Historical Precedence Of

Energy Raw Materials And

How They Become The
Most Strategic
Commodities
GEOE 530
METU Geological Engineering
Dr. Zeynep Elif Yıldızel
Primary Energy Consumption

• China is the largest energy consumer country on world, which is due

to the population; china spends 2 ton of the fossil fuels/ capita on
worlds total

• US comes after China for consuming the worlds energy; however in

US a capita spends the 5.8 tons of the fossil fuels of worlds total

• Although the advanced economies consumes approximately 2%

each of the total worlds primary energy; one person in each country
consumes approximately 2 tons of the worlds total fossil fuels
except Germany consumes 3.3 tons per capita

• Russia consumes 5.2% of the worlds total energy and her

consumption of the fossil fuels per person 6.2 ton of the worlds total

• Turkey also retain a small amount of worlds total energy

consumption with 1.2% , however the consumption of the worlds
total fossil fuels per person is 1.7 ton
Source: BP, 2018
Oil And Gas Production Needs to be Developed
• Global oil production (oil, unconventional, liquids and others) is expected to reach to ~110 million bopd in 2040 (2017: 93
million bbl/d oil)

• 2017 was an other strange year that 93 million bbl/d produced but 98 million bbl/d consumed and increasing gap between
consumption and production since 2005

• Industry needs to continue to develop new frontiers

• Most of the crude oil production expected from new fields; “yet to be developed or found”
• This would increase the activity in negotiation of parties on rules / regimes before the technical activities
• The industry needs 1000 billion $ of investment for this supply to be in the market

Global Investment in Fossil Fuel Supply

WEIO,2014
Fortune Global 500
2017 2016

• In 2017 there are 8 IOCs in the first 50 of Global Fortune list which makes 16% of the firat 50 is oil companies.
• Despite the price crises in which all the oil companies are affected, in 2016 there are 5 oil companies out of 10 in fortune Global 500
list (%50)
• Before the price crises there are 14 oil companies out of 50 with a mining company which makes 30% of the list is oil companies.
• In 2014, the oil companies were at the top of the list in the first 10
Distribution of Super Giant Fields
Süper Giant: the field whose proven
reserves are exceeding 5 billion barrels
Giant: the field whose proven recoverable
reserves are exceeding 500 million barrels.
• The majority of the oil is produced from
few of the süper giant fields (~ 40 fields
holding 500 billion barrel)
• Due to their size, süper giant oil fileds
are easily explored
• Few more super giant fields might be left
in Alaska and Canada Arctic.
What are the Raw Materials of Energy
• Fossil Fuels
• Coal
• Oil
Oil and Gas
• Natural gas Uranium

• Solar Sun Wind

• Wind
• Geothermal
• Hydro
• Nuclear Geothermal Hydro

• Uranium
• Thorium
• Biomass
Fossil Fuels
• Fossil fuels are also called hydrocarbon, where it is commonly used for
naturally occuring hydrocarbons
• Can be in gaseous, liquid or solid state
• Gas: natural gas
• Liquid: oil
• Solid: coal
• Chemically, hydrocarbon is composed of combination of Hydrogen, Carbon
and different amounts of trace elements.
• Fossil fuels are nonrenewable resources
• Impurities in fossil fuels are a major source of pollution
• Burning fossil fuels produce large amounts of CO2, which contributes to global
warming
Natural Gas Oil Coal
How These Energy Raw Materials Are Explored?

• Fossil Fuels ad nuclear fuels are explored

• Sun, wind, hydro and geothermal are directly related to
the geographical position
• However geothermal is also explored
• Uranium is also explored
What is Oil?

Elements in Oil by Weight % 141.5

oAPI= - 131,5
SG 60/60 oF
Elements Minimum Maximum

Carbon (C) 82.2 87.1

Hydrogene(H) 11.8 14.7

Oil is an organic liquid substance often
Sulfer (S) 0.1 5.5 found below the Earth’s surface. It is made
Oxygen (O) 0.1 4.5 up of thousands of molecules composed of
Nitrogen (N) 0.1 1.5
hydrogene and carbon.
Others trace 0.1

• Petroleum word is derived from Greek language Petra “rock” and Latin language Oleum “oil”
• Chemically and physically it has many varieties.
• Color can be yellow, green, khaki, brown and black.
• Specific gravity of light oil < specific gravity of water and specific gravity of heavy oil > specific gravity
of water.
• The quality of oil is being evaluated by API index. High API shows lower density and quality of oil is
increasing, Low API shows higher density and quality of oil is decresing.
• Light oil API> 30o, Medium oil API between 20o – 30o , Heavy Oil API < 20o
• The lighest known oil (Russian) has a specific gravity of 0.650 gr/cm3 and the heaviest known oil
(Mexican) has specific gravity of 1.080 gr/cm3
What is the Primary Material For Oil?

