminous plants or plants belonging to the family
Fabaceae. Examples are peas, beans, soybean, alfalfa, clover, etc.
Some non-leguminous plants also develop root nodules such as Parasponia is nodulated by
Rhizobia, alder and bayberry are nodulated by Frankia. Some of the genera of the Rosaceae family
also contain root nodules.
Root Nodule Types: -
There are mainly two types of root nodules:
1. Indeterminate Root nodules
They are characterized by persistent nodule meristem.
They are elongated due to cell division in nodules.
Indeterminate root nodules show development gradient.
It shows different zones, which are due to different
stages of development, these are:
Zone I – Active meristem, where new tissues are
formed.
Zone II – Infectious zone, having infectious threads
with bacteria.
Zone III – The nitrogen-fixing zone, having bacteroids. Cells contain a large central vacuole.
Leghaemoglobin present in the cells gives nodules the characteristic pink colour.
Zone IV – Senescent zone, plant and bacterial cells are degraded here. The leghaemoglobin is
broken down giving the greenish colour present at the base of nodules.
This type of nodule is more common and found in pea, clover, alfalfa, etc.
2. Determinate Root nodules
They are spherical in shape and do not possess active meristem after initiation. The nodule growth
is by expansion rather than cell division as in indeterminate nodules. The gradient development of
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nodules is absent in the determinate type of nodules. Examples include soybean, bean, Lotus,
peanut, etc.
Root Nodule Formation Steps:
Root nodule formation is initiated, when the soil contains a low level of nitrogen. The two
symbiotic partners use cell signalling for the association and developing nodules. Steps of
nodulation are:
1. Roots of legumes secrete flavonoids, which attracts rhizobia towards the root. Rhizobia
congregate around root hairs.
2. Rhizobia secrete nod factors or nodulation factors, which causes curling of root hairs around
them.
3. Nod factors stimulate many developmental changes, e.g. membrane depolarization, curling
of root hairs, cell division in the root cortex and intracellular calcium movement.
4. The nod factor attaches to receptors present on the plasma membrane of the root hairs,
which leads to the formation of the infection thread. Rhizobia can also enter through cracks in the
root cells.
5. Infection thread provides the passage to bacteria to enter epidermal cells.
6. Rhizobia then enter cortex cells, each bacterium gets surrounded by a plant-derived
membrane known as symbiosome.
7. Nodule formation is initiated by chemicals produced by rhizobia. It is a result of calcium
dependent signal transduction pathway, which triggers biochemical changes leading to cell division
and nodule formation.
8. Cytokinin also plays an important role in nodules formation.
9. Within nodules, bacteria get differentiated into bacteroids, which fix nitrogen. Vascular
tissues are developed for nodules for exchange of nutrients.
Factors Affecting Nodule Formation:
Nodulation is affected by both external and internal factors.
 External factors include heat, acidity, nitrate content of the soil, etc.
 If soil is rich in nitrogen content, it interferes with the nodule formation and symbiotic
association as plants already have enough nitrogen and they do not need more.
 Nitrogen fixation is an oxygen-sensitive process. The root nodules contain a heme pigment
called leghaemoglobin, which facilitates the diffusion of oxygen.
 Nodule formation is auto-regulated by leaf tissues. Plants have evolved defense mechanisms
to check the infection.
 Ethylene also regulates nodule formation internally. Exogenous application of ethylene has
shown to inhibit nodule formation.
Cuscutaepilinum:
By comparison with plant–microbe interaction, little is known about the interaction of parasitic

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plants with their hosts. Plants of the genus Cuscuta belong to the family of Cuscutaceae and
comprise about 200 species, all of which live as stem holoparasites on other plants. Cuscuta spp.
possess no roots nor fully expanded leaves and the vegetative portion appears to be a stem only.
The parasite winds around plants and penetrates the host stems via haustoria, forming direct
connections to the vascular bundles of their hosts to withdraw water, carbohydrates, and other
solutes. Besides susceptible hosts, a few plants exist that exhibit an active resistance against
infestation by Cuscuta spp. For example, cultivated tomato (Solanumlycopersicum) fends
off Cuscutareflexa by means of a hypersensitive-type response occurring in the early penetration
phase. This report on the plant–plant dialog between Cuscuta spp. and its host plants focuses on the
incompatible interaction of C. reflexa with tomato.
Cuscutaepilinum
Name: Cuscutaepilinum Weihe
Family: Convolvulaceae, the Morning Glory Family
Common Names: flax dodder, love-vine, strangle-weed
Etymology: With Arabic origins, Kushkut, means dodder plant or parasitic plant; in New
Latin, Cuscuta directly translates as dodder. Epi means upon, on or over in Greek and the
Latin linum translates as flax, linen or thread.

