Name: _____________________________ Date: _________________

Section: ____________________________
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Quarter 2
Important Pigments in Photosynthesis

I. Learning Competency/Code
Explain the importance of chlorophyll and other pigments STEM_BIO 11/12-IIa-j-3

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to:
1. Differentiate the classes of pigments according to wavelengths they absorb;
2. State the function and location of each pigment; and
3. Explain the excitation of a pigment.

II. Background Information for Learners

Photosynthesis is the process by which light energy is transformed into chemical-bond
energy (sugar) by photosynthetic organisms (Keeton, 1969). However, the various wavelengths in
sunlight are not all used equally in photosynthesis. Instead, photosynthetic organisms contain
light-absorbing molecules called pigments that absorb only specific wavelengths of visible light,
while reflecting others. Most photosynthetic organisms have a variety of different pigments, so
they can absorb energy from a wide range of wavelengths. Plant pigment molecules absorb only
in the wavelength of 700 nm to 400 nm (https://bio.libretexts.org). Violet and blue lights have the
shortest wavelengths and the most energy, whereas red light has the longest wavelength and
carries the least amount of energy.

Classes of Pigments that are Important in Photosynthesis

There are three classes of pigments that are important in photosynthesis. These are the
Chlorophylls, the Carotenoids and the Phycobilins.

1. Chlorophylls – are green pigments contained in the chloroplasts of plants which absorb blue
and red wavelengths and reflect green color in plants

*Chlorophylls trap energy from sunlight that is utilized in the manufacture of complex organic
molecules from simple inorganic raw materials (Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc., 1991).

Kinds of Chlorophyll (https://www.khanacademy.org):

1.a Chlorophyll a – plays a unique and crucial role in converting light energy to chemical
Energy
- is present in all photosynthetic higher plants, algae and cyanobacteria
1.b Chlorophyll b – passes on the light excitation to chlorophyll a
– is present in higher plants and green algae only along with a few types
of cyanobacteria
1.c Chlorophyll c – is an accessory pigment found in certain marine algae such as diatoms,
dinoflagellates and brown algae
1.d Chlorophyll d – is an accessory pigment found only in red algae
1.e Bacteriochlorophyll – present in prokaryotes

*Chlorophylls a and b are the main photosynthetic pigments in plants.

2. Carotenoids – are orange or yellow pigments in the chloroplasts of plants which absorb violet
and blue-green wavelengths and reflect yellow, red and orange colors

*Carotenoids help capture light during photosynthesis. In addition, carotenoids help absorb the
excess light energy and dissipate it as heat.

Kinds of Carotenoid:
2.a Lycopene – is a carotenoid that reflects red color in ripe tomatoes
2.b Zeaxanthin – is a carotenoid that reflects yellow color in corn seeds
2.c β-carotene – is a carotenoid that reflects orange color in orange peelings

3. Phycobilins – are red or blue pigments that absorb wavelengths of light that are not absorbed
by chlorophylls and carotenoids
*Phycobilins are found in cyanobacteria and red algae.

What happens when a pigment absorbs light?

When a pigment absorbs a photon (each particle of electromagnetic radiation) of light, it is

raised from a ground state to an excited state. At subatomic level, excitation is when an electron is
bumped into a higher-energy orbital that lies further from the nucleus. Only a photon with just the
right amount of energy to bump an electron between orbitals can excite a pigment. The ‘energy
gaps’ between the orbitals are different in each pigment so photons of different wavelengths are
needed to provide an energy boost that matches the gap. This is why pigments absorb different
wavelengths of light. An excited pigment is unstable and it may transfer either its extra energy or
its excited electron to a neighboring molecule. The figure below shows the excitation of a pigment.

Source: https://www.khanacademy.org
III. Activities

Activity 1
Write the class of pigment near the wavelength of light that it absorbs.

Wavelength Class of Pigment that Absorbs it

Blue wavelength
Blue-green wavelength
Red wavelength
Violet wavelength
Wavelengths not absorbed by carotenoids and
chlorophylls
Activity 2

Name ten examples of fruits and vegetables in your community containing carotenoid.

1. 6.

2. 7.

3. 8.

4. 9.

5. 10.

Activity 3
Answer the following question in 3-4 complete sentences.
When does a chlorophyll pigment get excited?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

IV. Key Takeaways

* Photosynthesis is the process by which light energy is transformed into chemical-bond energy
(sugar) by photosynthetic organisms.
* Photosynthetic organisms contain light-absorbing molecules called pigments that absorb only
specific wavelengths of visible light, while reflecting others.
*Chlorophylls, carotenoids and phycobilins are pigments that are important in photosynthesis.
*A pigment gets excited when it absorbs a photon of light.