• Oil formed from terrestrial and marine plants

and animals
• The total C on Earth is 2,651020 grams. The 82%
of this amount is found in the rocks and 18% of
this amount is organic C found in coal,
petroleum and natural gas
• The best conservation environment for organic
matter is high sedimentation rate and
anaerobic (without oxygen) base conditions
• Petroleum is usually found in sedimentary rocks
• The rocks that are containing oil are sealed with
impermeable rocks
• Petroleum is a fossil fuel generated in geological
ages . The oil is generated by hundreds of
million years and once it is formed, then it
migrated to lower hydrostatic conditions
underground and places into reservoirs rocks.
This process is called trapping.
What are the 5 Prerequisites for Oil Generation?
5 Basic Elements of Oil
• Organic matter rich source rock
• Heating this source rock by high
temperature and pressure
• High porous and permeable reservoir rock
• Reservoir rock should be covered by seal
rock
• Source rock, reservoir rock and seal rock
should form a structural or stratigrafic trap
4 Basic Processes to Generate Oil
• Generation: transformation of organic
matter to kerogene by high temperature
and pressure
• Migration: the travelling of oil to the
reservoir rock
• Trap: emplacement of oil into the porous
and permeable rock
• Preservation: conservation of the oil
emplaced into the reservoir
If one of the elements or
processes are missing then
there will be no hydrocarbon
present!!!!!
How Oil is Generated Chemically ?
The organic matter in the source changes to kerogene due to
temperature and pressure with in the million years of time.

KEROGENE
Diagenesis
Shallow depths
Normal temperature and pressure
Product: CH4, CO2, H2O
• O amount lowers down
• H and C amount increases
Categenesis
Deep depths
Increasing temperature and pressure
Product: petroleum & gas
• H and C amount decreases

Metagenesis
Metamorphism
High temperature and pressure
Product: Grafitte only C remains
Licencing
• Licences are done by the Petroleum Authority of the Country.
• They can be hundered km2 to hundered thousand km2.
• Usually in immature Countries licence at thousand or hundered thousand km2 where in mature
Countires the licences are mostly hundered km2 in area.

2234km2
Geological Evaluation of Petroleum System

• Source rock •Exploration is almost like detective work.

• Generation and migration •It requires looking for clues, careful observation of ground
conditions, taking notes of different information and the evaluation
• Traping of survey data.
• Seal rock •This is the job of geologists who are experts on rocks.
•They look after the signs that may indicate the presence of
• Conservation
hydrocarbons under the ground and are responsible for determining
• Critical Timing the best places to drill.
Petroleum System Processes
Petroleum System Elements

Gas
Cap
Oil
Entrapment
Accumulation Water Seal Rock
Reservoir
Rock

Migration
120° F
Source Rock
350° F
Generation
24803
Seismic Aquisition and Seismic Interpretation
• Data collection on land • Seismic Aquisition on Land
•Dynamite source
• Seismic processing creating profiles along aquised lines
•Vibroseis
• Seismic interpretation • Seismic Aquisiton Offshore
•Vessels
• Structral mapping and prospect delineation

1 2 3

Viebroseis
Viebroseis
Dynamite Shot Gather

5 6

Processing Seismic Profile

Seismic Grid 2D Seismic Subsurface Map
Drilling the Prospect LOG Tool

LOG Interpretation
• Drilling site prepation Few hundereds
• Well desing of million $ are
• Drilling rig spent during
exploration
• Well testing and logging
stage. But this
• Evaluation is at sole risk of
• Discovery investor.

DST Tool

DST Chart
Developing The Oil Field And Production
• The average amount of time needed to extract
and market oil is between 3-10 years.
• Development stage is the most expensive stage
as drilling of production wells are going parallel
with the surface facility.
• A lot of technical work and huge amount money
needed during the development stage.

Hundereds of million $ are spent during

development and production phase. But these
are reimbursable.
Transportation
PIPELINES
•Transportation of oil and gas through a
pipe with pumping stations responsible
for to maintain the pressure in the pipe
needed for the transport of the oil or
gas
•Pipelines can cross deserts, forests,
cryal zones and seas
•Pipelines cross countries so to
construct a pipeline many contracts and
host goverment agreements are urgent
•The hardest and major task in pipeline
is to get the contracts and agreements
done before technical work; as so many
partners are included in
•You can not change destination, the
selling point and the buying point is
fixed and limited with the supply
around the starting point and demand
by the end point.
•Total of 3.5 million km of pipeline in
120 countries of the World (2014)
•190.905 km of pipeline is planned and
underconstruction
SHIPPING
•Transporting of oil and on ships
designed for the bulk transfer of oil
•Crude tankers move large amounts of
crude oils to refineries
•Crude tankers were being used since
1863, ofcourse a lot in design had been
changed
•Avarage life cycle for an crude tanker is
10 years and costs below or above
hundered million $ according to DWT
•You have to clean the tanker each time
you change the crude location
•You are free for the route. You don’t
have to carry the Cargo to the same
direction every time. You can change
buyer and seller destinations
LNG
•Natural gas is carried that has been
converted to liquid form. You can have
1/600th volume of natural gas in order to
easily store and transport
•It can be transported by spherically
designed cryogenic sea vessels or
cryogenic road tankers
•You need to have a liquifaction and
regassifaction surface facilities at the
selling and buying points. So you are not
as much as free on the destination as
shipping but you are more free than
pipelines on destination.
•From the destination to the market after
regassification a pipeline is needed to the
end buyer
•This is the only way to carry natural gas
via sea transport.
•It is most feasible if you have a gas field
remote from the land and also remote
from the markets
•There are 15 LNG exporting countries and
17LNG importing countries on World
•6 new LNG plants will come in to market
•There are many contracts and
agreements running in one LNG project
Refinery
Demand and chemical properties of supply determines the refinery capacity

