Petroleum

The word petroleum comes from the Latin petra,

meaning “rock,” and
oleum, meaning “oil.”
Petroleum is the product of natural changes in
organic materials over millions of
years ago..
Petroleum is formed by hydrocarbons with the
addition of other substances, primarily
Sulphur based compounds.
Petroleum Once a cleaner Car fuel over
Horse carriages ( Dirty Wagons) and
Steam Engines
• Originally the primary use of petroleum was as a lighting
fuel.
• it is flammable, yellow-to-black color mixture of gaseous,
liquid and solid hydrocarbons that happen naturally under
the earth’s surface, can be divided into fractions including
natural gas, gasoline, oil , kerosene, fuel and , paraffin wax,
and asphalt, pitch, coke etc.
• FORMATION OF PETROLEUM

• • MIGRATION OF PETROLEUM

• • ACCUMULATION OF PETROLEUM
• FORMATION OF PETROLEUM
• The Organic theory

• •The Inorganic theory

Organic Theory
• Almost 95% of scientist believe this theory :
• Crude oil contains chlorophyll (Chlorophyll derivatives) and derivatives that
Chlorophyll is the green pigment found in plants either this is the animal's
blood pigment.
• In 1934 it was found that some chlorophyll derivatives were found to be
more than thirty times the derivative . Thus has therefore it has been
suggested that crude oil was plant-based oil.
• In (1962) nuclei were isolated from the crude oils in reserves and the nuclei
are found in living organisms only that means that the oil may have been
formed out of living organisms.. Algae, Marine animals, conversion had
decomposed under the anaerobic conditions and strongly reducing conditions
after a very long time span under the earth.
• Organic matter – Destructive distillation under high
pressure and under elevated temperature conditions.
• Algae, Lignocellulosic biomass, Animal remains ( Fish,
Dinasaurs and uther Marine Animals underwent pyrolytic
degradation through volcanic erruptions or other heat of
lava etc.
Inorganic theory
• Many scientists believe that the origin of the oil is not a living
organism, but its origin element carbon and certain carbon
compounds were formed by the action of water on inorganic
compound i.e., metal carbides such as calcium carbide - CaC2
example thus various hydrocarbons were formed through a series of
reduction reactions.
• Several chemical changes have resulted in such a huge mixture of
hydrocarbons and other inorganic compounds as the constituents of
Petroleum.
• CaC2 + 2H2O C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
Acetylene-Ethylene- Ethane- Highrt Hydrocarbons.
Reduction of CO
• CO+H2O+ H2 - Hydrocarbons
• Catalyzed by the Alkali and alkaline earth metallic compounds.

• However, the most accepted theory is that petroleum had marine

origin mostly due to the decomposition of sea animals, algae, sea
planktons etc. under anaerobic fermentation i.e., strongly reducing
conditions where volcanic erruptions, tectonic motions, lava etc.
may have also played some roles.
Migration of petroleum
• There are 2 stages of migration:
• Side Migration: is the migration of oil from the rocks of
origin to the storage rocks under the impact of increased pressure.

• Vertical migration: is the oil movement vertically to the

highest possible due to (vertical) and the presence of
cleft.
•.
Accumulation of petroleum
• Accumulation and storage happen when the migrating fluids
encounter an impermeable shale or dense layer of rock.

• After accumulation, the fluids tend to stratify according to their

• relative densities:
•  Gas
•  Oil
•  Water
Countries That Have The Largest Oil Reserves In The World

• Venezuela - 303.806 Billion Barrels. ...

