What is a family?

Family – a type of social institution unites people with blood, kinship or alliance into one group within a
society.
- The unifying factor could be that two people are in love, or simply they want to take care for each
other or they have a similar personal goal.
Variations of Family
a. Nuclear Family – parents and children stay in one residence
b. Extended Family – nuclear with other relatives
c. Reconstituted or Blended Family – with family from previous marriage.
d. Transnational Type – family is living in a different country.
e. Divorced or Annulled marriage – go separate ways.
f. Single Parent – a person bringing up child or children without a partner.
g. Cohabitation – living together or in lieu of marriage
h. Same sex Couples – LGBT parenting
Kinship – the most universal and basic of all human relationships and is based on ties of blood, marriage or
adoption.
Explain - 2 basic kinds of kinship ties
1. Those based on blood that trace descent
2. Those based on marriage, adoption or other connections
2 Types of Kinship
Affinal kinship – result of marriage
Consanguineous kinship – it includes the parents and their children, of a biological origin or adopted.
Kinship by Blood
1. Descent Systems Kinship
2. Unilineal Descent (Patrilineal Descent & Matrilineal Descent)
3. Bilinel Descent
Kinship by Ritual
Compadrazgo – relationship promote ties through baptism or marriage.

Political Organizations – involves issue like allocation of political roles, levels of political integration,
concentration of power and authority, mechanisms of social control and resolving conflicts.
Types of Political Organization
A. Band -it is usually a very small, oftentimes nomadic group that is connected by family ties and is
politically independent.
B. Tribe – it is a combination of smaller kin or non-kin groups, linked by a common culture that usually
act as one.
C. Chiefdom – a political unit headed by a chief, who holds power over more than one community
group.
Social Ranking System
D. State – it is a political unit that has sovereignty, the legitimate and ultimate authority of the state,
over an area of territory and the people within it.
Nation – it is consists of a distinct population of people bound together by a common culture,
history and tradition who are typically concentrated within specific geographic regions.

Authority and Legitimacy

According to Max Weber, a 20th century sociologist, every leader has some form of justification as to why
he or she should be accorded with such power. He organized these reasons to 3 categories.
1. Traditional Authority – is achieved by a leadership legitimacy that highlights the right of a leader to
rule based on inheritance of the title.
2. .Rational (Legal) Authority – is achieved by a leader through the process of following established
codes and procedures governing the allocation and distribution of power and resources within a
society.
3. 3.Charismatic Authority- creates a type of leadership that is based on the personal attachment of
the subordinates to the ruler whose characteristics, experiences or even skills are believed to be
extraordinary or maybe even supernatural.

ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS

Economic Institutions – are those that are involved in the production and distribution of the goods and
services that member of a society need. Economic exchanges, which are an important part of a functioning
economy, happen for different reasons and through different ways. Societies greatly differ from each other
in terms of culture, their systems of economic exchange may also vary.
Nonmarket Institutions
Reciprocity exists when there is an exchange of goods or labor between individuals in a community. This
would include direct barter or simultaneous exchanges of goods or labor. An example of reciprocity is when
you exchange food or in-kind for the labor extended from your neighbors.

Forms of Reciprocity
1. Generalized Reciprocity – the exchange of goods and services without a definite time frame of
when the favor should be returned.
Example: Your relationship to your family and closest friends. When you are given food by your parents for
instance, do they expect you to buy them food in return? Parents usually do not ask their children to repay
them for what they are given. The same situation goes for your closest friends.
2. Balanced Reciprocity – exchange occurs between groups or individuals with the donor expecting to
receive something of equal or similar value.
3. Negative Reciprocity – groups try to maximize their gains while giving as little as possible. This
form is usually motivated by the desire to acquire a large number of goods using minimal
resources.
Example: A poor student wanting to go to an expensive university might be polite and respectful
toward a rich uncle with the hope that he will help out financially. That uncle may gladly pay for his
nephew's or niece's education in return because of the attention and recognition that he receives.