• Industrial process plant where oil is refined to

petroleum, naphtha, gasoline, diesel fuel,
asphalt petroleum, kerosene and LPG
• Each refinery is designed for a certain type of
crude; so the technical capacity of the
refinery is dependent on the supply
• So the crude chemical properties are
important for to design a refinary
Oil Collection and Production Techiques
Oil, Creek Pensivania
Fist Oil Well(1859)
• Civilization started when men found fire and learned how to
control fire
• The first fuel was wood
• Today still wood meets the 10% of the energy needs of
mankind
• Today we meet 80% our energy needs from fossil fuels
• These are non renewable energy sources and their
formation takes hundreds of million years
• Mankind has been using coal and oil from surface seeps
approximately for 1000 years
• In the old days mankind was extracting oil from surface by
scratching the rocks and wetting the blanket type sheets
and squeezing them into barrels
• In 1745 M. De La Sorbonnier drilled the first well in France
• In 1745 the first refinery was constructed in France
• In 1847 James Young produced oil from Carboniferous
shales in Scotland
• In 1859 the first well was drilled by «Cable tool» drilling in
Oil Creek in Pensilvania
• By the end of 1859 , 34 oil company was producing
kerosene and oil about 5 million $ value.
 PreHistoric Usage of Oil
• Petroleum is used for medication, water proofing and as a weapon in wars in prehistoric times
• Petroleum is used externally for injuries, rheumatism disease, head, teeth aches and
swallowed for stomach and intestinal diseases
• It is used for waterproofing of ships since the times of Noah
• Babylonians (BC 4500) who lived in the territories of Iraq, were using oil instead of wood .
They were collecting the oil from the seeps from the valleys of the Dicle (Tigris) and Fırat
(Euphrates ) rivers.
• BC 326, when Alexander the Great invaded India, he throw burning oil carried on the back of
elephants
• BC 450 Heredot refers about the seepages of oil in parts of Iran, Tunisia and Greek
• The start of oil industry is assigned to the cable tool drilling in 1859 by Colonel Drake in Oil
Creek

Route of Alexander the Great Hanging Gardens of Babylonian

Alexander the Great

Babil Stelli (gravel stone)
MÖ. 3yy. Bergama
Louvre Musseum
Modern Usage of Oil
• Today oil is a central part of modern life and the World’ most important energy resource
• We rely on it, in many ways for the food we eat, clothes we wear and electronics we use home and at
workplace.
• Without oil, we would not be able to continue to enjoy the same standard of living.

•Tires
•Gasoline
•Deodorant,
•parfume
•MP3 player
•Football
•Diapers
•Jet Fuel
•Artificial heart
•Aspirin
•Shampoo
•Synthetic fibres
•Lipstick
Before Hubbert, 1956

Don’t talk big on any thing !

Hubbert Cycle

• Hubbert Peak Theory: on any geopgraphy, all the fields existing on Earth will draw
bell-shaped curve. Also percentage of finding giant fields will draw bell shaped
curve.(Hubbert, M.K., 1956, American Petroleum Ins.)
After Hubbert, 2005

• In 2015 the global production was 92 million bbl/d and consumption was 95 million bbl/d
• In 2017 the global production was 93 million bbl/d and consumption was 98 million bbl/d
After Hubbert, 2008

1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2150 2200

World Hydrocarbon Basins

Intensely explored Partially explored

Intermediately explored Unexplored (Halbouty, 1984)
The Lifetime Of A Basin And Succes Ratio

EXPLORATION DEVELOPMENT PRODUCTION

Hydrocarbon
Discovery Economical
Limit

Cummulative
Value
Cummulative
cost

Income

Exploration success %
Avarage Field Size, mmbo
Years

• There is a decrease with in the amount of volume of

discovered hydrocarbons, since 1970s

• During the decrease in the size of the fields discovered, the

succes ratio increases in discoveries

• The frontier opportunites lies within creation of a solution to

technology, economic models and political issues.
Sultan’s Oil Map 1901
• This work had been financed from the Hazine i
Hassa; which is the private money of the Sultan.
• The German mining engineer Paul Groskhop
investigated the oil potential of the area between
Dicle (Tigris) and Fırat (Euphrates) rivers, which is
called Mezopotaminia today and at around Musul
and Bağdat .
• The report was presented to the Sultan at 22nd
October in 1901.
• He reported that; nearly all of the South East
Fırat Anatolia and some parts of East Anatolia has
potential in oil. Plus the mountains near the Dicle
river has a strong potential of oil.
Bağdat
• He suggested a rail road running to Bağdat in
order to operate the prolific and important oil
Sultan II Abdülhamit
reserves that is in between the Dicle and Fırat
rivers which will lead the transportation of these
oil to Anatolia.
• This map shows the important oil bearing areas
which includes but not limited to: Diyarbakır,
Mardin,Bismil, Hazro, Sinan, Batman, Dicle,Midyat,
Bedran, Tualn, Siirt, Botan,Habur, Cizre, Bitlis and
Hakkari. Also Kerkük, and Pulkhana.
Standard Oil and Anti Trust Law
• Established by Rockefeller in Ohio for to produce, transport, • From these 37 companies Exxon, Amoco, Mobil,
refine and distribution of oil in 1870 with 6 people for a Chevron, Arco, Esso and Marathon and many
10.000 share. other big companies evolved.
• 2667 share belongs to Rockefeller • BP bought Arco and Amoco
• 1334 share belongs to Harkness
• Exxon bought Mobil
• 1333 share for each person belongs to William
Rockefeller, Flagler and Andrews • Today ExxonMobil , Chevron and BP holds the
• 2000 shares for a company which belongs to right to use the Standard as a band name.
Rockefeller, Andrew and Flagler ExxonMobil uses Esso in most of the
international applications where she bought t
• The power of the company is coming from being integrated. from Standard
• The first important move of Rockefeller is to get 71 cent
reduction for a barrel and in return gave a guarantee of 60
carriage load for a day. This made the other companies
unable to compete
• By the end of 1882 they become holdings and smaller 37
share holders gave their share to 9 trustee for defending.
• At 1904 Standard oil was producing the %91 of the all
production and 85% distribution of in US.
• The US government saw this situation as a non competitive
for other companies and a treat for itself. By enacting “anti
trust law” in 1911 the Standard oil was divided into 37
separate companies. If this division hadn't been occurred it is
thought that the market value of the company would exceed
>1 trillion $ today.
John D. Rockefeller 1902
Masjeed Suleyman Discovery 1908