V. References
Keeton, William T..Elements of Biological Science. New York: W.W. Norton and Company Inc., 1969
Towle, Albert. Modern Biology. USA: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc.,1991
Baguilat, Kira Nae B.. Module on Cellular Energetics. Department of Education., 2021
https://www.khanacademy.org
https://www.biologyonline.com
https://www.sciencedirect.com
VII. Key Answer

Activity 1
Wavelength Class of Pigment that Absorbs it
Blue wavelength Chlorophyll
Blue-green wavelength Carotenoid
Red wavelength Chlorophyll
Violet wavelength Carotenoid
Wavelengths not absorbed by carotenoids and Phycobilin
chlorophylls

Activity 1 – varied answers

Activity 3 – varied explanations
I. Learning Competency/Code
Describe the patterns of electron flow through light reaction activities STEM_BIO 11/12-IIa-j-4
Describe the significant effects of the Calvin Cycle STEM_BIO 11/12-IIa-j-5
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to:
1. Define photosynthesis using its reactants and products;
4. Differentiate the stages of photosynthesis according to use of energy and location; and
5. Arrange the events in light reactions and Calvin Cycle in order.
II. Background Information for Learners
Photosynthesis is the process by which the radiant energy from the sunlight is used to
produce glucose (C6H12O6) from carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) (www.britannica.com). It is
a biochemical process by which plants and certain bacteria capture sunlight and convert it to
chemical bond energy (www.sciencedirect.com). Autotrophic organisms use the pigment
chlorophyll to harvest solar energy to produce the stored energy as chemical bonds of ATP and
carbohydrates. By converting the energy of sunlight to a usable form of potential chemical energy,
photosynthesis is the ultimate source of metabolic energy for all biological systems.

Photosynthesis in eukaryotes involves three essential processes:

1. Energy absorption from sunlight via pigments during light-dependent reaction,
2. Reactivation of reaction center and
3. Carbohydrates production by carbon fixation during dark reaction.

Figure 1. Chemical Reaction for Photosynthesis

(Source: quizlet.com)

Chemical Equation of Photosynthesis: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + sunlight  C6H12O6 + 6 O2

Two Stages of Photosynthesis:

1. Light reactions—use sunlight to initiate electron transfer, thereby reducing NADP + to NADPH
and splitting water to give off oxygen as a by-product
-- are light-dependent reactions that form ATP through phosphorylation
-- take place in the thylakoids of the chloroplast
2. Calvin Cycle—is the second stage of photosynthesis that does not require light energy for its
processes to take place so it is referred to as ‘dark reactions’ or ‘light-independent reactions’
--incorporates CO2 into organic molecules through carbon fixation
--uses NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen) and ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) to produce carbohydrate from the fixed carbon and
returns ADP (adenosine diphosphate), inorganic phosphate, and NADP + to the
light reactions
--takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast
 Figure 2. Light Reaction Events and Photosystems
(Source: quizlet.com)
*Photosystems are large complexes of proteins and pigments that are optimized to harvest light
(www.khanacademy.org).

Light Reactions Events (See figure 2 while studying these):

1. Light energy or photon is absorbed by a pigment molecule of the light-harvesting complex of
Photosystem II and is passed on to other pigment molecules nearby until the energy makes it to the
reaction center. In the reaction center, it is absorbed by the P680 pair of chlorophyll a.

2. The electron in this pair of chlorophyll a is raised to an excited state and is transferred to the primary
electron acceptor. P680 loses its electron and becomes positively charged (P680+).

3. The positively charged molecule attracts electrons from a water molecule, resulting to the splitting up of
H20 into two electrons, two hydrogen ions (H +), and an oxygen atom with the provision of light energy. The
oxygen atom immediately combines with another oxygen atom to form an oxygen molecule (O 2) which is
then released outside the leaf through the stomata.

4. The excited electrons are then passed on from the primary electron acceptor to the electron carrier
molecules through the electron transport chain until they reach Photosystem I. The electron carrier
molecules involved here are plastoquinone (Pq), a cytochrome complex, and plastocyanin (Pc).

5. At each transfer, the electrons release small amounts of energy. This energy is used to pump hydrogen
ions across the membrane. The splitting up of water molecules results to an uneven distribution of
hydrogen ions in the stroma and the lumen. The H+ ions try to equalize their distribution by moving from the
lumen to the stroma through the aid of a membrane protein called ATP synthase. This is referred to as
chemiosmosis. The movement of hydrogen ions through the ATP synthase channel triggers the synthesis
of ATP from ADP. The ATP contains high-energy phosphate bonds.

