(Original PDF) Cultures of the West: A

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 This book is for
Graham Charles Backman
Puero praeclaro, Scourge of Nations

and for my mother

Mary Lou Betker
with my best love

and in memory of my brother

Neil Howard Backman, U.S.N. (ret.)
(1956–2011)
who found his happiness just in time

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 BRIEF CONTENTS
1. Water and Soil, Stone and Metal: 15. From Westphalia to Paris: Regimes
The First Civilizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Old and New . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
10,000–2100 bce 1648–1750
2. Law Givers, Emperors, and Gods: 16. The Enlightened. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
The Ancient Near East. . . . . . . . . . . . 37 1690–1789
2100–486 bce
17. The French Revolution and
3. The People of the Covenant. . . . . . . . 71 the Napoleonic Empire . . . . . . . . . . . 621
1200–350 bce 1789–1815
4. Greeks and Persians . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 18. Industrialization and Its
2000–479 bce Discontents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
1750–1850
5. Classical Greece and the
Hellenistic World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 19. The Birth of Modern Politics . . . . . 703
479–30 bce 1815–1848
6. Empire of the Sea: Rome. . . . . . . . . . 171 20. Nationalism and Identity. . . . . . . . . . 745
753 bce–212 ce 1800–1900
7. The Rise of Christianity 21. The Modern Woman . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
in a Roman World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 1860–1914
40 bce–300 ce
22. The Challenge of Secularism . . . . . . 819
8. The Early Middle Ages. . . . . . . . . . . 241 1800–1914
300–750
23. The Great Land Grab. . . . . . . . . . . . 863
9. The Expansive Realm of Islam. . . . . 277 1870–1914
30–900
24. The World at War (Part I). . . . . . . . . 899
10. Reform and Renewal 1914–1918
in the Greater West . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
25. Radical Realignments . . . . . . . . . . . 943
750–1258
1919–1939
11. Worlds Brought Down . . . . . . . . . . 353
26. The World at War (Part II) . . . . . . . . 989
1258–1453
1937–1945
12. Renaissances and Reformations . . . 399
27. Theater of the Absurd:
1350–1563
The Postwar World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
13. Worlds Old and New . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 1945–1968
1450–1700
28. Something to Believe In. . . . . . . . . 1063
14. The Wars of All against All. . . . . . . . 493 1960–1988
1540–1648
29. Global Warmings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099
Since 1989

ix

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 CONTENTS
Maps ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xxi
Preface������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ xxv
About the Author ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ xxxiii
Note on Dates �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xxxiv
Prologue: Before History������������������������������������������������������������������xxxv

1. Water and Soil, Stone and Metal:

The interac tion of the Indo -
The First Civilizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
European groups and the
10,000–2100 bce
primarily Semitic-speaking
The Tigris, the Euphrates, and the Land
peoples of the Fer tile
between the Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Crescent opened the way for
Early Mesopotamia: Kings and Priests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
the development of the
The Idea of Empire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Greater West— a civilization
Mesopotamian Life: Farms and Cities, Letters
that bridged Europe and
and Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
western Asia.
Religion and Myth: The Great Above and
Great Below. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Ancient Egypt, Gift of the Nile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Life and Rule in Old Kingdom Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
The Kingdom of the Dead. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2. Law Givers, Emperors, and Gods:

The Ancient Near East. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2100–486 bce
The romanticization of David
Old Babylon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
and Solomon introduced an
Middle Kingdom Egypt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
entirely new element into
The New Kingdom Empire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Greater Western culture, or
The Indo-European Arrival. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
at least one for which no
The Age of Iron Begins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
earlier evidence sur vives—
Persia and the Religion of Fire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
namely, the popular belief in
a past paradise, a lost era of
3. The People of the Covenant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
former glor y, when humanit y
1200–350 bce
had at tained a per fec tion of
The Bible and History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
happiness.
The Land of Canaan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Dreams of a Golden Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Women and the Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Prophets and Prophecy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
xi

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 xii   Contents

The Struggle for Jewish Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Second Temple Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

4. Greeks and Persians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

2000–479 bce
The First Greeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
The Search for Mythic Ancestors in
Archaic Age Greece. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Colonists, Hoplites, and the Path toward Citizenship. . . . 109
A Cult of Masculinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Civilized Pursuits: Lyric Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Sparta: The Militarization of the Citizenry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Miletus: The Birthplace of Philosophy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Athens: Home to Democracy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
The Persian Wars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

5. Classical Greece and the Hellenistic World . . . 129

The Greeks, especially the
479–30 bce
Athenians, came to regard
Athens’s Golden Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
the mid- 5th centur y bce with
The Polis: Ritual and Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
a determined awe, recalling
The Excluded: Women, Children, and Slaves. . . . . . . . . . . . 136
it as a lost halc yon era that
The Invention of Drama. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
outshone any thing that came
The Peloponnesian Disaster. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
before it or since. Through
Advances in Historical Inquiry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
the centuries, much of
Medicine as Natural Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Western culture has
The Flowering of Greek Philosophy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
continued the love af fair and
The Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests
has ex tolled “ the glor y that
of Alexander the Great. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
was Greece” as a pinnacle of
The Hellenistic World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
human achievement.
The Maccabean Revolt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

6. Empire of the Sea: Rome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

753 bce–212 ce
Ancient Italy and the Rise of Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
From Monarchy to Republic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
The Republic of Virtue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Size Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Can the Republic Be Saved?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Rome’s Golden Age: The Augustan Era. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192

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 Contents    xiii

The Sea, the Sea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

Roman Lives and Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Height of the Pax Romana: The “Five Good Emperors”. . 204