W. Knox D’Arcy
Masjeed Süleyman Discovery

• According to the reports written during 1890s, todays Iran was claimed to have prolific oil reserves.
• W. K. D’Arcy an investor was able to see these reports so he decided to invest in the area into the oil business.
• 1901 D’Arcy Concession was signed between D’Arcy and Iran Şah Muzaffer Al Din for a duration of 60 years
including exploration, transportation and selling of oil in all of the territories of Iran. Şah obtained 20.000£ (~
1.9 milyon £) cash plus 20.000£ equivalent share in the company and %16 from profit.
• 1908 an enormous discovery was made at Masjeed Suleyman and 1909 Anglo Persian Oil (APOC) was
established.
• 1913 Abadan Refinery was established by APOC and retained the biggest refinery on Earth for about 50 years.
Churchill 1913

A drop of oil is more 1954

valuable than a drop
of blood.
W. Churchill,

• In 1911 Churchill became the Admiral to the British

Navy
• 1913 he decided to change all the navy ships from coal
fired to oil fired vessels as these oil fired vessels have
much more maneuver ability and faster.
• In order to get rid of dependency of Britain to Royal
Dutch Shell and Standard Oil, he pursued the Britain
government to buy controlling shares in APOC in 1914.
• After World War I, in 1935 APOC changed its name to
Anglo Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) and at 1954 this
company is doing oil business under the name of British
Petroleum, BP.
• Meanwhile during 1912, by the support of
the British Bankers, Turkish Petroleum
Company (TPC) was established in order to
make exploration within the Ottoman
Empires territories, especially Iraq area.
• Gulbenkyan who was an Armenian Ottoman
citizen, later passed to Britain citizenship,
was appointed for the establishment of the
TPC.
World War I 1914
• All these event happening in Middle East called for a war.
• The starting point of the war is Churchill became the Navy Commander in
1911
• He decided to use oil burning internal combustion engines for his war ships in
1913 because only oil burning engines could cope with the war ship's of
Germany.
• Before that the war ships were using coal.
• He was supporting the Burmah Oil who discovered Masjeed Suleyman in 1908
and giving money for that company preventing it from bankruptcy
• 1912 Gülbenkyan was given a duty for to establish Turkish Petroleum
Company (now Iraqi National Oil Company today) in order to explore in the
territories of Ottoman Empire. The share holders were: Deutsche Bank, The
Anglo Saxon Oil Company (Royal dutch Shell’in subsidary), National Bank of
Turkey (English Bank) and Gülbenkyan
• English Government was controlling the Anglo Persian Oil Company
established in Iran for Masjeed Suleyman discovery. APOC is BP today.
Sykes Picot and Mac Mahon Agreement 1916
• Secret agreement between UK and France with the
approval of Russia
• Takes the names from the diplomats of both sides;
Picot for France and Sykes for Britain.
• Agreement divided the Ottoman Empire Arab provinces
into British Control Area and France Control area
• After the Bolsheviks revolution in 1917 Russian exposed
the agreement
• In 1916 another agreement was signed named
Petrograd. This was an amendment for Sykes-Picot
Agreement for Russia. With this amendments, Trabzon
and East Anatolia was left for Russians.
• In 1916 Mac Mahon agreement was also signed
between British governor of Egypt Mac Mahon and
Hicaz Emirates Şerif Hüseyin. According to this
agreement, Arabs will be rewarded by Jordan,
Palestine, Egypt, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq to create an
Arabic Kingdom in return of their rebellion to Ottoman
Empire.
• In 1917 after Italians learned about the Sykes Picot,
they sent ultimatum to them for their sharing the
Ottoman Empire territories. By this Saint Jean De
Maurienne agreement signed and they took 12 island
in Aegean sea, South West Anatolia and some parts of
West ern Anatolia.
San Remo Conference 1920
• To prepare for the Serv Agreement, San Remo Conference
was gathered
• Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Greece, and Belgium was ready at
the conference.
• An agreement was signed between England and France in this
conference concerning the oil rights of the area. By this
agreement, Musul was given to England and 25% of share
was given to the France from the oil found in Iraq with
transportation rights.
• The mutual agreement was established on the control of the
oil reserves with buying TPC shares and APOC and San Remo
conference.
• US and Italy objected to this and US was given a small
amount of share in TPC which was not completed until 1928.
• Also the territories of Ottoman Empire in Asia, North Africa
was taken from her and Armenian and Kurdistan countries
was decided to be founded by this agreement.
• Syria and Lebanon was given to France and Palestine was
given to England.
• İzmir and Trakya was given to Greece and Adana and Antalya
was given to Italy.
• Straights was going to be run by a commission and will be
open to trade and military every time.
Red Line Agreement 1928
Gulbenkian TPC:(1912)
• Deutche Bank,
• The Anglo Saxon Oil Company
(Royal Dutch Shell was a
subsidiary),
• National Bank of Turkey (British
Bank)
• Gulbenkyan
As Germany was defeated in
the WWI, its shares are
captured by France. After
negotiations, US, England,
France, Shell have 23.75% and
Gulbenyan 5% shares of TPC