Transfer entails a redistribution of income that is not matched by the actual exchange of goods or services.
An example of this is a donation or financial assistance from a wealthy relative to the needy one. Another is
from the government institutions in the case of 4P's, senior citizen social pension, farmer subsidies, social
security benefits, among others.

Redistribution can be considered as a combination of transfer and reciprocity. It involves a centralized

collection of goods from members of a group and redistributes the goods to the same members of the
group. For example, during this covid-19 pandemic, a student organization in your school collects relief
goods and distributes the same to the most affected students in the community.

Market Institutions
The market transaction involves parties who sell their goods and services in exchange for cash from
consumers or customers. Some examples of these are the sari-sari stores in our community where we
used to buy our basic needs; the food industry that we used to patronize provides support to the economic
activity in our country, in general.

Market and state. The state, through the government, plays an important role in the market. The
government regulates the prices especially for the basic commodity to protect the interest of the
consumers. That is why we have this so-called Suggested Retail Price (SRP) which means that the price of
a certain commodity follows a price ceiling or the maximum price set by the government. The Department
of Trade and Industry (DTI) is tasked with this regulation.

Labor is also considered a commodity and it is an input to the production of goods and services. The
government regulates the prices of labor by determining the minimum wages through the regional wage
board to protect the workers from being paid below the minimum in exchange for their service rendered.
The government intervenes in the activities of market institutions to primarily protect the interest and
welfare of the consumers and the workers.

The government collects taxes from the worker’s income, business profits, and consumption of goods and
services to raise revenue for government spending, may it be government purchase, for example, purchase
of fighter planes or construction of railways or transfer payments which does not require any output in the
form of social security benefits, provision of public services through free education, universal health care,
etc., subsidies and the like.

Non-state Institutions and Organizations

A bank is a place where people deposit or save their money with interest in a given period. It lends money
both to public and private organizations. The government borrows money from the bank to finance its
projects while private organizations and individuals borrow money to finance their business and other
personal needs. The example includes Banco de Oro, Bank of the Philippine Islands, Metrobank, rural
banks, etc.
A corporation is a company or group of people authorized to act as a single entity and recognized as such
in law. Usually, corporations operate as stock corporations where ownership is through stockholders who
own shares in the company. Examples are San Miguel Corporation and Jollibee Foods Corporation.

Cooperative or coop refers to an autonomous association whose membership is voluntary toward the
attainment of shared economic, social and, cultural needs or aspirations. The members are the owner of a
cooperative. Examples are credit cooperative, a consumer cooperative, electric cooperative, housing
cooperative, worker’s cooperative, an agricultural cooperative, general cooperative.

A trade union or labor union is an organization of workers whose main objective is to protect the welfare of
its members. Its purpose is to collectively negotiate with employers for better compensation benefits, to
ensure safety standards in the workplace, and others. In the Philippines, these national federations are the
Trade Union Congress of the Philippines (TUCP) and the Kilusang Mayo Uno (KMU).

A bank is a place where people deposit or save their money with interest in a given period. It lends money
both to public and private organizations. The government borrows money from the bank to finance its
projects while private organizations and individuals borrow money to finance their business and other
personal needs. The example includes Banco de Oro, Bank of the Philippine Islands, Metrobank, rural
banks, etc.
A corporation is a company or group of people authorized to act as a single entity and recognized as such
in law. Usually, corporations operate as stock corporations where ownership is through stockholders who
own shares in the company. Examples are San Miguel Corporation and Jollibee Foods Corporation.

Cooperative or coop refers to an autonomous association whose membership is voluntary toward the
attainment of shared economic, social and, cultural needs or aspirations. The members are the owner of a
cooperative. Examples are credit cooperative, a consumer cooperative, electric cooperative, housing
cooperative, worker’s cooperative, an agricultural cooperative, general cooperative.

A trade union or labor union is an organization of workers whose main objective is to protect the welfare of
its members. Its purpose is to collectively negotiate with employers for better compensation benefits, to
ensure safety standards in the workplace, and others. In the Philippines, these national federations are the
Trade Union Congress of the Philippines (TUCP) and the Kilusang Mayo Uno (KMU).