• Saudi Arabia - 258.600 Billion Barrels. ...
• Iran - 208.600 Billion Barrels. ...
• Canada - 170.300 Billion Barrels. ...
• Iraq - 145.019 Billion Barrels. ...
• Kuwait - 101.500 Billion Barrels. Etc. etc.
Percent oil share
• Country World Share
•1 Venezuela 18.2%
•2 Saudi Arabia 16.2%
•3 Canada 10.4%
•4 Iran 9.5%
• 94 more rows
Oil Reserves in India
• In May 2023, crude oil reserves for India was 620.25 thousand barrels per
day. Though Indian crude oil reserves fluctuated substantially in recent
months, it tended to increase through June 2022 - May 2023 period
ending at 620.25 thousand barrels per day in May 2023.
• The underground Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) storages have a total
capacity of 5.33 Million Metric Tonnes (MMT) of crude oil and are located
in 2 States namely (i) Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh (1.33 MMT), (ii)
Mangaluru (1.5MMT) and Padur (2.5 MMT) in Karnataka.
• India has proven reserves equivalent to 2.9 times its annual consumption.
This means that, without imports, there would be about 3 years of oil left
(at current consumption levels and excluding unproven reserves).
• India's import dependency on oil and gas to surpass 80% by FY28.
India's dependency on imports of oil and oil-equivalent-gas, which
stood at 78.6 per cent in FY23, is expected to rise beyond 80 per cent
in the next four years, Parliament was informed on Thursday.
• Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and
Tamil Nadu are the states where petroleum is mostly found in India.
Petroleum is a yellowish-black liquid composed primarily of
hydrocarbons. It is also referred to as crude oil.
• In India, petroleum is mostly found in Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai High
and in the river basins of Godavari and Krishna. Bombai High is the
largest oil reserve.
Migration of Petroleum
Petroleum Map of India
Types of Crude Oil

• There are six types of crude oil: light/sweet, light/sour,

medium/sweet, medium/sour, heavy/sweet, and heavy/sour. Crude
oil prices are subject to geopolitical factors and events which affect
supply and demand.
Types of Crude Oil: Heavy vs Light, Sweet vs Sour,
There are over one hundred different crude oils traded on the market
today. These oils are typically labeled by the region they come from,
and they have a specific chemical makeup.
What is crude classification?

• On the basis of their API gravity, crude oils can be classified as

heavy, medium, and light as follows:
• Heavy: 10–20° API gravity.
• Medium: 20–25° API gravity.
• Light: above 25° API gravity.
The kinematic viscosity is defined as the absolute viscosity of a liquid
divided by its density at the same temperature.
unit of measurement of kinematic viscosity is m2s-1.
Brent Crude is the benchmark used for the light
oil market in Europe, Africa, and the Middle
East, originating from oil fields in the North Sea
between the Shetland Islands and Norway.
• 1 Barrel = 158.987 liters.
• 1 Barrel – 42 Gallons ( US ).
• One US gallon is equal to 3.785411784 liter.
• UK gallons are different.
• Brent Crude Jan 2024, $86.79., Current crude : $88.07, Oct 25, 2023 4:13 a.m.
• Urals oil is the reference oil brand used as the price benchmark for Russian
oil exports. It is a blend of the heavy and sour oil from the Urals and Volga
regions with the lighter oil from Western Siberia.
 Petroleum chemistry and technology
• Alkane – CnH2n+2
• Alkenes = Cn H2n
• Alkynes + CnH2n-1
• Aromatic + Cn H2n-6
• Aldehydes ? - CHO
• Acids ? - COOH
• Alcohol - CH2OH etc.
• Hydrocarbons, Heterocyclics, Resins, Asphaltenes, Asphaltols, etc.
• Chemical feedstocks for chemical, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, composites, smart chemicals,
rubber, plastics, textile etc. industries.
• Saturates- Aromatics-Resins-Asphaltenes SARA Separations through Liquid Cplumn
Chromatography.
Catenation
• Catenation is the self-linking of atoms of an element to create chains and rings. The
capacity to create double bonds, the ability to form different types of double bonds, and
the configuration of the element's molecular orbitals surrounding the atom are all
electronic and steric factors that affect catenation.
• Catenation is a property by which a carbon atom can bond with any number of other
carbon atoms to form straight chains, branched chains and rings of various sizes. The high
tendency of carbon to catenate is because of high C–C bond strength.This is the reason for
the presence of large amount of organic compounds in the nature.
• C has high degree of catenation :
• 1. High C-C bond energy.
• 2. Tetravalency , large no. of bonds.
• 3. Small size and hence has less diffused size.
• Si, S, B, O, Se, Te also show catenation.
Refining petroleum