• Partners in TPC signed an agreement binding all partners called a “self denial clause” that prohibited any of its
shareholders from independently exploring oil in the ex-Ottoman Empire territory.
• It marked the creation of an oil monopoly, including a vast territory.
• This cartel was preceded by OPEC after three decades in 1960.
• Gulbenkyan, draw a red line on a map of the Middle East demarcating the boundaries of the area where the self
denial clause would be in effect. He said this was the boundary of Ottoman Empire he knew in 1914.
• Kuwait was excluded as it was meant to be a preserved for British.
• Except for Gulbenkyan, the other partners were the supermajor oil companies of today.
The Demand for Oil and Petroleum Clubs 1950s
• The demand for oil increased between 1914-1918 during the 1st World War.
• In 1920s BP, Chevron, Exxon, Texaco, Gulf, Mobil and Shell were pulling the head in oil business and
named as “7 sisters”.
• In 1930s Aramco “The Arabian-American Oil Co” was founded by the JV of Chevron, Texaco, Mobil and
Exxon.
• By the 2nd World War the demand for oil increased too much and the oil became the only single
commodity traded on the World today.
• In 1960s OPEC was founded. The ¾ of the reserves of the World belongs to OPEC countries and most
of them are located in Middle East. The aim of the OPEC was to control the IOCs by controlling price and
power of oil.
• In 1973 the first economic crises rising from oil effected the World too much

7 Sisters: Enrico Mattei used this pharese for 7 Sisters OPEC

the Anglo American Companies composing the • BP • Iraq, Iran, Kuwait
«Iran consortium» after the 2nd World War. • Shell • Saudi Arabia
• Exxon • Algeria, Angola
• Gulf • Ecuador, Venezuela
• Texaco • Libya
• Mobil • Nigeria, Qatar
• Chevron • United Arabia Emirates
History and How We Came to 20th Century for Energy Secuirty
What is Nuclear?
• Nuclear energy involves the usage of potential of atoms.
• Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter and are composed of protons,
neutrons and electrons
• Two processes are needed that release the energy in an atom and in either case very
large quantities of energy can be released
• Fusion: involves combining the nuclei of two or more atoms
• Fission: involves breaking the nucleus apart
• NPP operates in Fission reactions where energy released by fission reaction is thermal
energy. This thermal energy is used to heat the water to steam and drive tribune
systems to produce electricity
• During this process the fission reaction also produce a form of energy called radiation
with radioactive waste products
• Radiation can cause cell damage and impair cell function of living organisms.
• U-235 is enriched (LEU) to be used in NPP
• Alpha radiation, Gamma Radiation, Beta radiation
Everyday Exposure to Nuclear Radiation
• Average annual radiation is 360 millirems / person
• 300 millirems comes from natural resources
• Sleeping next to someone for 8 hours= 2 millirems
• Due to radioactive potassium in the others body
• Coal Plant Living within 50 miles= 0.3 millirems
• Due to thorium and uranium in the coal that is revealed to the atmosphere due to burnt coal
• Living within 50 miles to NPP=0.009 millirems
• Living in masonry (taş ev) home= 7 millirems
• Stone brick and adobe have natural radioactive isotopoes in them
• Living on Earth=200 millirems
• We are living on a sea of radon, it is made from natural decay of Uranium and Thorium in
the soil left from the creation of solar system
• Radon is a rare gas that diffuses out of soil and into the air. It contributes more than half of
mankind's exposure to radioactivity
• Smooking =16.000 millirems
• Tobacco leaf collects long lived isotopes of airborne radon
Everyday Exposure to Nuclear Radiation_cont
• Porcelain teet or crowns= tenths of rems
• U is often added to this dental products to increase whiteness and florescence
• Air Travel = 1millirem/ 1000 miles
• 30.000 feet above the ground you are closer to the ionizing radiation (high energy gammas
with particules) from the sun
• Grand Central Station NYC= 120 millirems for employees
• Granite walls having natural U
• Brazil Nuts=? 1000 times that of an average food
• The world’s most radioactive food due to high U content
• The US Capitol Building in Washington D.C.= ??
• The building is so radioactive due to high U content in granite walls
Nuclear Materials
• Fissile, fussionable and source materials
• Fissile= those composed f atoms that can be split by neutrons in a self sustaining chain
reaction to release energy including plotonium-239 and U-235
• Fussionable= atoms can be fused in order to release energy and include Deuterium and
Tritium
• Source materials= those which are used to boost nuclear weapons by providing a
source of additional atomic particles for fission. Tritium, polonium, beryllium, lithium-6
and helium-3
• Plutonium
• Not found in significant quantities. It is produced in a nuclear reactor through the absorption of neutrons
by U-238
• Comes out of a nuclear reactor as a part of the mix in spent nuclear fuel along with unused U and other
highly radioactive fission products
• To get it into a usable form a second facility is needed
• It can be processed into the fission core of a nuclear weapon called “pit”
• Nuclear weapons typically requires 3 to 5 kg of plutonium
• Also can be converted into an oxide and mixed with U dioxide to form Mixoide (MOX) for nuclear reactors
• Britain, France, Russia, India, Japan, Israel and China operate reprocessing plants to obtain plutonium. US
shut down plutonium production in 1988. (Pu-239 crude for nuclear weapons)
• Pu is an alpha particle emitter which does not penetrate into the skin. But when it is digested its very
dangerous causing cancer and other malfunctioning in health
Nuclear Materials_cont
• Uranium
• Occurs naturally underground deposits
• Mixture of %0.7 U-235 (fissionable) and 99.3% U-238 (not fissionable)
• Nuclear weapons need %90 enriched U-235 called highly enriched U (HEU)
• Nuclear reactors needs %3-5 enriched U-235 called low enriched U (LEU)
• HEU combined with plutonium to form the pit core of nuclear weapon
• The bomb in Hiroshima used only HEU. About 25-20 kg of HEU are sufficient to
make bomb without plutonium