7. The Rise of Christianity in a Roman World. . . . 209

The stor y fascinates, thrills,
40 bce–300 ce
comfor ts, angers, and
The Vitality of Roman Religion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
embarrasses at ever y turn,
The Jesus Mystery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
of ten all at once. It has
A Crisis in Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
touched ever y thing from
Ministry and Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Western political ideas to
What Happened to His Disciples? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
sexual mores. Christianit y
Christianities Everywhere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
began as an obscure
Romans in Pursuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
reformist sec t within
Philosophical Foundations: Stoicism
Palestinian Judaism, at one
and Neoplatonism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
time numbering no more
than f if t y or so believers. It
8. The Early Middle Ages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
went on, af ter three
300–750
centuries of persecution by
The Imperial Crisis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
the Roman Empire, to
Imperial Decline: Rome’s Overreach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
become the world’s most
Martyrdom and Empire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
dominant faith.
A Christian Emperor and a Christian Church. . . . . . . . . . . 248
The Rise of “New Rome”: The Byzantine Empire . . . . . . . . 252
Barbarian Kings and Warlords. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Divided Estates and Kingdoms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
The Body as Money and Women as Property . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
The Western world had never
Christian Paganism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
seen a militar y juggernaut
Christian Monasticism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
like this: in 622 Muhammad
and his small group of
9. The Expansive Realm of Islam. . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 followers had been forced
30–900
from their home in Mecca,
“Age of Ignorance”: The Arabian Background. . . . . . . . . . . . 278
yet within a hundred years
The Qur’an and History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
those followers had
From Preacher to Conqueror. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
conquered an empire that
Conversion or Compulsion?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
stretched from Spain to
The Islamic Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
India, an area t wice the size
Sunnis and Shi’a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
of that conquered by
Islam and the Classical Traditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Alexander the Great.
Women and Islam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

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 xiv   Contents
L atin Europe’s histor y had
been shaped by t wo opposed
waves of development. The
dual economic and cultural
engine of the Mediterranean
region spread its inf luence
nor thward, bringing
elements of cosmopolitan
urban life, intellec tual
innovation, and cultural
vibranc y into the European
hear tlands. Political
leadership, however, came
from the nor th, as the
monarchies of England and
France and the Holy Roman
Empire pushed their
boundaries southward,
drawn by Mediterranean
commerce and the
gravitational pull of the
papal cour t. The cross-
fer tilization of nor th and
south benef ited each and
fostered Europe’s abilit y to
reform and revitalize itself.
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10. Reform and Renewal in the
Greater West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
750–1258
Two Palace Coups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
The Carolingian Ascent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Charlemagne. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Imperial Coronation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Carolingian Collapse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
The Splintering of the Caliphate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
The Reinvention of Western Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Mediterranean Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
The Reinvention of the Church. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
The Reinvention of the Islamic World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
The Call for Crusades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
The Crusades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Turkish Power and Byzantine Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Judaism Reformed, Renewed, and Reviled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
11. Worlds Brought Down. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
1258–1453
Late Medieval Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Scholasticism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Mysticism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
The Guild System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
The Mendicant Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Early Representative Government. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
The Weakening of the Papacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Noble Privilege and Popular Rebellion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
The Hundred Years’ War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
The Plague. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
The Mongol Takeover. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
In the Wake of the Mongols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
Persia under the Il-Khans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386
A New Center for Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
The Ottoman Turks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
12. Renaissances and Reformations. . . . . . . . . . . . 399
1350–1563
Rebirth or Culmination?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
The Political and Economic Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
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The Renaissance Achievement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

The three elements most
Christian Humanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
charac teristically associated
Erasmus: Humanist Scholar and Social Critic. . . . . . . . . . . 415
with the Renaissance —
Martin Luther: The Gift of Salvation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
classicism, humanism, and
Luther’s Rebellion against the Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
modern statecraf t—
The Reformation Goes International. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
represent no essential break
Calvin: Protestantism as Theology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
with medieval life at all. They
The Godly Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
may in fac t be thought of as
The Rebirth of Satire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
the culmination of medieval
Catholic Reform and the Council of Trent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
strivings.
The Society of Jesus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
What about the Orthodox East? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444

13. Worlds Old and New. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

1450–1700
European Voyages of Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
New Continents and Profits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Conquest and Epidemics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
The Copernican Drama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Galileo and the Truth of Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Inquisition and Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
The Revolution Broadens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
The Ethical Costs of Science. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
The Islamic Retreat from Science. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Thinking about Truth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Newton’s Mathematical Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487

Though of ten referred to as

14. The Wars of All against All. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 the “wars of religion,” the
1540–1648
wars that wracked the
From the Peace of Augsburg to the Edict of Nantes:
Greater West in the six teenth
French Wars of Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
and seventeenth centuries
Strife and Settlement in England. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
enmeshed religious
Dutch Ascendancy and Spanish Eclipse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
antagonisms with economic,
The Thirty Years’ War. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
social, and political conf lic t.
Enemies Within: The Hunt for Witches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
A more accurate term might
The Jews of the East and West. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
come from English
The Waning of the Sultanate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
philosopher Thomas Hobbes
New Centers of Intellectual and Cultural Life. . . . . . . . . . . 516
(1588 –1679): “ the war of all
Wars of Religion: The Eastern Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
against all.”
Economic Change in an Atlantic World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522

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15. From Westphalia to Paris:

Regimes Old and New. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
1648–1750
The Peace of Westphalia: 1648. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
The Argument for Tyranny. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
The Social Contract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Absolute Politics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Police States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Self-Indulgence with a Purpose:
The Example of Versailles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
Mercantilism and Absolutism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Mercantilism and Poverty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Domesticating Dynamism: Regulating Culture. . . . . . . . . 549
The Control of Private Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
England’s Separate Path: The Rise of Constitutional
Monarchy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Ottoman Absolutism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Persian Absolutism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
International Trade in a Mercantilist Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
The Slave Trade and Domestic Subjugation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
The Return of Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573

16. The Enlightened. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579

The philosophes may have
1690–1789
been the most inf luential
The Enlightenment Enterprise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
group of talented amateurs
Learning from Our Worst Mistakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
in European histor y, not only
A New World of Ideas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
because of their inf luence on
Voltaire and the Limits of Optimism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
their own age but because of
The Radical Thought of Rousseau. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
the way they and their
Can Women Be Enlightened?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
assumptions about human
The Jewish Enlightenment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
nature still af fec t us today.
The Jews and Europe’s Ambivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
The Unenlightened. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Assessing the Enlightenment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612

17. The French Revolution and the Napoleonic

Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
1789–1815
A Revolution in Western History? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
Revolutionary Road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

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 Contents    xvii

The Enlightened Revolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632

The Revolution Turns Radical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
How to Judge a Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
Napoleon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
The Rush to Empire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
The Continental System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Downfall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
Revolutions in the Colonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657

18. Industrialization and Its Discontents. . . . . . . . 663

1750–1850
Britain’s Head Start. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
Innovation and Infrastructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 The choices made at the

Trying to Catch Up to Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672 Congress of Vienna emerged

Trying to Catch Up to Europe: The Ottoman Empire. . . . 678 in the dramatically changed

Life in the Industrial Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684 contex t of England’s rapid

Riots and Repression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 and unchallenged

Women and Children Last. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 industrialization. Investment

The Romantic Generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694 in industrial technologies

was necessar y – but was that

19. The Birth of Modern Politics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703 the responsibilit y of the state

1815–1848 or of individuals? Were the

Conservatism in Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704 social troubles caused by

Royalism and Its Opponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708 industrialization the

The Moral Component of Conservatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 responsibilit y of the state

The Challenge of Liberalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 too? If so, why? Who,

Rebellion and Reform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 ultimately, is responsible for

Responses to Liberal Capitalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723 the poor?