• Refining petroleum is the process of converting crude oil into more

useful products .
• Crude oil comes out of the ground with impurities, from sulfur to
sand.
• Oily sludges separate out in storage tganks.
• Washing with water removes
• Desalting involves mixing heated crude oil with washing water, using
a mixing valve or static mixers to ensure a proper contact between
the crude oil and the water, and then passing it to a separating
vessel, where a proper separation between the aqueous and organic
phases is achieved.
• Desalter emulsion in the API Separator in Refineries
• These components have to be separated. This is done by heating
the crude oil in a furnace attached to the distillation tower that has
trays and temperatures set at different levels. Oil’s hydrocarbons
and metals have different boiling temperatures, and when the oil is
heated, vapors from the different elements rise to different levels of
the tower before condensing back into a liquid on the tiered trays.

• Propane, kerosene, and other components condense on different

tiers of the tower and can be individually collected. They are
transported by pipeline, ocean vessels and trucks to different
locations .
Classification of crude oils
• 1. Paraffinic
• 2. Naphthenic
• 3. Asphaltic or Aromatic
• Paraffinic Crude oil :
• 3 aliphatic groups
• 1 naphthenic groups
• 1 Aromatic groups.
• Alternatively about 60-70 % aliphatic groups.
• Naphthenic Crude oil : Mixed Crude :
• 2. Naphthenic – 2 Aliphatic- 1 Aromatic groups
Alternatively : About 60-70 % naphthenic/ Alicyclic rings/
• Asphaltic / Aromatic Crude oil :
• 3 Aromatic
• 2 Naphthenic
• 1 aliphatic groups
• Alternately around 60 % aromatic groups.
• Higher alkanes
• Fused aromatic rings.
• Pour point : Flow property of oil.
• Petroleum sludges
• Cloud point : In liquids, the cloud point is the temperature below which a transparent
solution undergoes either a liquid-liquid phase separation to form an emulsion or a liquid-
solid phase transition to form either a stable sol or a suspension that settles a precipitate.
Composition of petroleum
• Petroleum contains many elements and the key compounds are
Carbon (83% – 87%),
• Hydrogen (10% - 14%),
• Nitrogen (0.1% - 2%),
• Oxygen (01.% - 1.5%)
• and Sulphur (0.5% - 6%)
• with a few metals making up a very small percentage of the
Petroleum Crude Oil.
Characteristics of each type of crude
• Character Paraffininc Naphthenic Asphaltic
• Density Low Medium High
• Sulfur Low High
• Atomic H/C ratio High Low
• Yield of gasoline High Low
• Yield of lubricants High Low
• Solid product left Waxy Bitumen
after distillation
Petroleum-composition

• The exact molecular composition varies widely from formation to

• formation but the proportion of chemical elements vary over fairly
• narrow limits as follows:
C
•H
•N
•S
•O
• Metals
Elemental Composition of Crude Oils

• Element % Wt
•C 84-86%
•H 11-14%
•S 0-6%
•N 0-1%
•O 0-2%
• With vaying amounts of metals in smaller amounts only.
Ternary Classification of Crude Oils