• Tritium
• Rare form of H isotope with atomic mass of 3 (1 proton 2 neutron)
• Primary function is to boost the yield of both fission and thermonuclear weapons
• Medical diagnostics and sign illumination
• Produced in fission reactors and high energy accelerators by bombarding lithium
• Decays in 12.5 years
• US produced 225 kg since 1955 and now decayed to 75 kg

• Deuterium
• Stable, normally occurring isotope of H with an atomic mass of 2 (1 proton 1
neutron)
• 1D/ 5000H found in nature
• Also called heavy H
• In thermonuclear bombs D is fused with Tritium to release energy
Nuclear Materials_cont

U Nuclear Weapon

Pu

U production of
World 2015
Nuclear Materials_cont
Tritium

Ionized D in a fusor reactor giving

pinkish red glow
How Much Nuclear Energy is placed in 1 Minuteman

• Who holds the energy and for what

purpose?
• Nuclear is directly related to the
security issues
• This technology is important for
both security and energy supply
Nuclear History
• 1789 Martin Klaporth A German Chemist isolated an oxide of uranium while analyzing pitchblende samples
from silver mines in Bohemia
• For more than 100 years U is used as colorant for ceramic glazes and for tinting in early photography. U
was produced in Bohemia, UK, Portugal and total production was about 300-400 tonnes
• The discovery of radium by Marie Curie in 1898, led to the construction of a number of radium extraction
plants processing U ore (radium is a decay product of U)
• Radium reached a price of 750000 gold francs per gr in 1906 for its use in cancer (10 million $).
• It is estimated that 754 gr were produced between 1898-1928 as U itself is a waste material.
• Nuclear fission made it enter to a new era in 1939. In 1942 first controlled nuclear chain reaction was
achieved in Chicago for first military uses.
• In 1950s enormous potential of nuclear fission is used for supplying electricity in civil nuclear plants
• Between 1940s- 1980s U supply was exceeding the reactor requirements. However the gap between
requirement and production since 1990s has been filled by secondary supplies mostly from stockpiles
including military inventory.
• The first nuclear reactor was commissioned in 1954 in Russia since then there are 445 reactors active with
a combined capacity of 390GWe requiring 75000t of U3O8 containing 63000 t of U from mines.
• The worst nuclear accidents were Three Mile in 1979 in USA, Chernobyl in 1986 Russia (Ukraine today) and
Fukushima in 2011 in Japan
• Each GWe of increased new capacity will require about 150 tU/yr of extra mine production routinely, and
about 300-450 tU for the first fuel load.
Nuclear Power Plants

• NPP uses heat generated from nuclear reaction –fission- in a contained environment to convert water to steam and
electricity is generated from the steam
• In 2015 there are 453 reactors where 16 are shut down.
• Also there are 78 reactors under construction on world
Nuclear Power Generation
Advantages
• Less green house emission than coal which
also contains radioactive minerals and
emits them into the atmosphere when
burnt
• Long term fuel source with nuclear fuel
recycling
• 1GWh energy needs 7300 tones of U
• 1GWh energy needs 5200 tones of coal
• 1GWh energy needs 17500bbl oil= 2400
tones of oil
• 1GWh energy needs 101000 Mcf natural
gas= 2500 tones of natural gas
• NPP doesn’t emit CO2,
Disadvantages
• U mining is the one of the most CO2 intensive
operation
• Security problem from violent and illegal use
• Transportation and power generation are
target for terrorist attacks
• Enriched U can be nuclear weapon
• Age of NPP is 35-40 years due to natural
fatigue of material
• Most of NPP built in 1970s and 1980s are
going through safety updates that is
expensive
• Low Level radiation is harmful for health
• An average NPP has about 16 billion curies at
its core which equals to 1000 Hiroshima
bombs
• Waste product depleted U should be
completely eliminated with 4th generation PP
Nuclear Fuel Cycle