The Revolutions of 1848. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

Karl Marx and Revolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
The Collapse of the Concert of Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
Women in a Conservative Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735

20. Nationalism and Identity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745

1800–1900
Nationalism in Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
Nationalism in Practice: France, Italy,
and Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
Frustrated Nationalism: Hungary and Ireland. . . . . . . . . . . 764
Jewish Identities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770

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The question arises: Why

Islamic Nationalisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
were the dominant European
Reforming Islam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
states— the states with the
most developed economies,
21. The Modern Woman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
highest literac y rates, most
1860–1914
established democratic
The Appetite for Reform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
systems, and most elaborate
Whose Rights Come First?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
and sophisticated net works
Suffragists and Suffragettes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
of communication — so
Love and Sex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
resistant to ex tend suf frage
The Female Identity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
to women?
Education and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
The “Woman Question” for Muslims. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810

22. The Challenge of Secularism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819

1800–1914
Who Killed God?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
The Theory of Creation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
Darwin and Evolution by Natural Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
A Secular Universe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
Nietzsche and the Will to Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835
Art for Art’s Sake. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838
The Illness of Western Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
Freud and Psychoanalysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
Modernism: The First Wave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
The Catholic Counterattack. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
Modernism, Secularism, and the Jews. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
The Islamic Exception. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858

23. The Great Land Grab. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863

1870–1914
“The White Man’s Burden”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
The Second Industrial Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
Looking Overseas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
Missionary Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
Industrial Warfare and Command Economies. . . . . . . . . . . 886
Western Ways: Emulation and Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891

24. The World at War (Part I). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899

1914–1918
The Run-Up to War. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901

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The Balance of Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .904

A New Map of Hell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
The War in the Trenches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
The Home Front. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
Officers and Gentlemen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921
Russia’s Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925
Bolshevism and the Laws of History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
How Not to End a War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
Young Turks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937

25. Radical Realignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943

A new generation, raised to
1919–1939
believe in the unique
History for Beginners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944
injustice of their suf fering,
Parceling out Nations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949
came of age determined to
New Rights and New Economies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951
rescue their honor as well as
The Great Depression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954
their livelihoods. And they
The Search for Someone to Blame. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
were willing to take
Modernism: The Second Wave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
desperate ac tion.
The Rise of Fascism: Italy and Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965
Nazism in Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
Oppression and Terror in Russia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
A New Deal?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
Appeasement and Pacifism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980

26. The World at War (Part II). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989

1937–1945
The War in Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991
War in the Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997
Atomic Fissures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
Women in, and against, Fascism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
Atrocities and Holocaust. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
Making Amends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
The United Nations and Human Rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018
World War II and the Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
Arab Nationalism and Growing Zionism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022

27. Theater of the Absurd: The Postwar World. . . 1029

1945–1968
Setting to Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
Alienation and the Absurd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033

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 xx   Contents
The aspiration to unite was
cultural, moral, even
spiritual. At stake were
shared values and beliefs, a
commitment to human
rights, civic-mindedness,
reason, and personal
freedom. Politics and the
economy played their roles,
but what mat tered most was
the idea of Europe as a
civilization, not just a
commercial entit y.
More was involved in these
debates than reconciling
f igures in a ledger. The
Greater West entered the
21st centur y engaged in full-
throt tle disputes over the
purpose and limits of
government and the
responsibilities of individuals
in societ y.
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The Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036
Decolonization in a Cold War Word . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
Rise of the Welfare State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043
Social Conservatism and Economic Liberalism. . . . . . . . . 1046
The Postwar Boom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
Turning Point: 1967–1968. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
The Female Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
Women, Islam, and the State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
28. Something to Believe In. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
1960–1988
A Generation of Rebellion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Big Science and Expanding Secularism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Another Catholic Reformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Postwar Protestantism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
Jewish Revival and Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082
International Judaism and the State of Israel. . . . . . . . . . . 1087
Islamic Revolutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
Ba’athism and Brotherhood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093
29. Global Warmings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099
Since 1989
1989: One Year, Three Crises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1101
The United States of Europe?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1111
Economic Globalization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1116
War and Peace, from the Balkans to Pakistan. . . . . . . . . . . 1118
Islam and Its Discontents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123
Why Terrorism? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124
“Why Do They Hate Us?”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127
Israel, Palestine, and the Arab Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1129
Women and the Global World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1132
Debt, Taxes, and Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1138
Free Market? What Free Market?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1142
What Is the Greater West Now?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145
Reference Maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1
Credits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1
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 Maps
Map P.1 Out of Africa
Map 1.1 Early Agricultural Sites
Map 1.2 The Ancient Near East
Map 1.3 The Akkadian Empire, ca. 2350–2200 bce
Map 1.4 Old Kingdom Egypt, ca. 2686–2134 bce
Map 2.1 The Babylonian Empire under Hammurabi
Map 2.2 Middle and New Kingdom Egypt
Map 2.3 The Middle East and the Mediterranean, ca. 1400 bce
Map 2.4 The Assyrian Empire, ca. 720–650 bce
Map 2.5 The Persian Empire at Its Height, ca. 500 bce
Map 3.1 The Land of Canaan, ca. 1000 bce
Map 3.2 Israelite Kingdom under David
Map 4.1 Minoan and Mycenean Greece, ca. 1500 bce
Map 4.2 Greek and Phoenician Colonies, ca. 500 bce
Map 4.3 The Persian Wars
Map 5.1 Athens, Sparta, and Their Allies during the Peloponnesian War
Map 5.2 Campaigns of Alexander the Great
Map 5.3 The Hellenistic World, ca. 200 bce
Map 6.1 Ancient Italy
Map 6.2 The Western Mediterranean in the 3rd Century bce
Map 6.3 Rome and Its Neighbors in 146 bce
Map 6.4 The Roman World at the End of the Republic, 44 bce
Map 6.5 The Mediterranean: Greek and Roman Perspectives Compared
Map 6.6 Trades in the Roman Empire
Map 7.1 Judea in the Time of Jesus
Map 7.2 Early Christian Communities, ca. 350 ce
Map 8.1 Diocletian’s Division of the Empire, ca. 304
Map 8.2 The Byzantine Empire in the Time of Justinian
Map 8.3 Constantinople in the 6th Century
Map 8.4 The Economy of Europe in the Early Middle Ages
Map 8.5 The Frankish Kingdom, ca. 500
Map 8.6 Monasteries in Western Europe, ca. 800
Map 9.1 Arabia in the 6th Century ce
Map 9.2 Muslim Conquests to 750
Map 9.3 Sunni and Shi’i Communities Today