• Paraffinic Crudes
• paraffins + naphthenes > 50%
• paraffins > naphthenes
• paraffins > 40%
• Naphthenic Crudes
• paraffins +naphthenes > 50%
• naphthenes > paraffins
• naphthenes > 40%
• Paraffinic-Naphthenic Crudes
• Aromatics < 50%
• paraffins < 40%
• naphthenes < 40%
• Aromatic-Naphthenic Crudes
• Aromatics > 50%
• naphthenes > 25%
• paraffins < 10%
• Aromatic-Intermediate Crudes
• Aromatic > 50%
• paraffins > 10%
• Aromatic-Asphaltic Crudes
• Naphthenes < 25%
• paraffins < 10%
• Absolute Viscosity : Resistance to flow :This represents the ratio of a
fluid's shear stress to its velocity gradient. It is a fluid's internal flow
resistance. Its unit of measure is the poise.
• Kinematic Viscosity : Absolute Viscosity/ Density.
• Units 1 Stoke .
• Kinematic Viscosirty = 141/Sp. Grty at 15 Deg C - 131.5
• Sp. Grty = 0.7-0.8.
• API – American Petroleum Institute.
• Crude oils are characterized as per their API Gravity.
• Light Crude and Heavier Crude.
• The higher the API gravity, the lighter the compound. Light crudes
generally exceed 38 degrees API and heavy crudes are commonly
labeled as all crudes with an API gravity of 22 degrees or below.
• The API of crude oils varies typically between 10 and 50, with most
crude oils falling in the range of 20-45. Using API gravity, the
conventional crude oils can be generally considered as light (°API>30),
medium (30>°API>22), and heavy (°API<22).
• The New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) defines light crude oil for
domestic U.S. oil as having an API gravity between 37° API (840 kg/m3)
and 42° API (816 kg/m3), while it defines light crude oil for non-U.S. oil
as being between 32° API (865 kg/m3) and 42° API (816 kg/m3).
 Down Stream Processing of crude oil
• Crude oil extracted from oil wells / Rigs etc. is sored in tanks where the oily
sludges separate out the associated gas is also separated.
• The crude oil is subjected to centrifugation which results in the separation
of crude oil, water, wet gas , sand etc. are separated.
• In the upstream extraction mostly 35 % of oil is extracted remaining is still
retained in the oil wellks.
• Surfactants, CO2, polymers etc. are used to recover more oil through
Enhanced Oil Recovery.
• Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery.
• Wet gas contains methane, ethane, N2, H2, He, H2S, CO2 etc. gases besides
water vapours.
Petroleum Industry in India
• Some of the top upstream companies in oil and gas in India include
ONGC, Reliance Industries Limited, and Cairn India,
• while the top downstream oil and gas companies include IOCL,
BPCL, and HPCL.
Fractional distillation of petroleum.

• Separating petroleum into useful fractions and removal of impurities

is called refining. The refining of petroleum is done by a process called
fractional distillation.
• So, generally fractional distillation is a special type of distillation
designed to separate a mixture of two or more liquids which tend to
have different boiling points.
• - The process involves heating the mixture and partial condensation of
the vapors along a fractionating column which is set up such that
components with lower boiling points pass through the column and
which are collected before the components with higher boiling point.
• Generally, the crude petroleum obtained is a dark viscous liquid which
contains many impurities, in order to make it useful it must be separated
into various components. The refining of petroleum is done by a process
called fractional distillation.
• Let us know the process step by step.
• - In the first process neutralization of crude oil takes place, this is nothing
but the refining process here, crude oil will be washed with acidic or basic
solution as needed.
• Mercaptans RSH, RS2 etc. can be removed through alkaline treatment
using KOH or NaOH.
• Acidic treatment may be given to remove alkalinity if required.
• The oil is heated in a furnace about 675K and the vapors are
introduced into the fractionating tower. The tower consists of holes
and shelves and these holes have bubble caps which allow only
lighter components to escape while the heavier components flow
into trays below.
• Therefore, fractions with lower boiling points rise up the tower and
condense at different levels according to their boiling points.
• - The components with the highest boiling point liquefies first and
are collected, the components having lower boiling point liquefies
so on.
Fractional Distillation
• The inside of a fractional distilling column has sets of perforated
trays. Each perforation is fitted with a bubble cap. Very hot,
vaporized crude oil is pumped into the bottom of the column and
rises up through the perforations. The bubble cap forces the oil
vapor to bubble through liquid on the tray.
• Crude oil contains a large number of compounds mainly
Hydrocarbons having different boiling points varying from 25 Deg. C
to 550 deg. C or more.
• Distillation apparatus is assembled in the laboratory for the
fractional separation of liquids having different boilinfg points.
What is bubble cap fractionating column?