Transnational Advocacy Groups are involved in social advocacy to promote principled causes, ideas, and
values. Their goal is to give the powerless a voice in the domestic and international law-making body.
Common social advocacies include human rights, consumer rights, women’s rights, environmental issues,
and international peace. In the Philippines, Human Rights Watch is very active in human rights and peace
issues.

Development Agencies are committed and dedicated to distributing aid. These agencies are present in
developing countries challenged by security conflict, food shortage, climate change, financial instability, and
others. Some of the prominent development agencies in the Philippines are the following: 6
• United States Agency for International Development (USAID)
• Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID)
• Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)

The aid can be subdivided into two categories: humanitarian aid (emergency relief efforts in response to
disasters and development aid (foreign aid) aimed at helping countries to achieve sustainable economic
growth.

Global Organizations work in the development of entire countries. They are the funders and donors. They
operate by giving loans or grants to other countries to be used for improvement. In the onslaught of COVID-
19, World Bank granted a loan to the Philippines to be used for financial assistance to many of the Filipinos
who are affected by the pandemic. Below are the most well-known organizations in the world.
• World Bank (WB)
• International Monetary Fund (IMF)
• Asian Development Bank (ADB)

The International Organizations are organizations with a worldwide membership, scope, or presence. The
two (2) main types are the following:
• International Non-governmental Organizations (INGO) are non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that
operate internationally, for example, the International Committee of the Red Cross.
• International Governmental Organizations (IGOs) are organizations that are made up primarily of member
states, for example, the United Nations (UN).

Education is the social institution that formally socializes members of society. It also refers to the process
through which skills, knowledge, and values are transmitted from the teachers to the learners.
Formal education usually takes place in a classroom setting and is provided by trained teaching and non-
teaching staff.

Elementary education is the first part of the educational system, and it includes the first six years of
compulsory schooling from grade1 to grade 6.

Secondary education is continuing basic education from the elementary level to four years of junior high
school and two years of senior high school.

Tertiary education is offered by private and public colleges and universities. Most higher education
institutions offer 4-year degree programs with two semesters per year.
Vocational education. Accredited institutions offer technical and occupational education. Programs offered
to vary in duration from a few weeks to two years.

Special education (SPED) refers to the education of persons who are physically, mentally, emotionally,
socially or culturally different from so-called “normal” individuals, such that they require modification of
school practices to develop their potential.
Non-formal education is an organized educational activity that takes placed outside a formal set up. It has
no age-limit, even adults can take part in a non-formal education program. One example of this is the
Alternative Learning System (ALS) of the Department of Education.

Informal education is a lifelong process of learning by which every person acquires and accumulates
knowledge, skills, attitude from daily experiences at home, at work, at play, and from life itself.

Functions of Education in the Society

 Give training in specific skills, or the basic general education literacy
 Prepare individuals for the job
 Preserving culture from generation to generation
 Encouraging democratic participation through verbal skills
 Develop the person’s ability to think logically
 Enriching life by enabling the students to expand his/her intellectual and aesthetic horizons
 Improving personal adjustment through personal counseling
 Improving the health of the nation’s youth
 Producing nationalistic citizens
 Build personal character

The two most important goals of education for the individual and society are productive citizenry and self-
actualization.
Productive citizenry refers to the idea that a citizen can create opportunities to become productive.

Self-actualization refers to a desire for self-fulfillment. If an individual’s self-fulfillment is through achieving

his dreams and aspirations in life, once these are attained, he reaches the level of self-actualization.

Religion and Belief System

 Social and Political Stratification

Differentiation is the method of relating people in terms of a particular social characteristics and then classifying them into
social categories based on their characteristics; it does not involve ranking. For example, we may differentiate people
according, to sex, age, occupation, education, etc. We then place them in a particular social category.

The layering of these categories into the higher and lower position of prestige or respect is called social stratification.

Social stratification is a society’s categorization of people into socioeconomic strata/layer, based on their occupation and
income, wealth and social status, or derived power (social and political).