6. Meanwhile, photon is also absorbed, and energy is passed on from one pigment molecule to another
until the energy reaches the reaction center complex of Photosystem I. The energy excites the electron
present in the pair of P700 chlorophyll a located here. The excited electron is then transferred to a primary
electron acceptor, making the P700 positively charged and now seeking electrons to fill up the missing
ones. This is filled up by the electrons from Photosystem II that are passed on through the electron
transport chain.

7. The photo-excited electron from the primary electron acceptor of Photosystem I enters another electron
transfer chain, passing the electron to an iron-containing protein called ferredoxin (Fd).
8. An enzyme, the NADP+ reductase, then transfers the electron to NADP + and stabilizes it by adding a
proton (H+) to form NADPH. NADPH is then released to the stroma and becomes part of the Calvin Cycle.
Cyclic Electron Flow
Aside from the usual route of electron flow as described in the events of the light reactions
(i.e., noncyclic or linear electron flow), photo-excited electrons may take a short-circuited route
which utilizes Photosystem I but not Photosystem II. The ferredoxin (Fd) goes back to the cycle
and passes the electron to the cytochrome complex and to the Pc until it reaches P700 chlorophyll
instead of transferring the electron to NADP + reductase. Due to this event, no NADPH is produced
but ATP is still synthesized.

Figure 3. Cyclic Electron Flow

(Source: quizlet.com)
Three Phases of Calvin Cycle:
1. Carbon Fixation
• Carbon fixation is a process of incorporating an inorganic carbon molecule, CO2, into an organic material.
• In this phase, the CO2 molecule is attached to a five-carbon sugar molecule named ribulose biphosphate
(RuBP) aided by an enzyme named rubisco or RuBP carboxylase. The resulting product, a six-carbon
sugar, is extremely unstable and immediately splits in half. The split forms two molecules of a 3-
phosphoglycerate (three-carbon sugar).
2. Reduction
• In this phase, a phosphate group (from ATP) is then attached to each 3-phosphoglycerate by an enzyme,
forming 1,3-phosphoglycerate. NADPH swoops in and reduces 1,3-biphosphogycerate to G3P
(glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate). For every six G3Ps produced by the Calvin Cycle, five are recycled to
regenerate three molecules of RuBP. Only one G3P leaves the cycle to be packaged for use by the cell. It
will take two molecules of G3P to make one molecule of glucose. The ADP and NADP + that are formed
during the Calvin Cycle will be transported back to the thylakoid membrane and will enter the light
reactions. Here, they will be ‘recharged’ with energy and become ATP and NADPH.
3. Regeneration of RuBP
• Five molecules of G3P undergo a series of complex enzymatic reactions to form three molecules of
RuBP. This costs the cell another three molecules of ATP, but also provides another set of RuBP to
continue the cycle.
What happens to G3P after its release from the cycle?
• Two G3Ps can combine together to form either glucose or fructose which are both six-carbon sugars.
Glucose and fructose can be combined to form sucrose. Glucose can be connected in chains to form
starch.
• G3Ps can also be used in lipid and protein synthesis.

To make one molecule of G3P, the chloroplast needs:

• 3 molecules of CO2
• 9 molecules of ATP
• 6 molecules of NADPH

Important points to know:

• The sugar that is produced in the Calvin Cycle is not the six-carbon glucose that we are familiar
with. This is formed later on. What is produced in the Calvin Cycle is a three-carbon sugar known
as G3P or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.The Calvin Cycle needs to ‘spin’ three times to make one
molecule of G3P from three molecules of CO2.
III. Key Takeaways

During photosynthesis, energy from sunlight is harvested and used to drive the synthesis of
glucose from CO2 and H2O. Photosynthesis takes place in two distinct stages. (A) In the light
reactions, energy from sunlight drives the synthesis of ATP and NADPH, coupled to the formation
of O2 from H2O. (B) In the dark reactions, the ATP and NADPH produced by the light reactions
drive glucose synthesis. In eukaryotic cells, both the light and dark reactions of photosynthesis
occur within chloroplasts—the light reactions in the thylakoid membrane and the dark reactions
within the stroma.