• In a fractionating column, the bubble caps with the weirs and

downcomers maintain a liquid level on the trays. The liquid flows
across the tray via the downcomer and across the next tray in the
opposite direction, and the vapor flows up through the caps and the
slots, thus mixing with the liquid.
• Gases and gasoline and Naphtha are fractionated at the upper trays
and collected via the side streams while the middle distillate fractions
such as Kerosene, Diesel, Aviation Turbine oil are the middle
didtillates.
• Lubricating oil, pitches, asphalt etc. are the heavier high boiling
fractions.
Advantages of petroleum
• High Energy Density oil has one of the highest energy
densities which means that a small amount of oil can produce
a large amount of energy.
• Constant Power Source and Reliability - Unlike solar and
wind energy, oil can produce power 24/7 and is highly
reliable. Oil engines are a mature technology and highly
reliable to work with.
• We use petroleum in different industry (Dyes – Pharmacy,
• Polymers, Petrochemicals, Agriculture, fertilizers etc.
• No need for batteries to store.
• Higher Calorific value than that of oil . Why ?
• Can be easily transported through pipelines and ships, containers, tamkers
etc.
• Can also generate power
• Can generate hydrogen
• Space heating
• Can be gasified to yield gaseous fuels
• Oil wells can sequester CO2 for Enhanced Oil Recovery.
Disadvantages of petroleum

• Pollution of Water and Earth :Oil Spills have caused massive pollution
of water bodies as huge oil supertankers lead oil. This leads to the
death of thousands of animals and fishes every year beside damage
the local ecology..(figure 4)
Greenhouse Gas Emissions : One of the biggest Disadvantages of Oil is
that it emits Carbon Dioxide.
• Management of oily sludges
• Pollution due to H2S and other sulfur compounds
• Explosive
Fractional Distillation of Crude oil Video

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JZdvsQzOKuk
Chemical Processing
• You can change one fraction into another by one of three methods:

• Breaking large hydrocarbons into smaller pieces (cracking)

• Combining smaller pieces to make larger ones (unification)
• Rearranging various pieces to make desired hydrocarbons
(alteration)
Cracking of Petroleum
Cracking

• Cracking takes large hydrocarbons and breaks them into smaller

ones.

• There are several types of cracking:

• Thermal - you heat large hydrocarbons at high temperatures

(sometimes high pressures as well) until they break apart. steam -
high temperature steam (1500 degrees Fahrenheit / 816 degrees
Celsius) is used to break ethane, butane and naphtha into ethylene
and benzene, which are used to manufacture chemicals.
Catalytic Cracking of heavy oil fractions
• Catalytic cracking is an important process in the oil industry
where petroleum vapor passes through a low-density bed of
catalyst, which causes the heavier fractions to 'crack' producing
lighter more valuable products.
• What is the condition of catalytic cracking?

• Catalytic cracking uses a temperature of approximately 550°C

and a catalyst. known as a zeolite which contains aluminium
oxide and silicon oxide. Steam cracking uses a higher
temperature of over 800°C and no catalyst.
Visbreaking and Delayed Coking
• Residual from the distillation tower is heated (900 degrees
Fahrenheit / 482 degrees Celsius), cooled with gas oil and rapidly
burned (flashed) in a distillation tower. This process reduces the
viscosity of heavy weight oils and produces tar.
• Delayed coking - Residual from the distillation tower is heated to
temperatures above 900 degrees Fahrenheit / 482 degrees Celsius
until it cracks into heavy oil, gasoline and naphtha. When the
process is done, a heavy, almost pure carbon residue is left
( Petroleum coke/ Pet Coke ); the coke is cleaned from the cokers
and sold.
Catalytic Cracking
• This uses a catalyst to speed up the cracking reaction. Catalysts
include zeolite, aluminium hydrosilicate, bauxite and silica-alumina.
fluid catalytic cracking - a hot, fluid catalyst (1000 degrees
Fahrenheit / 538 degrees Celsius) cracks heavy gas oil into diesel oils
and gasoline. Fluidised Bed catalytic cracking of Vacuum Gas oil or
Vacuum Residue.
• Hydrocracking - similar to fluid catalytic cracking, but uses a
different catalyst, lower temperatures, higher pressure, and
hydrogen gas. It takes heavy oil and cracks it into gasoline and
kerosene (jet fuel).
Fluidized Catalytic Cracking
• Fluidized bed catalytic cracking is a core process in many refineries and
produces light alkenes, high-octane gasoline and aromatic middle distillates
from vacuum gas oil and often also from residue. FCC units have a feed
intake between 2000 and 10 000 tons per day (about 0.6–3 million tons per
annum).
• Vacuum Gas oil or vacuum residues may be cracked by using different
catalysts.
• All of the cracking reactions take place in the catalyst riser within a period
of 2–4 seconds. The hydrocarbon vapours "fluidize" the powdered catalyst
and the mixture of hydrocarbon vapors and catalyst flows upward to enter
the reactor at a temperature of about 535 °C and a pressure of about 1.72
bar.
• Modern cracking uses zeolites as the catalyst. These are complex
aluminosilicates, and are large lattices of aluminium, silicon and
oxygen atoms carrying a negative charge. They are, of course,
associated with positive ions such as sodium ions
• After various hydrocarbons are cracked into smaller hydrocarbons, the
products go through another fractional distillation column to separate
them.