Three Social Classes

1. The upper class – consists of the elite or wealthy families who are the most prolific (productive) in their respective areas.
They value heritage most over wealth.
2. The middle class – these are mostly professional people like lawyers, doctors, managers, owners of small businesses,
executives, etc. They value education most since education to them is the most vital measure of social status.
3. The lower class – these are the office and clerical workers, skilled and unskilled craftsman, farm employees,
underemployed, indigent families, etc. They depend on their paycheck.

Status is the individual’s spot in the social structure. The higher or lower positions that come about through social
stratification are called statuses. For example, some people are prominent government officials while others are salesmen,
utility workers, etc. This does not relate to the individual themselves, but rather in the position into which they have been
placed.
Social Desirables
Any rational individual will always aspire for things that give wealth, power, and prestige. The ability of an individual to
realize such aspiration is forced by situations where one is born into.

Ascribed statuses are assigned or given by the society or group based on some fixed category. Examples are sex, family
background, ethnicity, etc.

Achieved statuses are earned by the individual. Examples are honors received in school, good job, an award for winning a
competition, etc.

Prestige and Esteem

Prestige refers to the evaluation of status. You gain respect according to your status. For example, being a senior student,
you have the prestige of a senior student at your school. It does not apply directly to you as a person, but rather to the
social category to which you belong (senior class).
Esteem refers to the assessment of our role behavior. The measure of esteem we have depends on how well we carry out
our role. If you perform well, get an outstanding rating, you get and have a high regard.
Political Stratification
Political stratification is the extent to which inequalities are encapsulated in, or influenced by political structures and,
processes regarding influence, power and authority.

Social Mobility System/Structure

Social mobility is the act of moving from one social status to another.
Open class system means that individuals can change their social class in society. People are free to gain a different level
of education or employment than their parents. They can also socialize with members of another group, which allows
people to move from one class to another.
Caste and closed-class system, people can do little or nothing to change their social standing. People are born into it and
will remain in it. People are assigned occupations regardless of their talents, interests, or potential.

Types of Social Mobility

Horizontal mobility is the movement of a person within a social class level. For example, a factory worker who finds a new
job as a construction worker.

Vertical mobility is the movement of a person between social class levels or another class. For example, a factory worker
who enrolls in college and becomes a businessman.