IV. References
General Biology 1 ADM Module. Department of Education. 2020
General Biology 1 Teaching Guide, June 2016
Baguilat, Kira Nae B.. Module on Cellular Energetics. Department of Education., 2021
https://www.khanacademy.org
https://www.biologyonline.com
https://www.sciencedirect.com

Activity 1. Paragraph Completion. Complete the following paragraph by filling in the blanks with the
correct terms.
Photosynthesis takes place in two distinct stages. (A) In the light reactions, energy from
sunlight drives the synthesis of (1) ________________________ and NADPH, coupled to the
formation of O2 from H2O. (B) In the dark reactions (named because they do not require sunlight),
the ATP and (2) ________________________ produced by the light reactions drive glucose
synthesis. Light reactions use sunlight to initiate (3) ________________________ transfer,
thereby reducing NADP+ to NADPH and splitting water to give off (4) _____ as a by-product. Light
reactions take place in the (5) ________________________ of the chloroplast and form ATP
through (6) ________________________.The Calvin Cycle is also referred to as (7) _____
reactions or “dark reactions” which take place in the (8) ________________________ of the
chloroplast. It is the second stage of photosynthesis that is involved in the formation of (9)
________________________ from CO2 using chemical energy stored in ATP and NADPH, the
products of light reactions. Calvin cycle has three phases which are carbon fixation, reduction and
regeneration of (10) ________________________.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Quarter 2
Cellular Respiration

I. Learning Competency/Code
Differentiate aerobic from anaerobic respiration STEM_BIO 11/12-IIa-j-6
Explain the major features and sequence the chemical events of STEM_BIO 11/12-IIa-j-7
cellular respiration
Distinguish major features of glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport STEM_BIO 11/12-IIa-j-8
system and chemiosmosis

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to:
1. Define cellular respiration using its reactants and products;
6. Differentiate aerobic respiration from anaerobic respiration; and
7. Arrange the events in Glycolysis and Krebs cycle in order.

II. Background Information for Learners

Cellular respiration is a process that occurs in cells of organisms releasing energy from
carbohydrates. In cellular respiration, glucose is converted to pyruvic acid which can enter either
through aerobic respiration or anaerobic respiration.

In Cellular respiration:
• Oxygen is reduced to water.
• Electron transport chain located within the cristae of the mitochondria, where
ATP is produced by chemiosmosis.
• Enzyme-catalyzed reactions occur within the semi-fluid interior.
• A carbohydrate is oxidized to carbon dioxide.

Important Terms in Cellular Respiration:

Glycolysis-means “sugar-splitting” that occurs in the cytosol of the cell. It does not require oxygen
to breakdown glucose into pyruvate.

Krebs cycle-completes the metabolic breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide and produces 2
ATP
Oxidative phosphorylation-a process occurring in mitochondria and accounts for majority of the
ATP production

Electron Transport Chain-contains the chain members (carrier and protein complexes, ATP
synthase complex and ATP channel protein) which shuttle electrons during the redox reactions.
The electrons will be used to produce ATP by chemiosmosis.

NADH and FADH2 - are electron acceptor molecules that contain high-energy electrons. They
transport the electrons to ETC to produce many more ATPs by oxidative phosphorylation.

ATP synthase-is an enzyme that is responsible for the great production of ATPs. This happens
when it uses the energy coming from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to
produce ATP.
Comparison of Aerobic Respiration and Anaerobic Respiration
Aerobic respiration requires molecular oxygen to happen in the cells of most eukaryotes
and prokaryotes. In aerobic respiration, pyruvic acid molecules enter the mitochondria and through
a series of chemical reactions known as the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) via electron transport
chain. In the Krebs cycle, the pyruvic acid is converted to carbon dioxide. The electron transport
chain accepts the electron from the breakdown products of the Krebs cycle and glycolysis via the
NADH and FADH2. At the end of the chain, the electrons are combined with hydrogen ions and
molecular oxygen to form water. This process can produce ATP. During this process, the glucose
molecule is broken down and the carbon atoms released from glucose are combined with oxygen
to produce carbon dioxide.
Chemical Equation for Aerobic Cellular Respiration:
C6H12O6 + 6 O2  6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy

Anaerobic respiration on the other hand does not require oxygen in splitting nutrients. Some
prokaryotes that live in oxygen-free environments such as water logged soil, in ponds where water
does not flow, and in the intestines of animals transfer glucose to NADH and then pass the
electrons down the electron transport chain that is joined to ATP synthesis by chemiosmosis. In
anaerobic respiration, pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid. There is a production of two ATP
molecules for each glucose molecule. Nitrate and sulfate are the final acceptors of electrons. The
end products are carbon dioxide, reduced inorganic substances and ATP. In fermentation (as type
of anaerobic respiration) there is no electron acceptor because it has no electron transport chain.
Its products are either alcohol (and carbon dioxide) or lactate.