xxi

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 xxii   Maps

Map 10.1 The Conversion of the Germanic Peoples to Christianity

Map 10.2 Charlemagne’s Empire
Map 10.3 Division of the Carolingian Empire, 843
Map 10.4 The Islamic World, ca. 1000
Map 10.5 The Mediterranean World, ca. 1100
Map 10.6 The Crusades
Map 10.7 The Islamic World, ca. 1260
Map 10.8 Principal Centers of Jewish Settlement in
the Mediterranean, ca. 1250
Map 11.1 Europe in 1300
Map 11.2 Medieval Universities
Map 11.3 Medieval Heresies, ca. 1200–1350
Map 11.4 The Hundred Years’ War
Map 11.5 The Black Death
Map 11.6 The Mongol Conquests
Map 11.7 The Mongol Successor States
Map 11.8 Mamluks and Ottomans, ca. 1400
Map 12.1 Renaissance Italy
Map 12.2 The Domains of Charles V, 1520
Map 12.3 The Protestant Reformation, ca. 1540
Map 13.1 Africa and the Mediterranean, 1498
Map 13.2 The Portuguese in Asia, 1536–1580
Map 13.3 Early Voyages of World Exploration
Map 13.4 The Transfer of Crops and Diseases after 1500
Map 13.5 Centers of Learning in Europe, 1500-1700
Map 14.1 Wars and Revolts in Europe, 1524–1660
Map 14.2 Expulsions and Migrations of Jews, 1492–1650
Map 14.3 Ottoman–Safavid Conflict
Map 15.1 Europe in 1648
Map 15.2 The Ottoman Empire in 1683
Map 15.3 World Trade Networks, ca. 1750
Map 15.4 The Atlantic Slave Trade
Map 15.5 The Seven Years’ War
Map 16.1 Jewish Communities in Poland-Lithuania, ca. 1600
Map 16.2 Subscriptions to the Encyclopedia, ca. 1780
Map 16.3 Urban Population of Europe in 1800
Map 17.1 Redrawing the Map of France, 1789–1791
Map 17.2 Napoleon’s Empire at Its Height
Map 18.1 Industrializing Britain by 1850

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 Maps    xxiii

Map 18.2 Industrializing Europe by 1870

Map 18.3 The Shrinking Ottoman Empire
Map 18.4 Europe’s Largest Cities in 1850
Map 19.1 Europe after the Congress of Vienna, 1815
Map 19.2 Centers of Revolution, 1848
Map 20.1 The Peoples of Europe, ca. 1850
Map 20.2 The Crimean War, 1853–1856
Map 20.3 The Unification of Italy
Map 20.4 The Unification of Germany
Map 20.5 The Pale of Settlement, 1835–1917
Map 20.6 Wahhabi Expansion, 1765–1818
Map 21.1  Winning the Vote: Women’s Suffrage in the Greater West,
1906–1971
Map 22.1 Jewish Emigration from Russia, 1880–1914
Map 23.1 Industrialization and Manufacturing, 1870–1914
Map 23.2 The Scramble for Africa, ca. 1880–1914
Map 23.3 Imperialism in Asia, 1850–1914
Map 23.4 European Emigration, 1880–1914
Map 24.1 European Alliances, 1878–1914
Map 24.2 World War I, 1914–1918
Map 24.3 The Russian Civil War, 1917–1922
Map 24.4 Europe and the Middle East in 1914 and 1923
Map 25.1 Ethnic Minorities in East-Central Europe, 1930
Map 25.2 Expansion of the Italian Empire, 1922–1939
Map 26.1 World War II in Europe and Africa, 1939–1945
Map 26.2 The Japanese in China, 1931–1941
Map 26.3 World War II in the Pacific
Map 26.4 Nazi Concentration Camps, 1941–1945
Map 26.5 The Partition of Palestine and the Creation of Israel, 1947–1948
Map 27.1 Military Blocs in Europe, 1948–1955
Map 27.2 The Decolonization of Asia
Map 27.3 The Decolonization of Africa and the Middle East
Map 27.4 The Six-Day War
Map 27.5 The Vietnam War
Map 28.1 Jewish Immigration to Israel since 1948
Map 29.1 The Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe and the
Soviet Union
Map 29.2 Global Warming
Map 29.3 The European Union

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 xxiv   Maps

Map 29.4 Immigration to the European Union

Map 29.5 The World Trade Organization
Map 29.6 Wars and Conflicts in the Greater West, 1990–2012
Map 29.7 The Arab Spring
Map 29.8 Population Growth in the Greater West, 2012

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Hodgkinson. Letters on Emigration. London, 1794.
Smith, William. Address to his Constituents. Philadelphia, 1794.
Taylor, John. An Examination of the Late Proceedings of Congress,
Respecting the Official Conduct of the Secretary of the Treasury.
Philadelphia, 1793.
Contemporary Newspapers

Boston:
The Columbian Centinel.
The Independent Chronicle.
New York:
New York Daily Advertiser.
Commercial Advertiser.
New York Journal.
American Minerva.
The Argus.
The Time Piece.
Gazette of the United States.
Louden’s Diary, or Register.
Philadelphia:
National Gazette.
Gazette of the United States.
The General Advertiser.
The Aurora.
Porcupine’s Gazette.
Pennsylvania Daily Advertiser.
Baltimore:
Maryland Gazette.
Maryland Journal.
Portsmouth:
New Hampshire Gazette.
Charleston:
City Gazette.
Windsor, Vermont:
Spooner’s Vermont Journal.
Hartford:
 The Courant.
The American Minerva.
New Haven:
Connecticut Gazette.