• Unification
• Sometimes, you need to combine smaller hydrocarbons to make larger ones
-- this process is called unification. The major unification process is called
catalytic reforming and uses a catalyst (platinum, platinum-rhenium mix) to
combine low weight naphtha into aromatics, which are used in making
chemicals and in blending gasoline. A significant by-product of this reaction
is hydrogen gas, which is then either used for hydrocracking or sold.
Reforming of Petroleum
• Alteration for improving the octane rating of fuels
• Sometimes, the structures of molecules in one fraction are rearranged
to produce another. Commonly, this is done using a process called
alkylation or through isomerization ( to introduce side chains in the
hydrocarbons ).
• In alkylation, low molecular weight compounds, such as propylene and
butylene, are mixed in the presence of a catalyst such as hydrofluoric
acid or sulfuric acid (a by-product from removing impurities from many
oil products). The products of alkylation are high octane hydrocarbons,
which are used in gasoline blends to reduce knocking. \
• Friedel Crafts Reaction
• Now that we have seen how various fractions are changed, we will discuss the
how the fractions are treated and blended to make commercial products.
• LPG
• CNG
• Gasoline
• Naphtha
• Kerosene
• Diesel Oil
• Aviation Turbine oil
• Lubricants
• Asphalt and Pitches etc.
Petroleum Economics and Related Issues
• Growth in Terrorism and Violence due to the desire of powerful
countries to obtain
more oil and control the largest oil reservoirs in the world.
•  Emission of Harmful Substances like Sulfur Dioxide, Carbon
Monoxide, Acid
• Rain such as Sulfur Dioxide which cause health danger among the
population
Transportation of petroleum
• Pipelines
• Oil pipelines are made from steel. They usually have an inner
diameter of about
• 10 to 120 cm (about 4 to 48 inches) and can run for hundreds or
thousands of
• kilometers. Advances in technology are constantly improving the
size and
• strength of these pipelines
Roads, Shipping and Railways

• Oil products are also transported from storage

• centres to distribution areas on specialized
• railway tankers and trucks. These are large,
• long and have special storage units to protect
• against accidents.
• Shipping
• New Rail line with middle east – under sea.
Ocean tankers

• Oil tankers are large, specialized ocean going ? ships specifically built to carry
unrefined?
• Crude oil from one part of the world to another. They ? usually carry oil from
where it is
• produced to ? where it is refined and consumed? Oil tankers are? classified by their
size,
• which can ? range from small coastal tankers to ultra large ? crude carrier The
largest ?
• tankers often travel from the Gulf region and West ?Africa to Japan and other Asian
• countries. Other ? tankers travel to the northeastern United ? States and to
countries across
• the ? Mediterranean region
• Petroleum is one of the most important natural sources of different industry and
sources economy
• Crude oils are complex mixtures containing many different hydrocarbon
compounds that vary in appearance and composition from one oil field to another
petroleum and gas accumulation are found between the surface and depth levels of
about 6000 to 7000 meters and deeper.