Social inequality is the existence of uneven opportunities and rewards for diverse social positions or
statuses within a group or society. It happens when resources, in whatever nature, are distributed
unevenly.
Additionally, social inequalities are correlated to gender inequality (women and Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual,
Transgender), ethnic minorities, racial inequality and persons with disabilities, etc.
Gender and sexual orientation have been a subject of inequality.
Traditionally, women were regarded as placed in the lower social status in society compared to men. Men
were accorded to have more social and political rights. In these modern societies, though there are already
many women representations in civil society, the culture of stereotyping is still evident. They are also
subjected to abuse and violence.
Ethnic minorities are also subject to social discrimination – the cultural marginalization that they experience
from the dominant majority. They are also victims of stereotyping, abuse and, violence.
Persons with disabilities (PWD) or differently-abled persons are also victims of inequality and deprived of
opportunities in society especially, in the employment sector due to their physical impairments.
Minorities in the social structure. Members of society that have more power than others are called dominant
members. Dominant members set the standards to follow. The dominant group enjoy more privileges, such
as better houses, better schools, and higher income. On the other hand, those who are barred from such
privileges and opportunities are called the minorities. They are usually denied by the equal treatment of the
majority or dominant.
Discrimination and prejudice. Discrimination happens when minorities are being deprived of equal
treatment and are kept in a lower status by the dominant members of the society and the resistance of
equality.
Closely linked to discrimination is prejudice. Prejudice can be either positive or negative but, most of the
time, it connotes negativity. Prejudice is defined as a 3 negative attitude toward the members of a group.
Stereotyping refers to our tendency to picture all members of a category as having the same qualities.
Usually, stereotyping is a result of overgeneralization.
Ethnocentrism is the belief that our nation, race, or group is the best or superior to others.
Scapegoating is a situation when people encounter problems that they do not know how to solve.
Racism is the belief that one’s race is superior and has the right to control or direct others.
There are ways by which social inequality can be addressed.
The first of these is through policy legislation. Gender equality can be fostered by enacting laws that
promote women’s rights. Many laws have been crafted to guarantee women’s protection and well-being,
may it be in work or household.
105-Day Expanded Maternity Leave Law
Signed into law on February 2019 by President Rodrigo Duterte, Republic Act 11210 or the Expanded
Maternity Leave Law extends the previous 60-day (78 days for caesarian section delivery for women
workers in the private sector) paid maternity leave to 105 days. The law also entails an option to extend for
an additional 30 days of unpaid leave. Additional 15 days of paid maternity leave shall also be granted to
female solo parents.
• Prohibition on Discrimination Against Women
RA 6725 prohibits discrimination with respect to terms and conditions of employment solely based on sex.
Under this law, any employer favoring a male employee over a female in terms of promotion, training
opportunities, and other benefits solely on account of sex is considered discrimination.
Inequality does not only exist in our community, in our society, in our country but also among states. There
are countries that are economically matured and more powerful than others and end up to becoming
influential in the global community. This situation leads to a condition of global inequality where developing
countries end up being controlled and influenced by the developed countries.
The balance of power of states is often rooted in historical events where the process of colonization in the
past led to a relation of unequal dependency between a former colony and its former colonizer. The case of
the Philippines and the United States is an example of this, where, culturally, economically, and politically,
the 3 Philippines is perceived to be under the strong influence of the United States due to colonization in
the past.
Global Inequality
Inequality can also be an outcome of the relative strength of a state as compared with another in terms of
strategic importance or development assistance. Countries with many resources, for example, oil-producing
countries, tend to have more power. Countries that send official development assistance (ODA) in the form
of loans and grants are in the position to dictate their policy conditions to the countries that receive their
development funds. Countries with rich resources tend to have more advantages over others.
Military strength is also a source of inequality where countries with superior military competence can bully
or intimidate the countries with weaker military forces, just in the issue or the situation in the West
Philippine Sea between China and the Philippines. It is a clear example of this unequal relationship.
Global inequality can also be manifested through transnational business corporations and organizations
that operate globally. These private corporations have enormous power to influence the economy of the
countries where they have investments. The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and Asian
Development Bank (ADB) are also positioned to a have huge influence in the policy directions of countries
that are indebted to them since they can dictate economic policies to comply with their conditionalities for
loans granted to countries.
The financial systems of the world have developed unevenly such that an entire geographical region was
left stalled in poverty and illness, while the rest of the world began to reduce poverty and illness.
According to the World Economic Forum, income inequality is currently the number one global concern, this
is an assessment supported by research suggesting even economic elites now worry over the impact on
society of the escalating wealth divide. Inequality is one of the key challenges of our time. Income inequality
specifically is one of the most visible aspects of a broader and more complex issue, one that entails
inequality of opportunity and extends to ethnicity, gender, age, and disability among others.
There are ways to address global inequalities. One of these is the formation of regional groups, such as the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). The assumption is that the formation of regional groups
can provide strength in numbers. The main disadvantage is despite the presence of regional groups,
ASEAN in particular, individual members may be controlled or limited to assist to others due to the policy of
noninterference, where members are hesitant to intervene to the foreign and domestic issues of another
country.
Another way is to enter bilateral treaties and pacts with other countries, like the mutual defense agreement
between the Philippines and the United States. While this provides some form of security for the Philippines
when the United States can help us in times of external aggression from another country, it further
strengthens our unequal relations with the United States.
There is the recourse to international treaties and agreements that set agreements on issues as varied as
climate change, transnational crime, and international development. The Philippines is a signatory to these
agreements, which bind other signatories to a standard protocol. Any violation of these agreements can be
used as a basis to appeal to the International Court of Justice (ICJ).
Furthermore, countries need to embrace an integrated program that looks at the problem across the social,
economic, and environmental dimensions, as well as access to education, health care and resources to
effectively solve inequality. Vital to these solutions is a host of interventions that promote equitable access
to resources and services, as well as inclusive growth with decent jobs and livelihoods for all people within
the society. The following are the top solutions to inequality.
• Improved Education
• Tax Policy
• Social Welfare Policy
• Redistribution
• Job Creation
• Workforce Development
Any shift in various aspects of the society means change.
Social change refers to the significant modification or alteration in the lifestyle of a society,
including culture. Social change also means any significant shift or modification in the lifestyle of the
society that affects the major portion of the population that brings about pattern of behaviour.
It may be brought about by cultural, religious, economic, scientific, or technological forces.
“Staying at home and the “new normal” because of covid-19 are the best examples
for this. Any change of what we perceived as a normal thing in our lives, may it be
intentional or not, may lead to social change.
Cultural change refers to changes made in cultural elements, both material and non-material.
Political change is when there is a significant disruption in a government that leads to new or modified
leadership or policies.
CAUSES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Technology. According to Thomas Friedman, American political commentator and author,
technology is the driving force behind globalization. People get connected all over the world through
technology. Technologically advanced countries are on the rise. Technology contributes a lot to the
modernization in the fields of medicine, agriculture, manufacturing, and other industries. Life has been
made easier through technology.