Botanical synonyms: Cuscuta major Koch &Ziz, Cuscuta vulgaris J. Presl& C. Presl
Notable Features:
¬ Simple stem and leaf structure
¬ Twines dextrally or anticlockwise
¬ Most often present in flax (Linum) fields, but also parasitizes jewelweed (Impatiens)
¬ Stems are thread-like (~1.5mm in diameter), yellow-green-cream, forming a fairly dense mass
¬ Tiny flower, ~3mm, with translucent yellowish-white petals, often growing in compact
“glomerules”
Plant Height: Cuscutaepilinum’s height depends on the host; the length of a single dodder plant of
nearly half a mile was calculated by H.L. Dean in 1942.
Subspecies/varieties recognized: None found in literature.
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 Most Likely Confused with: Any other species
of Cuscuta—in Michigan these might be: C. cephalathi, C. coryli,
C. epithymum, C. glomerata, C. indecora, C. pentagona, or C.
polygonorum
Habitat Preference: Cuscutaepilinum, which occurs naturally
on Linum (flax) only, can also parasitize Impatiens (jewelweed)
if it is located within its vicinity.
Known Elevational Distribution: The known altitudinal
limit of C. epilinum is 1500m in Spain and the closest relative, C. epithymum, is found from 0 to
1500m in California.
Parasitism: Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship in which plants obtain nutrients directly
from another plant. Although parasitic plants are commonly known to lack chlorophyll, some
species have green organs, making them partially autotrophic. The physical link between the
parasite and the host is called a “haustorium”, and often occurs through xylem-to-xylem
attachment. The host can vary, ranging from the mycorrhizae of trees, to grasses and hardwood
trees. The parasite often maintains open or partially open stomata, allowing transpiration to aid in
extracting nutrients from the host.
Vegetative Plant Description: As Cuscuta spp. germinate, they develop a short anchorage root,
while a stem forms and nutates (rotates) in search of a host; when an attachment with a host has
been created, the anchorage root dies. Additional means of finding a host have been suggested in
literature, such as, being positively phototrophic or growing toward a source of moisture or specific
chemicals. In C. epilinum, the stem and leaf structure are simple; the stems are thread-like, yellow-
green-cream, ~1.5mm in diameter, and form a fairly dense mass over the host. Any leaf rudiments
are alternate. The haustoria of dodders can leave girdle-like swellings on the host, referred to as
hypertrophies.
Climbing Mechanism: In the genus Cuscuta, two types of coiling methods are found: loosely
twining with few haustoria and tightly twining, with many haustoria—both show upward growth
only; it is suggested that the former is used while the plant is in search of a host and the latter is
used once contact with a host has been made. Haustoria also aid in attachment because they
penetrate the tissues of the host. Typically, Cuscuta spp. makes no more than three turns around the
same branch. The literature states that the genus generally twines dextrally or anticlockwise.
Flower Description: The flowers are tiny, ~3mm long, characteristically sessile, glabrous, and
grouped in scattered, compact “glomerules”. Perianth: the calyx is 5-merous, as long as the corolla
and has acute, broadly ovate lobes that overlap one another; the corolla is also 5-merous; the lobes
are ovate-triangular, obtuse, and shorter than the tube; the lobes are urceolate, imbricate and
ascending or adhering to the capsule, with the membranous petals a translucent yellowish-white;
staminal scales are spatulate-truncate, and are shorter than the tube—the function of the scales is