Aerobic Respiration
Main function: Production of ATP from food such as carbohydrate, lipid and protein
Site of Reaction: Cytoplasm and mitochondrion
Production of ATP: 36 to 38 ATP per glucose molecule
Sustainability: Long-term
Production of lactic acid: Does not produce
Oxygen requirement: Yes
Recycling of NADH: Through the electron transport system
Participating cells: Most cells
*Maximum yield of 36 to 38 ATP molecules per glucose
*Complete breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide and water with the use of oxygen
*Multiple metabolic pathways
*Pyruvate proceeds to acetyl formation in the mitochondrion
*The presence of enough oxygen in the cell makes the cell perform its job smoothly without
burning sensation
*More efficient in harvesting energy from glucose with estimated 39% energy efficiency (36-38
ATP) in eukaryotic organisms but much higher ATP production (38 to 40 ATP) in prokaryotic
organisms
*Outputs are carbon dioxide, water and ATP
*Products produced are for biochemical cycling and for the cellular processes that require energy
*Slow glucose breakdown
*Electrons in NADH are transferred to electron transport chain
*Mechanism of ATP synthesis is by substrate-level and oxidative phosphorylation/chemiosmosis

Anaerobic Respiration
Main function: Production of ATP without the use of oxygen
Site of Reaction: Cytoplasm
Production of ATP: 2 ATP per glucose molecule
Sustainability: Short-term
Production of lactic acid: Produces
Oxygen requirement: No
Recycling of NADH: In lactic acid fermentation
Participating cells: Yeast, other fungi, prokaryotes, muscle cells.
*Produce numerous products with economic and industrial importance through fermentation
*Rapid breakdown of glucose
*Electrons in NADH are transferred to electron transport chain; but in fermentation electrons in
NADH are transferred to organic molecule
*Mechanism of ATP synthesis is by substrate-level and oxidative phosphorylation/chemiosmosis;
but in fermentation substrate-level phosphorylation only during glycolysis
*In anaerobic respiration, inorganic substances like NO 3 - or SO4 2- are the final acceptor of the
electron transport system; but in fermentation, there is no electron acceptor because it has no
electron transport system
*Some organisms like yeasts (eukaryotic), many bacteria (prokaryotic) and the human muscle
cells (eukaryotic) can make enough ATP to survive in facultative anaerobes (can live in the
absence or presence of oxygen). But under anaerobic conditions lactic acid fermentation occurs. A
facultative anaerobe needs to consume the nutrient at a much faster rate when doing the
fermentation or anaerobic process.

Similarities of Aerobic Respiration and Anaerobic Respiration

*Both undergo glycolysis in the cytoplasm of the cell.
*Both undergo substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation and
chemiosmosis in producing ATP molecules.
*Both split the 6-carbon glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, the three-carbon molecule.
*Both involve a series of enzyme-controlled reactions that take place in the cytoplasm.
*Both use NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), a redox coenzyme that accepts two
electrons plus a hydrogen (H+) that becomes NADH.
*Both are performed by eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

STAGES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs Cycle

GLYCOLYSIS
--the breakdown of glucose (a 6-carbon molecule) to two molecules of pyruvate (two 3-carbon
molecules)

Two Phases of Glycolysis:

A) Energy-Investment Phase/Preparatory Phase
--phase of glycolysis in which there is consumption of ATP to convert the glucose molecule
into two three-carbon molecules

B) Energy-Harvesting/ Payoff Phase

--phase of glycolysis characterized by the gain of energy-rich molecules ATP and NADH

10 STEPS IN GLYCOLYSIS:

***Steps in Energy-Investment Phase/Preparatory Phase:

Step 1:
--the glucose is phosphorylated
--1 molecule of ATP is consumed
*Hexokinase catalyzes the phosphorylation of glucose with magnesium as its cofactor.

Step 2:
--conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate
*Phosphoglucose isomerase (PI) catalyzes the rearrangement of the carbon-oxygen bond to
transform glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate.

Step 3:
--Fructose-6-phosphate is converted to fructose-1,6-biphosphate (FBP).
*A second molecule of ATP provides the phosphate group added to F6P to become FBP.

Step 4:
--Cleavage of fructose-1,6-biphosphate catalyzed by an enzyme aldolase to yield the following two
3-carbon molecules:
1. glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
2. dihydroxyacetone phosphate
Step 5:
--Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is further acted by the enzyme triosephosphate isomerase (TIM)
which reorganizes the DHAP into GAP.