• Petroleum and gas must move through pores saturated with water at fluid pressures
ranging between 100 bar and 1400 bar and at temperatures from about 50 C° to
about 250 C°.
• A trap is geological feature which enables migration petroleum to accumulate and
be preserved fora certain time interval . a traps occur in fundamentally different
forms.
• The petroleum is the source of non-renewable,we consume can not
be compensated quickly,need to configure a period of time ranging
from 5 to 100 million years old,so you must economize in
consumption so as not to lose it.
 Octane Number
• An octane rating, or octane number, is a standard measure of a
fuel's ability to withstand compression in an internal combustion
engine without detonating. The higher the octane number, the more
compression the fuel can withstand before detonating.
• Why is it called octane number?
• Octane number is also known as octane rating. Octane numbers are
based on a scale on which isooctane is 100 (minimal knock) and
heptane is 0 (bad knock). The higher the octane number, the more
compression required for fuel ignition. Fuels with high octane
numbers are used in high performance gasoline engines.
Cetane Number
• Cetane number (cetane rating) is an indicator of the combustion
speed of diesel fuel and compression needed for ignition. It plays a
similar role for diesel as octane rating does for gasoline.
• What do cetane numbers mean?
• Cetane number - Cetane rating, also known as cetane number is a
measurement of the quality or performance of diesel fuel. The
higher the number, the better the fuel burns within the engine of a
vehicle. The cetane number is similar to the octane rating in that it is
a rating assigned to a fuel to rate the quality of its combustion.
• What if cetane number is low?
• The cetane number is used to measure the quality of this
combustion according to the self-ignition delay. The higher the
cetane number, the shorter the self-ignition delay and the better the
combustion quality. Conversely, fuels with a low cetane number are
slower to ignite and do not burn completely.
What is the cetane number of diesel?
• Diesel has a cetane number of 40 to 42, while Cenex Premium
Diesel has a cetane number of 47 to 52.
Liquefaction of coal
• Two techniques :
• 1. Direct hydrogenation
• 2. Fischer-Tropsch synthesis
• Direct hydrogenation :
• Direct Coal Liquefaction (DCL) commonly refers to catalytic
hydrogenation of coal in a recycled oil solvent at high pressures with
a catalyst. While a range of process configurations have been
proposed, the most common version involves at least two high
pressure.
• The addition of hydrogen to an unsaturated hydrocarbon to get a
saturated hydrocarbon in the presence of catalysts like nickel or
palladium is called the hydrogenation of hydrocarbon.
Hydrogenation of coal is done to get gaseous or liquid hydrocarbon
products.
• Best catalyst for hydrogenation?:
• Hence the catalyst used in the Hydrogenation process is Platinum,
Palladium, and Nickel.
• Material of construction of valve, reactor etc . W ( Tungusten )
valves are used.
H-Coal process

• The reactor contains a bed of catalytic particles, cobalt molybdate on

alumina oxide. The products from the reactor include hydrocarbon
gases, light and heavy distillate oils, and bottoms slurry. Variations of
the processing scheme can produce fuel oil, naphtha, synthetic crude,
ammonia, and fuel gas.

• This process results in the complete dismantling of the coal structure.

