Energy commodities

Learning Outcomes
• Formation of oil from different maceral groups and the importance of
the “oil window”.
• Migration of oil and gas
• Trap sites in which oil and gas preferentially accumulate.
Recap
Recap
Organic matter transformations
• Diagenesis: early biological and chemical
changes that occur prior to the onset of
pronounced temperature-driven
reactions (T < 50°C)
• Break down to less complex molecules by
oxidation or microbial action
• May re-condense to form high molecular
weight geopolymers/kerogen
• Catagenesis: temperature driven
“cracking” processes whereby high-
molecular weight kerogen breaks down
to form light hydrocarbons (T: 50 - 150°C)
Organic matter transformations
Importance of basin age, temperature and
sedimentation rates.
• Temperature and time are inversely
related: to form x amount of oil can take
25 million years at 110°C, or can take 100
million years at 90°C.
• Sedimentation rate too low, time for
oxidation to take place; too high, the
carbon content will be too dilute.
• Old hot basins, oil and gas would be
driven off under metamorphic conditions
(only graphite remains), you cold basins,
no oil or gas would have yet formed.
Organic “cracking” reactions

• Catalytic cracking:
• Formation of a carbonium ion
• Net positive charge in carbonium ion leads to further cracking
• Dominant process of petroleum generation up to 120°C
• Thermal cracking:
• Dominant at temperatures greater than 120°C
• Formation of free radicals that are
amenable to further cracking

After: Slide Share

Kerogen types
Van Krevelen diagram
• Type I: From algal material
• Type II: plant spores, pollens,
resins, bacterially-degraded algae
• Type III: lignin and cellulose from
humic land plants
• Type IV: from oxidised woody
material

After: ResearchGate
Kerogen types
Van Krevelen diagram
• Type I: From algal material Mostly oil

• Type II: plant spores, pollens, Oil and gas

resins, bacterially-degraded algae
• Type III: lignin and cellulose from
humic land plants Gas only

• Type IV: from oxidised woody No

material hydrocarbons

After: ResearchGate
The “oil window”
• Typically found between 65
– 150°C
• Correlated to depths
between 750 - 5000 m
• Where geothermal gradient
is high, oil window is found
at shallower depths, but is
typically narrower
• Gas window: 100 - 200°C
and 3 – 6 km depth
After: Offshore Engineering
Source – transport - trap

Organic rich shales buried to

depths of ~ > 2 km

Migration via variable

mechanisms typical along porous
sandstone strata

Trap site can be stratigraphic or

structural
 Petroleum migration
• Originates in fine-grained source rock then migrates to
more permeable, coarse-grained reservoir sediments
• Primary migration refers to migration out of source rock
• Secondary migration refers to migration within permeable
reservoir rocks (responsible for separation of buoyant gas phase
and higher density oil phase)

• Migration mechanisms include:

• Low molecular weight hydrocarbons dissolved in water at depth
(does not explain oil migration)
• Oil phase migration: only after significant compaction such that
water is already driven off (i.e., oil wet conditions required)
• Diffusion (free-energy gradients associated with ordering of
water molecules at clay mineral surfaces)
• Pressure differentials (fine grained rocks more likely to over-
pressure)
Petroleum trap sites
• Caused by geological features
that either reduces
permeability of the reservoir
or provides a permeable
barrier that impedes further
migration
• Can be:
• Stratigraphic
• Structural
• Hydrodynamic