Magazines
American Historical Review, October, 1899, January, 1900, ‘Contemporary
Opinion of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions,’ by Frank M.
Anderson.
American Historical Association, Annual Reports, 1912, ‘The Enforcement
of the Alien and Sedition Laws,’ by Frank M. Anderson; 1896-97, ‘Letters
of Phineas Bond.’
The Nation, July 18, 1912, ‘Extracts from Diary of Moreau de St. Mery’;
September 5, 1895, ‘The Authorship of the Giles Resolutions,’ by Paul L.
Ford.
INDEX
Adams, Abigail, New York house at Richmond Hill, 16;
on removal of capital to Philadelphia, 116;
on Philadelphia, 125;
and Mrs. Bingham, 128, 129.

Adams, Abijah, bookkeeper for editor of Independent Chronicle,

imprisoned for libel, 394, 395.

Adams, John, begins ‘reign’ as Vice-President, 3;

troubled as to proper titles for the President and Vice-President, 3;
on reception of President in Senate, 3;
what is the Vice-President when the President is in Senate?, 3;
writer of ‘Discourses of Davilla,’ published in Fenno’s Gazette, 17;
on Hamilton, 37;
Jeffersonians attempt to defeat for Vice-Presidency in 1792, 181;
elected, but by small margin, 183;
candidate for Presidency, in 1796, 310;
suspects trickery, 312;
retains Washington’s Cabinet, 314;
sketch of, at time of entering on Presidency, 316-26;
Maclay on, 317;
his vanity, 318;
jealousy of Washington, 319;
difficult in conference, 320;
not in sympathy with democracy, 322;
his love of country, 323;
moral courage, 325, 326;
war with France threatened, 339;
sends special mission to France, 345;
reports failure of envoys to France, and recommends Congress to
authorize warlike measures, 363;
is ignorant that Hamilton through McHenry is dictating policy, 363;
action on publication of X Y Z papers commended, 366;
pulls down the pillars, 412;
is troubled about French situation, 412;
offers command of army to Washington, 412, 413;
conspiracy in Cabinet in favor of Hamilton, 412, 413;
 nominates Hamilton, Pinckney, and Knox as major-generals, 413;
Federalist conspirators bombard him with suggestions that Hamilton
should be second in command, 414;
war plans all in Hamilton’s hands, 418-28;
is ignorant of much going on, 426;
considers sending new mission to France, 428;
submits questions to Cabinet, for new negotiations with France or a
declaration of war, 429;
Cabinet conspirators with Hamilton write war Message, 429;
A. rewrites Message, 429, 430;
is conscious of Cabinet conspiracy, 430;
appoints Minister to France, 430;
contest with Senate over confirmation, 430, 431;
agrees to compromise, 432, 433;
confounds his Cabinet conspirators, 436-38;
depressed by Federalist defeat in New York elections in 1800, 455, 456;
suspects Hamilton, 456;
dismisses McHenry and Pickering from Cabinet, 456, 457;
defeated for Presidency, 486;
relations with Jefferson, on quitting office, 489, 490.

Adams, John Quincy, on speculation by Congressmen, 47;

on Madison, 57.

Adams, Samuel, defeated for Representative to First Congress by Fisher

Ames, 1;
looked to by Jefferson for aid in forming opposition party in
Massachusetts, 144;
chosen by Jefferson as lieutenant, 144;
presides at meeting in Boston on Jay Treaty, 278.

Adams, Thomas, editor Boston Independent Chronicle, 152;

prosecuted under Sedition Law, 393-94.

Adet, ——, Minister to United States, from French Republic, credited with
efforts to influence election in 1796, 311.
Alien Bill, aimed at Irish immigrants, 374;
French residents frightened and sail for France, 376;
passed by close vote, 379.

Allen, John, Representative from Connecticut, 379.

American Minerva, on party feeling, 232.

Ames, Fisher, Representative from Massachusetts, elected over Samuel

Adams, 1;
cynical over prospect of improvement in form of government over old
Confederation, 1;
not impressed by his fellow Congressmen, 1;
on cost of Federal Hall, 2;
on titles, 6;
Hamilton’s defender in House, 47;
on Madison, 51, 52;
disgusted with contest for site of permanent capital, 65;
on proposed amendment to Excise Bill, 73;
defends doctrine of ‘implied powers,’ 76;
elected director of Bank of United States, 90;
on Giles’s resolutions attacking Treasury management, 201, 203;
on yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia, 237;
on Madison commerce resolutions, 240, 241;
sketch of, 302-04;
makes strong plea in House for appropriations to carry out Jay Treaty,
305, 306.

An Examination of the Late Proceedings of Congress Respecting the

Official Conduct of the Secretary of the Treasury, pamphlet published in
Philadelphia, 205;
authorship attributed to John Taylor of Caroline, 206.

Assumption, favored by North, where most of State indebtedness was

unpaid, 59;
opposed by Virginia, whose debt was largely paid, 59;
defended by Madison, 61;
 lobbying for passage of bill, 61;
uneasiness of friends of, 61, 62;
Hamiltonian press comments, 63;
adopted after Hamilton’s bargain with Jefferson, 65, 68.

Aurora, The, on the Jay Treaty, 273, 274, 276, 277, 280, 286;
on Hamilton’s Reynolds pamphlet, 355, 356.

Austin, Ben, rope-maker, Jeffersonian organizer in Massachusetts, 144.

Bache, Benjamin F., editor Pennsylvania Daily Advertiser, 152.

Bank of the United States, Hamilton’s Report on, 74;

bill for establishing, 75, 76;
debate on bill in Congress, 75, 76;
constitutionality questioned, 76;
fears of veto, 77;
much speculation in stock, 87, 88;
members of Congress involved, 89;
charges of ‘corrupt squadron,’ 89;
election of directors, 90;
public indignation, 90;
bill introduced to reimburse for loan to Government, 190.

Bard, Dr. John, fashionable physician, 15.

Barnwell, Robert, Representative from South Carolina, on Giles’s

resolutions attacking Treasury management, 203.