***Steps in Energy-Harvesting Phase/Payoff Phase:

Step 6
--Two main events take place:
1.glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized by the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NAD)
2. the molecule is phosphorylated by the addition of a free phosphate group

Step 7
--1,3-bisphoglycerate is converted to 3-phosphoglycerate by the enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase
*Loss of a phosphate group from the starting material
*The phosphate is transferred to a molecule of ADP that yields the first molecule of ATP.

Step 8
--simple rearrangement of the position of the phosphate group on the
3-phosphoglycerate molecule making it 2-phosphoglycerate

Step 9
--conversion of 2-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenol pyruvate

Step 10
--final step of glycolysis which converts phosphoenol pyruvate into pyruvate
Phosphoenol pyruvate + ADP + H

Aerobic Respiration
--cell respiration in the presence of oxygen
--uses the end product of glycolysis (which is pyruvate) in the Krebs Cycle to produce more energy
in the form of ATP

Note:
BEFORE PYRUVATE IS USED IN THE KREBS CYCLE, IT MUST UNDERGO PYRUVATE
OXIDATION FIRST TO BECOME Acetyl Coenzyme A.

STEPS IN PYRUVATE OXIDATION

Step 1. A carboxyl group is snipped off of pyruvate and released as a molecule of carbon dioxide, leaving
behind a two-carbon molecule called hydroxyethyl group.
Step 2. The two-carbon molecule from step 1 is oxidized to acetyl group, and the electrons lost in the
oxidation are picked up by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to form nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide hydrogen (NADH).
Step 3. The oxidized two-carbon molecule (an acetyl group) is attached to Coenzyme A (CoA, an organic
molecule derived from vitamin B5), to form Acetyl CoA.
***Acetyl CoA Enters Krebs Cycle***
Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic Cycle or Krebs Cycle
--second stage of cellular respiration which takes place in the mitochondrial matrix in eukaryotes
and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotes
--it is a closed loop cycle wherein the last part of the cycle regenerates the compound used in the
first step
--it has eight steps

Illustration of Krebs Cycle:

Source: https://www.biologyonline.com
Steps of Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic Cycle or Krebs Cycle:

1. It is a condensation step by which acetyl group combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate. This reaction
is catalyzed by citrate synthase. A water molecule is taken as a reactant and CoA is bound to a sulfhydryl
group (-SH) and diffuses away.

2. Citrate is converted into isocitrate by losing and gaining water in a reaction catalyzed by aconitase.
3. Isocitrate is oxidized producing a α-ketoglutarate, a molecule of CO2 and two electrons which reduce
NAD+ to NADH + H. This reaction is catalyzed by isocitrate dehydrogenase.

4. α-ketoglutarate is converted to succinyl CoA in a reaction catalyzed by α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase.

NAD+ is reduced to NADH and succinyl group binds to CoA to form succinyl CoA. A CO 2 molecule is
released.
5. Succinyl CoA is converted to succinate in a reaction catalyzed by succinyl-CoA synthetase. A phosphate
group is substituted for coenzyme A converting Guanosine Diphosphate (GDP) to Guanosine Triphosphate
(GTP). SH-CoA group is released.
6. Succinate is converted to fumarate through dehydration catalyzed by succinate dehydrogenase. Flavin
Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD) is reduced to FAD2 in this reaction.

7. Fumarate is converted to malate through hydration catalyzed by fumarase. This reaction requires water
as a reactant.

8. Malate is oxidized into oxaloacetate. The reaction is catalyzed by malate dehydrogenase. This reaction
reduces an NAD+ molecule to NADH + H+.
Simplified Illustration of Krebs Cycle:
 Source: https://www.biologyonline.com

III. Key Takeaways

Summary of Cellular Respiration
SOME STARTING SOME END
STAGE SUMMARY
MATERIALS PRODUCTS
Series of reactions in which
glucose is degraded to pyruvate; Pyruvate, ATP,
1. Glycolysis (in Glucose, ATP,
net profit of 2 ATPs; hydrogen NADH
cytosol) NAD+, Pi
atoms are transferred to carriers;
can proceed anaerobically
Pyruvate is degraded and
2. Formation of combined with coenzyme A to Acetyl CoA, CO2,
Pyruvate,
acetyl CoA (in form acetyl CoA; hydrogen atoms NADH
coenzyme A, NAD+
mitochondria) are transferred to carriers; CO2 is
released
Series of reactions in which the
acetyl portion of acetyl CoA is Acetyl CoA, H2O, CO2, NADH,
3. Citric acid cycle
degraded to CO2; hydrogen NAD+, FAD, ADP, FADH2, ATP
(in mitochondria)
atoms are transferred to carriers; Pi
ATP is synthesized
Chain of several electron
transport molecules; electrons
are passed along chain; released
4. Electron transport
energy is used to form a proton NADH, FADH2, ATP, H2O, NAD+,
and chemiosmosis
gradient; ATP is synthesized as O2, ADP, Pi FAD
(in mitochondria)
protons diffuse down the
gradient; oxygen is final electron
acceptor