• Nuclear fuel cycle is also called nuclear fuel chain

• Preparation of fuel, steps in service periods, necessary to safely manage, contain and either reprocess or dispose of spent nuclear fuel
• It spent fuel is not reprocessed, the fuel cycle is referred to as an open fuel cycle
• If the spent fuel is reprocessed, it is referred to as a closed fuel cycle
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
1. Uranium is mined, enriched
and manufactured to nuclear
fuel and delivered to nuclear
pp
2. After used in pp the spent fuel
is delivered to a reprocessing
plant
3. or to final repository for
geological disposition
4. In reprocessing %95 of spent
fuel can be recycled to be
returned to usage in nuclear
pp
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
• Nuclear power relies on fissionable material that can sustain the chain reaction with
neutrons
• LWR: light water reactor uses water in the form that occurs in nature and requires fuel
that is enriched in fissile isotopes
• Uranium enriched to %3-%5 in the less common isotope U-235
• LEU: low enriched uranium fuels are sometimes mixed with oxide (MOX) fuels produced by blending plutonium
with natural or depleted uranium
• MOX fuel can be done by mixing LEU with Thorium which generates fissile isotope U-233

• U-238 and thorium can be separated from spent uranium and thorium fuels in
reprocessing plants
• The spent fuel consist of %1 U-235, %95 U-238, %1plutonium and 53 fission products
• Although NPP produce relatively small volumes of wastes compared to other PP, safe
management of these spent fuels are difficult and creates serious problems to the
countries using nuclear power as they are extremely hazardous.
Fuel Cycle
• Open cycle : spent fuel is not reprocessed but
kept in storage as disposal waste
• Closed Fuel cycle: spent fuel is reprocessed and
the residual U and Plutonium are separated
from waste products. Both U and plutonium can
be recycled into new fuel elements for use in
thermal and fast reactors
• Mining, conversion, enrichment, fuel fabrication
and reprocessing are the major steps in fuel
cycle
Open Fuel Cycle

• China and Russia are the countries that have the 5

major steps of U fuel cycle in house.
• France and UK are the countries that lack mining but
have the other four steps of fuel cycle in house. They
do not have U reserves so they lack mining. But they
create the nuclear technology for each step of fuel
cycle .
• Addition to China and Russia, France, Germany, Japan,
Netherlands, Pakistan, UK and USA has the Closed Fuel Cycle
enrichment technology which means they are capable
of assembling nuclear weapons.
Environmental Issues in Nuclear Power
• CO2
• NPP doesn’t emit CO2
• CO2 is released during mining, enrichment and plant construction
• Uranium mining is one of the most CO2 intensive industrial operation
• Low level radiation damages cells, genetic mutation, cancer, leukemia, birth
defect, reproductively, immune and endocrine system disorder
• Radioactivity is measured in “curies”. An average operating NPP has about 16
billion curies at its core which equals 1000 Hiroshima bombs
• Large size medical center having 1000 laboratories in which radioactive
materials used has about 2 curies
• NPP produce extremely toxic radioactive wastes that are long lived and have
no safe means of disposal
 Radioactive Waste Management
• Low-level radiation (Gives of low • Bury it deep underground.
amount of radiation) • Problems: i.e. earthquake,
• Sources: nuclear power plants, groundwater…
hospitals & universities
• 1940 – 1970 most was dumped • Shoot it into space or into the sun.
into the ocean • Problems: costs, accident would
• Today deposit into landfills affect large area.
• High-level radiation (Gives of large
amount of radiation) • Bury it under the Antarctic ice sheet.
• Fuel rods from nuclear power • Problems: long-term stability of ice is
plants not known, global warming
• Half-time of Plutonium 239 is
24000 years
• No agreement about a safe
method of storage

• Concerns about the safety, cost, and liability have slowed the growth of the nuclear
power industry
• Accidents at Chernobyl and Three Mile Island showed that a partial or complete
meltdown is possible, Fukishima accident showed that nothing can stay against the
nature.
 Three Mile Island
• March 28, 1979, a reactor near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania lost coolant water
because of mechanical and human errors and suffered a partial meltdown
• Failure stared in the non nuclear secondary system fallowed by a stuck –
open pilot operated relief valve in the primary system which allowed the
large amount of nuclear reactor coolant to escape
• Result of inadequate training and human factor
• 50,000 people evacuated & another 50,000 fled area
• Unknown amounts of radioactive materials released
• Partial cleanup & damages cost $1.2 billion
• Clean up started in August 1979 and finished in December 1993
• Released radiation increased cancer rates.