In direct liquefaction, coal is exposed directly to hydrogen at high
temperatures (450C) and high pressures (14000-20000kPa) for
approximately one hour in the presence of a solvent that breaks down
the hydrocarbon structure.
Fischer Tropsch Synthesis
• Fischer–Tropsch (FT) synthesis is a heterogeneous catalytic process
that converts coal or biomass - derived syngas (mixture of CO and
H2) to synthetic liquid fuels and valuable chemicals. FT synthesis has
received renewed interest in recent years due to the necessity to
decrease global dependency on fossil fuels.
• Catalysts considered for Fischer-Tropsch synthesis are based on
transition metals of iron, cobalt, nickel and ruthenium. FT catalyst
development has largely been focused on the preference for high
molecular weight linear alkanes and diesel fuels production.
• The FT synthesis generally requires H2 and CO at a ratio near 2.1:1,
depending on the selectivity, and operates at pressure ranging from
20 to 40 bar and 180–250°C.
• For cobalt-based catalysts the optimal H2:CO ratio is around 1.8–
2.1. Iron-based catalysts can tolerate lower ratios, due to intrinsic
water-gas shift reaction activity of the iron catalyst. This reactivity
can be important for synthesis gas derived from coal or biomass,
which tend to have relatively low H2:CO ratios (< 1).
Hydrogenation of biomass
• An attractive approach for the production of transportation fuels from
renewable biomass resources is to convert oxygenates into alkanes. In
this paper, C5–C20 alkanes formed via the hydrogenation and
hydrodeoxygenation of the oligomers of furfuryl alcohol(FA) can be used
as gasoline, diesel and jet fuel fraction.
•
We have studied the hydrogenation of HMF over supported Ru, Pd, and Pt
catalysts in monophasic and biphasic reactor systems to determine the
effects of the metal, support, solution phase acidity, and the solvent to
elucidate the factors that determine the selectivity for hydrogenation of
HMF to its fully hydrogenated form of 2,5-di-hydroxy-methyl-
tetrahydrofuran (DHMTHF).
H-Transfer Processes
• Use of tetralin and hydrogenated anthracene oils.
• Supported catalysts containing Pt and Pd at the same weight
percent as Ru are not as active for the selective hydrogenation to
DHMTHF.
What is RFCC in refinery?
• Residue fluid catalytic cracking (RFCC) is used for upgrading heavy
feedstocks to light products such as gasoline. In this study, simulation
of a commercial RFCC unit was calibrated against actual plant data,
acquired in test runs, and its performance predicted by simulation
studies.
• What is the FCC unit operation?
• Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) | FSC 432: Petroleum Refining
• In the FCC unit, heavy hydrocarbons from crude oil are broken or
cracked into smaller hydrocarbons, which can then be processed into
gasoline and other fuel products. The heavy hydrocarbons are first fed
into a reactor where they mix with a catalyst.
• The preheated high-boiling petroleum feedstock (at about 315 to 430 °C)
consisting of long-chain hydrocarbon molecules is combined with recycle slurry
oil from the bottom of the distillation column and injected into the catalyst riser
where it is vaporised and cracked into smaller molecules of vapour by contact and
mixing with the very hot powdered catalyst from the regenerator.
• Main column
• The reaction product vapors (at 535 °C and a pressure of 1.72 bar) flow from the
top of the reactor to the bottom section of the main column (commonly referred
to as the main fractionator where feed splitting takes place) where they are
distilled into the FCC end products of cracked petroleum naphtha, fuel oil, and
offgas. After further processing for removal of sulfur compounds, the cracked
naphtha becomes a high-octane component of the refinery's blended gasolines.
• Zeolites are being very widely used as catalyst in petrochemical
industries for craking of hydrocarbons and isomerization an important
zeolite catalyst used in petroleum industry is ZSM – 5•••. It converts
alchol directly into gasoline.
• 20-30 $ gasoline
• 30-40 % Intermediate oil
• 25-50 % Residual oil
• Hydrocracking
• Vis-breaking
• Delayed coking
Environmental Effects and their mitigation for sustainability

• Greenhouse effect
• SOx, NOx, HCs, heavy metals etc.
• Sludges and emulsions
• Oil spills
• Land pollution
• Water pollution
• Fugitive emissions
• Availability in only a few nations
• Flaring of gas by oil wells and refineries
Detection and Drilling of of oil
Substitution of oil by bio-oils and sustainability

• Bioethanol
Biodiesel
• Gasohol
Hydrogen from Petroleum oil

• Green hydrogen is when the energy used to power electrolysis

comes from renewable sources like wind, water or solar. Blue
hydrogen is hydrogen produced from natural gas with a process of
steam methane reforming, where natural gas is mixed with very hot
steam and a catalyst.
Environmental Aspects of Petroleum and
their mitigation
• 1. Sulfur – Bharat Vi Norm.- Desulfufization including Biodesulfurization of petroleum
• 2. NOx reduction
• 3.Sludge disposal
• 4.Heavy oil – Pitch- Asphalt disposal
• 5. Greenhouse effect
• 6. Particulate matter
• 7. Heavy metals
• 8.VOCs
• 9. Petroleum spillage
• 10. Oil tanker leakages
• 11. acid rains
• 12. Catalyst disposal
• 13. Thermal pollution
• 14. Oily emulsions
• 15. Wastewater effluents
• 16. Gaseous emissions
• 17. Leaking valves and flaring of hydrocarbons etc. etc.

• FGDs
De- Nox Technologies
Future of Petroleum and Sustainable Development

• Life of crude oil reserves in the world.

• Petroleum calculations
• Gasohol.
• Hydrocracking of oil.
• Fractionation of cracked products.
• Petrochemicals
• Integrated Petroleum Refiberies