VI. References
General Biology 1 ADM Module. Department of Education. 2020
General Biology 1 Teaching Guide, June 2016
Baguilat, Kira Nae B.. Module on Cellular Energetics. Department of Education., 2021
https://www.khanacademy.org
https://www.biologyonline.com
https://www.sciencedirect.com

Activity 1. Multiple Choice. Read and understand each item and choose the letter of the correct answer.
Write the letter of the correct answer on the space provided before each item.

__1. What is the main function of aerobic respiration?

A. Production of ADP with the use of oxygen
B. Production of ATP without the use of oxygen
 C. Production of ATP from food without the use of oxygen
D. Production of ATP from food such as carbohydrate, lipid and protein with the use
of oxygen.

__2. Which statement is TRUE about anaerobic respiration?

A.Yeast, other fungi, prokaryotes, muscle cells participate in this mechanism.
B. It occurs in the cytoplasm and in the mitochondrion.
C. It produces 36 to 38 ATPs per glucose molecule.
D. Most cells participate in this mechanism.

__3. Which is not produced in aerobic respiration?

A. ATP
B. carbon dioxide
C. lactic acid
D. water

__4. How many ATPs are produced per glucose molecule in anaerobic respiration?
A. 2
B. 6
C. 36
D. 38

__5. Which is a similarity of both aerobic and anaerobic respirations?

A. Both complete breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide and water with the use of
oxygen.
B. Both use NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), a redox coenzyme that accepts
two electrons plus a hydrogen (H+) that becomes NADH.
C. Both have a maximum yield of 36 to 38 ATP molecules per glucose.
D. Both exhibit rapid breakdown of glucose.

__6. What are the final hydrogen electron acceptors of the electron transport system in an
anaerobic respiration?
A. molecular oxygen and pyruvate
B. nitrate and sulfate
C. oxygen and sulfate
D. pyruvate and nitrate

__7. Statement 1: Both aerobic and anaerobic respirations split the 6-carbon glucose into two
molecules of pyruvate.
Statement 2: Pyruvate is a three-carbon molecule that enters the electron transport chain.
Which statement is correct?
A. Statement 1 only
B. Statement 2 only
C. Both statements 1 and 2
D. No statement is correct

__8. Which is a redox coenzyme that accepts two electrons plus a hydrogen (H+) that becomes
NADH?
A. CoA
B. FAD
C. NAD+
D. NADPH
__9. What is the estimated energy efficiency of aerobic respiration in eukaryotic organisms?
A. 38% energy efficiency
B. 39% energy efficiency
C. 40% energy efficiency
D. 36% energy efficiency

__10. When does substrate-level phosphorylation occur in fermentation?

A. during glycolysis and Krebs cycle
 B. during electron transport system
C. during Krebs cycle
D. during glycolysis

__11. How is breakdown of glucose described in an anaerobic respiration?

A. rapid
B. slow
C. very slow
D. sometimes rapid and sometimes slow

__12. In what condition does lactic acid fermentation occur?

A. under aerobic conditions
B. under anaerobic conditions
C. under aerobic and anaerobic conditions
D. under the presence or absence of oxygen

__13. Which organism has no electron transport chain?

A. aerobic organism
B. anaerobic organism
C. fermenting organism
D. none of the above

__14. Which organism uses oxygen during cellular respiration?

A. aerobic organism
B. anaerobic organism
C. fermenting organism
D. none of the above

__15. Which organism has potassium nitrite as a by-product during cellular respiration?
A. aerobic organism
B. anaerobic organism
C. fermenting organism
D. none of the above

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Quarter 2
Reactions that Produce and Consume ATP

I. Learning Competency/Code
Describe reactions that produce and consume ATP STEM_BIO 11/12-IIa-j-9
Describe the role of oxygen in respiration and describe
pathways of electron flow in the absence of oxygen STEM_BIO 11/12-IIa-j-10
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of fermentation and aerobic respiration STEM_BIO 11/12-IIa-j-12

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to:
1. Describe the role of oxygen in respiration;
2. Summarize the reactions that produce and consume ATP; and
3. Enumerate advantages and disadvantages of fermentation and aerobic respiration.