Beckwith, ——, British Agent at Philadelphia, cultivates Madison, 80;

Jefferson on, 80;
protests Jefferson’s commendation of Paine’s Rights of Man, 83.

Biddle, Charles, resolutions of welcome to Genêt prepared at home of, 219;

leads parade in honor of Genêt, 220.
Bingham, Marie, daughter of Mrs. William Bingham, 130.

Bingham, William, elected director of Bank of United States, 90.

Bingham, Mrs. William, social leader in Philadelphia, 127, 128;

one of her fashionable gatherings described, 131-35.

Bishop, Abraham, Jeffersonian organizer in Connecticut, 145.

Black Friars, New York City club, 10.

Bloodworth, Timothy, on Excise Bill, 72;

lieutenant for Jefferson in North Carolina, 150.

Bond, Phineas, British Consul in Philadelphia, 244.

Boudinot, Elias, speculator in public securities, 62, 170;

on Giles’s resolutions attacking Treasury management, 201.

Bowen’s Wax Works, Philadelphia, 138.

Bradford, William, classmate of Madison at Princeton, 157.

Breckel, Van, Dutch Minister to United States, entertains lavishly, 13.

Breckenridge, John, of Kentucky, in conference with Jefferson on Alien and

Sedition Laws, 407;
author of the Kentucky Resolutions, 408;
sketch of, 408, 409.

Brown, John, Jeffersonian leader in Kentucky, 180.

Burk, John D., editor of New York Time Piece, arrested for sedition, 405.

Burke, Ædanus, Representative from South Carolina, makes vicious attack

on Hamilton and his financial measures, 62.
Burke, Edmund, and the French Revolution, 82.

Burr, Aaron, on wines in Philadelphia, 126, 147;

Jefferson moves to attach him to his party, 147;
fellow student of Madison at Princeton, 157;
possible candidacy of, for Vice-President in 1792, 181;
leader of Jeffersonians in New York election of 1800, 448;
sketch of, contrasted with Hamilton, 449;
combines forces with Society of Tammany, 451;
his campaign methods, 452-54;
urged for the Vice-Presidency in 1800, 455;
secures copy of Hamilton’s pamphlet attacking Adams, publishes it in
The Aurora, 478.

Butler, Pierce, Senator from South Carolina, 9;

a ‘democrat’ whose associates were aristocrats, 134;
votes against ratification of Jay Treaty, 280.

Cabot, George, sees irrevocable ruin of country, 63;

pained at attitude of Madison, 63;
candid friend and supporter of Hamilton, 63;
elected director of Bank of United States, 90;
on meeting in Boston on Jay Treaty, 278;
on Washington’s hesitation in signing Jay Treaty, 285.

Callender, James Thomas, author of pamphlet, The Prospect Before Us,

indicted and convicted under Sedition Law, 400-02;
defended by William Wirt, 401.

Capital of the Nation, battle on permanent site for, 64, 65;

bargaining to trade votes on Assumption, 65;
bargain between Hamilton and Jefferson on location of, 65, 67;
Hamilton indifferent as to location, 65;
Virginians and Marylanders want it at Georgetown, 65;
Jefferson’s part in bargain, 66.
Carrington, Edward, letter from Hamilton to, in 1792 campaign, 180.

Carroll, Charles, of Carrollton, Senator from Maryland, on titles, 5;

elected director of Bank of United States, 90;
mentioned for Vice-President in 1792, 181.

Certificates of indebtedness, issued to soldiers of Revolution, in lieu of

cash, bought up by speculators, 44, 45;
Hamilton’s plans for redemption by funding scheme known in advance to
members of Congress and friends, 46.

Charleston City Gazette, on the Jay Treaty, 281.

Chase, Samuel, Judge, and Mrs. William Bingham, 131;

presiding justice in Alien and Sedition trials, 398, 400-02.

Chateaubriand, Viscount de, on Philadelphia, 123, 125.

Chestnut Street Theater, Philadelphia, 137, 185.

Church, Mrs. Angelica, sister-in-law of Hamilton, 12;

letters on Hamilton, 39.

Cincinnati, Society of the, 48.

City Tavern, Philadelphia, 119.

Clinton, George, newspaper attack on Hamilton’s funding plans ascribed to,

50;
Jeffersonian leader in New York, 147;
in bitter fight with John Jay for governorship of New York in 1792, 178;
urged to become candidate for Vice-President in 1792, 181;
receives votes of four States, though not an avowed candidate, 183;
Jeffersonian candidate for Governor in New York election of 1800, 452.

Clymer, George, Representative from Pennsylvania, on Assumption, 58, 62;

dinner party at house of, described, 126, 127.
Cobbett, William, author of reply to Priestley’s addresses, 259;
proprietor of Porcupine’s Gazette, q.v.

Columbian Centinel, on Funding Bill, 57;

letters to, on Madison and the Funding Bill, 57;
‘Publicola’ (John Quincy Adams) attacks Jefferson, Paine, and
democracy, 84;
on Jeffersonians, 152;
on Freneau’s attacks on Hamilton, 164;
on speculative craze, 176, 178;
on Indian expedition of St. Clair, 175;
on Hamilton’s vindication of official conduct of Treasury, 199;
on French Revolution, 207, 211;
on relations with England, 220;
on the Jay Treaty, 278;
on prospects of war with France, 366;
war propaganda, 370, 371.

Congress, meets in New York City, 1;

Washington and Adams declared elected, 2;
ceremonial forms and titles excite much discussion, 3-6;
first tariff measure in, 19;
executive departments established, 19, 20;
jealousy of executive, 20;
Hamilton’s Report on Public Credit debated, 44 ff.;
debate on Funding Bill, 48 ff.;
scandal over speculation by members in certificates, Bank stock, and
scrip, 89;
‘corrupt squadron,’ 89;
bill to pay loan from Bank of United States hotly debated, 190-92;
Giles’s resolutions condemning Hamilton, debates on, 199-203;
resolutions defeated, 203;
Madison’s resolutions on Jefferson’s Report on Commerce, 240;
Non-Intercourse Act, as reply to England’s high-handed seizure of
American vessels, 244;
debates in Senate on Jay Treaty, 272;
 debate in House over right to have papers as to treaty, 298;
Alien Bill, debates on, 374-79;
Sedition Bill, debates on, 378, 380.