www.bio.miami.edu/beck/esc101/Chapter14
&15.ppt
Chernobyl
• April 26, 1986, reactor explosion in USSR (today
Ukraine) flung radioactive debris into atmosphere
• Occurred during the late night safety test which
simulated a station black out poer failure and
which delibaretely turned off the safety system
• Water flushed into the steam generating and a
destructive steam explosion and subsequent open
air graphite fire
• The resulting fire sent weeks long plums of highly
radioactive fallout into the atmosphere over and
extensive geological area and according to post
Soviet data about 60% of the fallout landed in
Belarussia
• Health ministry reported 3,576 deaths
• Green Peace estimates 32,000 deaths;
• About 400,000 people were forced to leave their
homes
• ~160,000 sq km (62,00 sq mi) contaminated
• > Half million people exposed to dangerous levels
of radioactivity
• Cost of incident > $358 billion
Fukhisma Accident
• 11 March 2011, just after the earthquake
(magnitude 9 and created 15m high tsunami
waves after 50 minutes) the active reactors
automatically shutdown their sustained
fission reaction
• However, the tsunami disabled the
emergency generators that would have
provided power to control and operate the
pumps necessary to cool the reactors.
• insufficient cooling led to three nuclear
meltdowns, hydrogen-air explosions, and the
release of radioactive material in Units 1, 2,
and 3 from 12 March to 15 March.
• Loss of cooling also caused the pool for
storing spent fuel from Reactor 4 to overheat
on 15 March due to the decay heat from the
fuel
• 470.000 people evcuated from the area
affected
• 187 billion $ for compensation
Nuclear Numbers
WORLD** 2,490 447 392,335 56 60,570 160 165,317 351 401,895 65,014

TWh No. MWe No. MWe No. MWe No. MWe tonnes U

NUCLEAR
REACTORS REACTORS UNDER URANIUM
ELECTRICITY ON ORDER or PLANNED PROPOSED
OPERABLE CONSTRUCTION REQUIRED
GENERATION
Japan 17.5 42 39,952 2 2756 9 12947 3 4145 662

• 447 operating reactors

• 56 under construction
• 160 planned By 2020, 503 reactors will be operating
• 351 proposed reactor Near future 1014 reactor will be in force

The U required for 2016 was 65.014 tonnes

 Mining
• Underground and open pit mining
• Open pits requires large holes on the surface but underground mines have relatively small surface
disturbance
• In situ leach (ISL) mining uses oxygenated groundwater is circulated through a very porous orebody to
dissolve the uranium oxide and bring it to surface
• Uranium is grinding the ore minerals to a uniform size and then treating the ore to extract the uranium by
chemical leaching
• The milling process commonly yields natural uranium called “yellow cake” and sold in the market as U3O8
Mining Methods of U
Classification of U Grades
Uranium Grades
Concentrati Turkey’s U Mines
Source
on U
Area tU Grade %
Very high grade ore-%20 U 200.000 ppm
Salihli - Köprübaşı 2852 0.04-0.05
High grade ore-%2 U 20.000 ppm
Fakılı 490 0.05
Low grade ore – 0.1% U 1.000 ppm
Koçarlı 208 0.05
Very low grade ore – 0.01% U 100 ppm
Demirtepe 1729 0.08
Granite 4-5 ppm
Yozgat-Sorgun 3850 0.1
Sedimentary rock 2 ppm Source: MTA

Earths continental crust 2.8 ppm

Seawater 0.003 ppm

U reserves of the World

WNA,2016 ZEY,2016

• It is estimated that there is total of 6 million tones of recoverable U on Earth

• The Australia has the largest reserves where Kazakhstan holds the second largest U
reserves
U Production

ZEY,2016
WNA,2016

• Kazakhstan is the largest producer of the U

• Canada is the second largest producer
• Africa is also rich in U reserves compared to other places
• The Oklo Mine is a single example where chain reaction occurs naturally
World U Production and Demand

• Worlds U demand is increasing as new reactors are being constructed

• After 1988 the U demand exceeded the supply and since then the supply of U is far lower than
the demand
• The power demand and U demand are diverted since 1970s as many other countries started to
use U as weapon
Reasonably Assured Resources of U

• Australia has the most economic U reserves as most of the reserves can be extracted
below 80$/kgU cost
• Canada, and Kazakhstan, Brazil and South Africa reserves are mostly under the RAR of
80$/kgU cost
Nuclear Reactors Of the World
Şekil 5:

WNA,2016 ZEY,2016
• There are 447 nuclear reactors operating on earth
• US has the highest number of operating reactors with 99 and constructing 4 more and planning 40 more
• Russia has 35 operating reactors but planning to increase 7+ 48
• France is generating 98% of its electricity from 58 reactors
• China is also using 35 reactors and constructing 22 with 176 new reactors are being planned
Uranium Demand

WNA,2016
ZEY,2016

• The total of 447 reactors consumes about 63.000 ton of U

• The biggest consumer is US and France holds the second place, where Russia is in third stage in consumption
• South Korea and China are also important consumers
How Fukushima Affected

ZEY,2016

• The Fukushima accident affected the nuclear consumption of Japan in 2011

• Japan start operating 2 reactors in 2015
• In 2017 Japan is planning to start operations in 42 reactors again
 Uranium Grades
Concentrati
Source
on U
Very high grade ore-%20 U 200.000 ppm

High grade ore-%2 U 20.000 ppm

Low grade ore – 0.1% U 1.000 ppm

Very low grade ore – 0.01% U 100 ppm

Granite 4-5 ppm

Area tU Grade %
Sedimentary rock 2 ppm
Salihli - Köprübaşı 2852 0.04-0.05
Earths continental crust 2.8 ppm
Fakılı 490 0.05
Seawater 0.003 ppm
Koçarlı 208 0.05
Demirtepe 1729 0.08
Yozgat-Sorgun 3850 0.1

$ 2008 2009 2010 2011

Government
73500 66000 169000 195000
expenditure