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unknown, but they act as a point of differentiation between species of Cuscuta. Stamens: five
epipetalous stamens with anthers ovate-subcordate and about as long as the thin, tapered filaments.
Pistils: the stigma is linear-elongate; the styles are separate to connate, forming cavities in between
when two or more are present. The ovary is bilocular, and globular. The combined length of the
stigma and style is much shorter than the ovary’s length.
Flowering Time: In Russia, between June and July.
Pollinator: Within Cuscuta, Yuncker observed visits by wasps and other species of the order
Hymenoptera. Specific pollination information on C. epilinum was not found, yet its close
relative, C. epithymum has been studied and is summarized here. It was noted that both self-
pollination and cross-pollination (most commonly by Crabronidae, Sacrophagidae,
Vespidae, and Tachinidae of the orders Hymenoptera and Diptera) are possible. While characterized
by small flowers, other means of attracting pollinators, such as secretory cells and modified nectar-
producing stomata are present.
Fruit Type and Description: The fruit of C. epilinum is compressed and rounded, with a
circumscissile line of dehiscence; its fruits ripen from July to August in Russia.
Phylogenetic Information: Convolvulaceae is among 5 other families of the order Solanales
(Montiniaceae, Sphenocleaceae, Hydroleaceae, and Solanaceae), which encompasses 165 genera and
4,080 species. The distribution of Convolvulaceae is extensive worldwide, excluding areas of
extreme temperatures—the Sahara and Gobi Deserts, and areas of high latitude (Canada,
Greenland, Russia, Antarctica, as well as the southern tip of South America). Convolvulaceae has
been noted as the only asterid family whose seeds exhibit physical dormancy (5). Cuscuta spp.,
belonging to the subfamily Cuscutoideae, is the only genus within the family that is parasitic; its
placement in Convolvulaceae is open to debate, but is supported by similar flower morphology
(10,15, 21).
Lichens
Lichens are composite organisms consisting invariably of a fungus and an alga or a cyanobacterium.
The two components are permanently
associated with each other to form a lichen-
body. The relationship is symbiotic. The algal
or cyanobacterial component provides
photosynthetic as well as products of
atmospheric nitrogen fixation, if the partner is
a cyanobacterium.
The fungal partner absorbs water and minerals
from the substratum. The fungus also protects the photosynthetic component of lichen within a
moist mycelial covering. The fungus sends haustoria into algal cells to draw nourishment. Thus,

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lichens represent an ideal example of symbiosis, in which two taxonomically separate organisms are
permanently associated to form a single composite organism.
In lichens, a photosynthetic component in the form of a green alga or cyanobacterium is
permanently associated with a fungus, generally anascomycetes and rarely a basidiomycete.
Depending on the nature of the fungal partner, a lichen is designated as either an ascolichen or a
basidiolichen. Some lichen-like forms do not have an algal component and they are called pseudo-
lichens. Pseudo-lichens are mostly saprophytic or sometimes parasitic.
The photosynthetic component of a lichen is called a phyco-symbiont and the fungal component as
myco-symbiont. The association always involves a single specific fungus and a single phyco-
symbiont in any given species of lichen. The partners are not interchangeable which indicates that
the symbiotic association is specific.
The phyco-symbionts may belong to about 30 different genera of algae and cyanobacteria. Among
the algae, only green algae are components of lichen thallus. No other groups of algae are known to
be present in lichens. The cyanobacteria may be unicellular or filamentous. The common
unicellular cyanobacteria present in lichens are Chroococcus and Gloeocapsa.
Filamentous types include Nostoc, Scytonema, Rivularia, Stegonema etc. The green algae also
include unicellular genera, like Chlorella, Cystococcus, Protococcus etc. or filamentous genera
belonging to Chaetophorales, like Trentepohlia and Pleurococcus. Among the phyco-symbiont
genera most commonly occurring in lichens are Trebouxia, Trentepohlia and Nostoc. These three
genera are found in more than 90% of lichens.
The myco-symbionts of lichens are in the majority of cases members of ascomycetes belonging to
the apothecia-forming group, called Discomycetes. Perithecia-forming ascomycetes
(Pyrenomycetes) are rarely present in lichens (e.g. Dermatocarpori). Symbiotic association with
basidiomycetes is also rare. The basidiolichens generally have some member of Thelephoraceae as
myco-symbiont.
Some of the common ascolichens are Parmelia acetabula, Cladonia, rangiferina, Cetrariaislandica,
Usneabarbata, Lobariapulmonaria, Rhizocarpongeographicum etc. Among basidiolichens, Cora
pavonica is a well-known genus with Clavulinopsis is another genus with Clavaria as myco-
symbionts. Some lichens found in India belong to the genera, Graphis, Lecanora, Parmelia,
Physcia, Usnea, Cladonia etc.
An interesting aspect of lichen symbiosis is that certain chemical compounds are synthesized only
when the phyco- and myco-symbionts are associated in a lichen. When the symbionts are separately
grown, neither of the components is able to synthesise these compounds. Many lichens produce
unusual phenolic compounds and lipids in substantial amounts in their thalli. Lichens are as yet not
fully explored for obtaining new useful compounds.