Connecticut Gazette, on French Revolution, 211, 212;

on Genêt, 219.

Cooper, Dr. Thomas, scientist and physician, indicted under Sedition Act,
398;
convicted and imprisoned, 399;
refuses to ask for pardon, 399.

Coxe, Tench, Assistant Secretary of Treasury under Hamilton, and location

of capital, 65.

Croswell, Joseph, poem by, on French Revolution, 208.

Dallas, Alexander James, one of Jefferson’s leaders in Pennsylvania, 148;

aids in preparations for reception of Genêt, 219;
efforts of, in case of brig Little Sarah, 227, 228;
defends Duane in prosecution under Alien Law, 396, 397.

Davie, William R., on opposition to Jay Treaty, 281.

Dayton, Jonathan, 148;

scandal over retention of public funds, 466.

Democratic Party. See Jeffersonians.

Democratic Clubs, organized, 222, 223;

Federalists insist they must be abolished, 260;
condemned by Washington in Message, 261.

Democratic Societies. See Democratic Clubs.

De Moustier, French Minister to United States, Jefferson on, 108.

Dodd, William E., quoted on Jefferson, 96.

Duane, William, editor of The Aurora, arrested and prosecuted under the
Alien Act, 396, 397;
is acquitted, 397;
indicted for sedition, 397;
assaulted and beaten by soldiers, 420;
prosecuted under Sedition Law, 442.

Duer, William, financial failure of, in 1792 starts panic, 176, 177;
threatens damaging revelations from debtors’ prison, 187.

Dunlap, William, historian of American theater, 10.

Dwight, Timothy, on newspapers, 156.

Ellsworth, Oliver, Senator from Connecticut, on titles, 4;

and the Assumption Bill, 62;
on French Revolution, 209;
efforts of, to induce Washington to send Hamilton on special mission to
England, 247;
on Washington’s delay in signing Jay Treaty, 285.

Emmet, Thomas Addis, Irish refugee (brother of Robert Emmet), of the

New York Bar, 375.

Everleigh, Nicholas, appointed Comptroller of the Treasury, 21.

Excise Bill, warm debate on, in Congress, 71, 73;

amendment proposed to prohibit revenue officers interfering in elections,
73;
debate on duration of tax, 73.

Fairfax estate, Virginia, litigation over, 281.

Federal Gazette, Freneau in, opposes Bank Bill, 78.

Federalists, policy to capitalize politically

popularity of Washington, 41;
from beginning under domination of Hamilton, 140;
favored by commercial, intellectual, and professional classes, 140;
leaders men of strength in most of the States, 140, 141;
opposition to, inevitable, 144;
denounce Democrats as conspirators, 151;
attack Jeffersonian newspapers in Federalist organs, 203, 204;
sympathies with royalists in French Revolution, 207, 208;
enforce policy of neutrality in French Revolution wars, 216;
force recall of Genêt, 231;
avert war with England and send Jay to negotiate treaty, 247;
leaders induce attacks on ‘Democratic Societies,’ 261;
defend Jay Treaty, but with wry faces, 285-88;
refuse to confirm nomination of Rutledge as Chief Justice, 289;
pass Alien and Sedition Acts, 375-80;
efforts of leaders to force war with France, 412-28;
mean war to be a Federalist war, 412;
Hamilton is to conduct war with no interference from Adams, 412;
secure appointment of Hamilton as second in command, 415;
conspire to prevent Jeffersonians from securing commissions in army,
416;
war not popular among the people at large, 418;
raising funds for war purposes difficult, 418;
taxes for war arouse resentment, 419;
recruiting slow, 421;
public refuse to believe there is to be a war, 421, 422;
Logan’s visit to France upsets Federalist war plans, 423, 424;
the war hawks disappointed, 425, 426;
Federalists determined on war, 426, 427;
Cabinet conspirators write war Message for Adams, 429;
scheme to override Adams, 430;
caucus, 430;
friends of Adams’s policy in majority, 430;
 losing ground politically in 1799, 440;
plan for changing method of counting electoral votes in Presidential
election, 441, 442;
bill passes Senate, but fails in the House, 442, 443;
spring elections of 1800 show tide running against them, 448, 451-55;
under Hamilton’s influence leaders plan to defeat Adams for Presidency,
455-58;
hints at secession from Federalist leaders in case of Jefferson’s election,
468, 470;
party split hopelessly on publication of Hamilton’s attack on Adams, 481,
482;
defeated in election, leaders conspire to have electors vote for Burr, 491;
Hamilton opposed to plan, 491-501;
plan fails, after much balloting, 506.

Fenno, John, protégé of Hamilton, establishes Gazette of the United States,

4;
his paper aspires to be the ‘court journal,’ 4;
King and Hamilton interested in financing paper, 153, 154;
patronage of government printing, 154;
death of, from yellow fever, 381.

Fenno, John Ward, son of founder of Fenno’s Gazette, continues

publication, 381.

Fitzsimons, Thomas, Representative from Pennsylvania, speculator in

certificates, 47;
Hamiltonians meet at lodgings of, 58;
and the Assumption Bill, 62;
Hamilton’s lieutenant in the House, 186;
introduces resolution asking Hamilton to report plan for redemption of
part of national debt, 186;
resolution precipitates sharp debate, 186, 187;
on Giles’s resolutions attacking Treasury management, 201.

Florida Tea Garden, New York City, 10.

Ford, Paul Leicester, quoted, on Jefferson, 199.

France, revolution in, effect of, in United States, 207;

asked to recall Genêt, 216;
Adams sends mission to, 345;
envoys unsuccessful, 363;
publication of X Y Z papers, 364, 365;
Adams recommends preparations for war with, 365.

Franchise, in 1789 limited in most of the States, 142;

property qualifications, 142;
Jefferson and, 142.

French Revolution, the, its influence in the United States, 207, 208;
Hamiltonians instinctively hostile to purposes of, 208;
denounced by leading Federalist Senators, 209;
supported by Jefferson, 210;
sympathy for, of the common people, 213;
enthusiasm for the French, 213, 214;
enthusiasm for, heightened by arrival of Genêt, 221, 222;
liberty caps and liberty poles, 222;
Democratic and Jacobin Clubs everywhere, 223;
Federalists alarmed, 223;
clubs denounced as vicious ‘nurseries of sedition,’ 223.