II. Background Information for Learners

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the energy-carrying molecule found in the cells of all living
things (www.britannica.com). ATP captures chemical energy obtained from breakdown of food
molecules and releases it to fuel other cellular processes. ATP is not a storage molecule chemical
energy, instead, it serves as a shuttle, delivering energy to places within the cell where energy-
consuming activities are taking place. ATP is produced in certain reactions and is consumed in
other reactions.
In aerobic cellular respiration, oxygen is required. Oxygen plays a vital role in energy
production via the electron transport chain (ETC) which is an important component of aerobic
cellular respiration. Oxygen acts as a final electron acceptor that helps move electrons down a
chain that results in ATP production (www.study.com). In the presence of oxygen, many more
ATPs are made.

Reactions Producing ATP:

1. Energy-Harvesting Phase of Glycolysis

*During this phase of glycolysis, energy-rich molecules ATP and NADH are produced.

2. Krebs Cycle/Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle

*This cycle involves series of reactions in which the acetyl portion of acetyl CoA is
degraded
to CO2, hydrogen atoms are transferred to carriers and ATP is synthesized.

3. Oxidative Phosphorylation
*In this metabolic pathway, cells use enzymes to oxidize nutrients, thereby releasing
chemical
energy to produce ATP. It is other known as electron transport-linked phosphorylation or
terminal oxidation. It is a combination of electron transport chain and chemiosmosis.

Reactions Consuming ATP:

1. Energy-Investment Phase of Glycolysis

*During this phase of glycolysis, there is consumption of ATP to convert the glucose molecule into
two three-carbon molecules.
2. Ion Transport
*ATP is consumed in the active transport of ions.
3. Muscle Contraction
*ATPs are consumed in muscle contraction during the cycling of myosin cross-bridges, during
pumping of calcium ions from the myoplasm across the sarcoplasmic reticulum and during
the active transport of sodium and potassium ions across the sarcolemma so that calcium
ions may be released when the input is released.
4. Nerve Impulse Propagation
*The brain is the highest consumer of ATP in the body, consuming approximately twenty-five
percent of the total energy available. Large amount of energy is spent on maintaining ion
concentrations for proper neuronal signalling and synaptic transmission.
5. Chemical Synthesis
*ATP is consumed in DNA synthesis and RNA synthesis.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Fermentation and Aerobic Respiration

Fermentation/Anaerobic Cellular Aerobic Cellular Respiration
Respiration
*Can produce ATP even in the absence *Much more energy-efficient than
of oxygen fermentation because of the presence of
*It occurs very quickly like in lactic acid oxygen thus producing more ATP
fermentation when your muscles get the *Produces up to 38 ATPs per molecule of
Advantages energy they need for short bursts of glucose
intense activity. *Cells specialized for aerobic cellular
*Available to organisms occupying the respiration provide endurance for
few anoxic (lacking oxygen) niches organisms.
remaining on earth
*Less energy-efficient so few ATP is *Cannot produce ATP in the absence of
produced in this process due to absence oxygen
of oxygen *Occurs very slow
 Disadvantages *Only 2 ATPs are produced per molecule *Oxygen needed in aerobic cellular
of glucose respiration is highly reactive, toxic gas so
there is need for antioxidants and
enzymes to protect aerobic organisms

III. Key Takeaways

Reactions Producing ATP: Reactions Consuming ATP:
1. Energy-Harvesting Phase of Glycolysis 1. Energy-Investment Phase of Glycolysis
2. Krebs Cycle/Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle 2. Ion Transport
3. Oxidative Phosphorylation 3. Muscle Contraction
4. Nerve Impulse Propagation
5. Chemical Synthesis
IV. References
General Biology 1 ADM Module. Department of Education. 2020
General Biology 1 Teaching Guide, June 2016
https://www.khanacademy.org
https://www.biologyonline.com
https://www.sciencedirect.com
https://www.britannica.com
https://www.study.com

Activity 1. Completion of Flow Diagram. Complete the concepts involving the role of oxygen in cellular
respiration by filling in the empty boxes with the correct word/phrases.

Oxygen acts as a

that helps move

.

that results in

Activity 2. Essay. Answer the following questions.

1. Differentiate fermentation from aerobic respiration according to (a) number of ATPs produced per
molecule of glucose, (b) speed of process and (c) occurrence/requirement to happen.
(a).

(b).

(c).
Prepared by:

NORYN C. WALITANG

Subject Teacher