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 EXPERIMENT B11
RIGHT SIDE PAGE
Aim:
Study of homologous and analogous organs in plants and animals.
Principle:
In plants and animals there are several organs or parts thereof, apparently alike in their function
and appearance, but markedly different from each other in their origin and anatomical structure.
These organs are called analogous organs, and the seeming similarity among them is the result of
convergence, that is, adaptation to similar habitat and identical ecological niche. On the other hand,
there are organs or parts thereof, which apparently are quite dissimilar to each other in appearance
and perform different functions, but have the same origin and anatomy. The differences in their
function and also in their appearances are the result of divergence, due to adaptive radiation to
different habit, habitat and ecological niche. These organs are called homologous organs.
Requirement:
Plant specimens showing tendrils, thorns, etc., as given in the text or any other locally available
plants, a plant with normal stem, potato and onion bulb, prickly pear, specimens of phylloclade,
cladode, wings of bird, cockroach and bat, and cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae of a
mammal/lizard.
Observations:
Homologous Organs in Plants:
1. Tendrils of passion flower and thorns of
pomegranate Tendrils of passion fruit and thorns of
pomegranate are structurally and functionally
different but they have similar origin i.e. they arise
from axillary bud.
2. Tendrils of Vitis and thorns of
Carissa Tendrils of Vitis and thorns of Carissa originate
from the terminal bud, but they are functionally different.

3. Tendrils of baloon vine (Cardiospermum) and

bulbils of Agave. Both are modifications of floral bud, but
they
perform
different functions. Tendrils help in climbing but
bulbils are meant for reproduction.

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 4. Scale leaves of onion and spines of
prickly pear (Opuntia)Both the scale leaves and
spines are modifications of leaves but are
structurally and functionally different. Scale leaves
of onion are thick and fleshy and store food. On
the other hand spines of cactus are defensive
organs.
Analogous Organs in Plants:
1. Stem tendrils and leaf tendrils All tendrils are
analogous with one another, being structurally and
functionally similar, irrespective of their origin.
Example: Tendrils of pea and tendrils of Vitis.
Tendrils of pea are modification of leaf and in Vitis it
is the modification of terminal bud.
2. Thorns and spines: Thorns and spines are
analogous structures being defensive in function.
Thorns are modifications of axillary or terminal buds, and spines are modifications of leaves. e.g:
Thorns of pomegranate and spines of prickly pear.
3. Modified underground stems and modified: roots Modified stems (rhizome, corm,
tuber) are analogous to modified roots (carrot,
radish) as they perform similar function of
storage of food but their origin is different.
Rhizomeof ginger, potato tuber, Colocasia are
stems and beetroot, radish etc. are roots.

4. Phylloclade, cladode and leaves: They perform

the same function i.e. they photosynthesise but
phylloclade and cladode are modifications of stem.
Phylloclade of Opuntia, Parkinsonia, Asparagus and
leaves of any local plant like mango are analogous
organs.
3. Homologous Organs in Animals:
(i) Wings of birds, and forelimb of mammals/reptiles/
frog:
Wings of birds, and forelimb of mammals/reptiles/ frog:
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All have the same bony elements (humerusradioulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges), but
perform different (flying in birds, for holding or walking etc. in other) functions .
(ii)Analogous Organs in Animals
(i) Wings of
dragonfly/cockroach/butterfly and
of birds.
(ii) Mandible of cockroach and

mandible (lower jaw) of a vertebrate.

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