Freneau, Philip, ‘Poet of the Revolution,’ induced by Madison to establish

newspaper, 154;
appointed to clerkship in Department of State, 155;
establishes National Gazette, 155;
Jeffersonians aided, 155;
at once assumes leadership, 155;
paper recognized as Jefferson’s organ, 155;
arouses Federalist rage, 156;
influence of paper felt in back country, 156;
classmate of Madison, Lee, Burr, and Brockholst Livingston at Princeton,
157;
rebel by nature, 158;
 his career in the Revolutionary War, 158, 159;
Gazette carefully watched by Hamilton, 163;
attacks Hamilton’s policies, 164-68;
attacked anonymously in Fenno’s Gazette, 168;
his dignified reply, 168;
denies any connection of Jefferson with his paper, 169;
renews crusade against Hamilton’s financial policies, 195, 196;
contrast of newspaper with Fenno’s, 163;
criticisms of acts of Administration, 163;
‘Brutus’ article, 164;
‘Sidney’ articles open attacks on Hamilton, 164, 165;
controversy with Fenno, 166, 167;
charges Hamilton with authorship of anonymous articles in Fenno’s
Gazette, 169, 170;
‘Patriot’ articles in National Gazette, 195-97;
analyzes votes in Congress vindicating Hamilton’s financial policies,
204;
on Genêt and French Revolution, 218, 219;
begins series of attacks on Washington, 221.

Funding of debt, Hamilton’s scheme for, well received, 44;

protests against, because of speculations in certificates, 45.

Funding Bill, acrimonious debate on, in Congress, before passage, 48 ff.

Gallatin, Albert, Representative in Pennsylvania Legislature, denounces

Hamilton’s Excise Bill, 70;
leading Jeffersonian in Pennsylvania, 149;
elected to Senate from Pennsylvania, but not allowed to take seat, on
technicality, 289;
elected as Representative, 289;
sketch of, 292-94.

Gates, Horatio, Jeffersonian candidate in New York elections of 1800, 452.

Gazette of the United States, ‘court journal,’ 4, 10;

 Adams’s ‘Discourses of Davilla’ published in, 17;
Fenno defends speculation in public securities, 48;
Fenno in, on criticisms of proceedings of Congress, 57;
on Funding Bill, 57;
attacks in, on ‘demagogues,’ 63;
on Bank, 79;
Fenno’s verses on passage of Bank Bill, 79;
probably established with aid of Rufus King, 153;
Hamilton interested in raising money for, 154;
tone pro-English, 154;
received government patronage, 154;
controversy with National Gazette, 166-70;
Fenno engages in controversy with Freneau, 166, 167, 169;
on Hamilton’s defense of official conduct of Treasury, 199;
on Boston Argus, 203;
on French Revolution, 211;
on attacks on Washington, 221;
‘Pacificus’ letters in, by Hamilton, 225, 226;
attacks on Jefferson, 233;
on the Jay Treaty, 282.

Geisse’s Tavern, Philadelphia, 121.

General Advertiser, on defeat of Jay by Clinton in New York election, 178.

Genêt, Edmond Charles, Minister from the French Republic, arrives in

Charleston, 124;
enthusiastically received everywhere, 218;
his progress to Philadelphia continuous ovation, 218;
formally welcomed at Philadelphia by people, 219, 220;
cordially received by Jefferson, 220;
cold reception of, by Washington, 220;
impudent conduct of, 224.

Giles, William Branch, Representative from Virginia, in favor of Excise

Bill, 71, 72;
opposes Bank Bill, 76;
 organizer for Jefferson in Virginia, 149;
opposes bill to repay loan from Bank of United States, 190, 191;
his personal characteristics, 192;
a giant in debate, 194;
selected by Jefferson to lead in attacks on Hamilton’s financial policies,
195, 197;
presents resolutions demanding information from Secretary of the
Treasury, 197;
presents resolutions condemning Hamilton’s conduct in management of
Treasury, 199-203;
in conference of Jeffersonian leaders, 205;
on Madison commerce resolutions, 241.

Golden Lion, the, Philadelphia tavern, 120.

Goodrich, Chauncey, on adoption of French Revolution titles, 222.

Gove, Christopher, prominent Massachusetts Federalist, 47;

speculates largely in certificates, 47.

Granger, Gideon, Democratic leader in Connecticut, 145.

Gray’s Gardens, on the Schuylkill, 121, 122.

Graydon, Rev. Alexander, on yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia, 237.

Greenleaf, Thomas, editor New York Journal, 152.

Grenville, Lord William Wyndham, negotiates treaty with John Jay, 269-71.

Grout, Jonathan, opposes Bank Bill, 76.

Gunn, Georgia Senator, votes for ratification with Jay, 283;

burned in effigy along with Jay, 283.

Hamilton, Alexander, an interested spectator at Washington’s inaugural, 7;

 appointed Secretary of the Treasury, 21;
a portrait, 22-42;
his personal appearance, 22;
his birth, illegitimate, 23;
his mother brilliant and high-strung, 23;
his ambition always military, 24;
comes from the West Indies to America, 25;
his genius that of writer and thinker on governmental affairs, rather than
as soldier, 25;
his Federalist writings, 26;
master of invective, 26;
a persuasive orator, 26, 27;
refused permission by Congress to present his reports personally, 27;
essentially an aristocrat, 28;
ideal of government ‘the rule of gentlemen,’ supported by a strong
military force, 29;
distrusted always a democracy, 29;
held public opinion of no value, 29;
disapproved of the Constitution as adopted, but urged its ratification as
better than nothing, 30;
his own plan presented to the Constitutional Convention radically
different from that adopted, 30, 31;
his republic to be an aristocratic republic, with the States as States
abolished, 31;
took little part in Constitutional Convention, 32;
large factor in making the Convention possible, and in securing
ratification of Constitution, 32, 33;
his sense of system, 33;
capable of long-sustained exertion, 33, 34;
a hard fighter, 34;
honesty, 34;
as a party leader, lacking in tact, 35;
never consulted, but directed, 35;
egotistical and vain, 36;
lacking in judgment in handling of men, 36;
unnecessarily offended sensibilities, 36, 37;
lacked sympathy always with the ‘common man,’ 37;