Social Institutions. Social institutions are established sets of norms and subsystems in a society. Societies
are composed of different sectors and each sector carries out specific tasks. Each sector also has different
responsibilities that contribute to the normal functioning of the society.
Population. A change in population in the composition of every level in the society leads to social change.
Regardless, whether the population increases or decreases, for sure it has a great impact of all aspects in
the society.
Environment. A population change may affect the environment and the natural resources.
Likewise, a change in the environment will also affect the people and the society. Because of the changes
in the population (increase), people will now be using all the natural resources available.
Modernization may also be considered as atypical result of social change. It refers to the process of
increased differentiation and specialization within a society, primarily around its industry and infrastructure.
SOURCES OF CULTURAL, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CHANGE
Innovation. It is the use of new techniques to achieve desired ends. It also refers to changing or creating
more effective processes and ideas. This is the process of translating a new idea into something that can
create value.
Cultural Diffusion. This is the spread of culture including aspects such as clothing and food, from one
group to another, typically as a result of making contact with a new group for the first time. When one
culture begins to adopt elements (clothing, food, religion, costume, song, dance, language, etc.) of another
culture, then cultural diffusion happens. Filipinos experience cultural diffusion when KPOP was first
introduced in the Philippines. The concept of KPOP music and K drama was new to us at that time.
Acculturation. It is a process where a minority (small group of people) adopts the cultural aspects of the
majority (large group of people) without losing its own traditions and customs. Looking back to our previous
example about KPOP, many Filipino millennial begin to speak and dress like their KPOP idol but they can
still retain their Filipino culture.
Assimilation. Assimilation is a process whereby people of a culture learn to adapt to the ways of the
majority culture. There is a loss of the minority’s own culture as more value is given to the cultural aspects
of the majority.
SOCIAL CONTRADICTIONS AND TENSIONS
Social contradictions and tensions apply only to humans. There are instances that a new idea somehow
may lead to innovation, but instead, it can disturb patterns and relationships between people, likewise, the
encountering of other cultures may lead to tensions and conflict.
Inter-ethnic conflict is an armed conflict between different ethnic groups. When two or more ethnic groups
meet because they are occupying or living in the same territory, there are so many possibilities that may
arise. One of these is misunderstanding between these groups that would likely lead to conflict and would
result to war.
Political violence can be the result not only of ethnic conflict but also of class conflict. In political science,
political violence is also seen as a manifestation of aggressive politics, and it includes revolutions, civil war,
riots, strikes, and peaceful protest movements. Two of the more serious forms of political
violence are revolution and terrorism.
Revolution involves a public seizure of the state with the main goal of overturning the existing
political structures. Revolutions involve the public, and are usually attended by rapid, structural changes
that usually involve the use of violence.
Terrorism occurs when nonstate actors use violence against civilians to
achieve their political goals.
Gender issue is also a source of social contradictions and tensions. The issue on gender equality has
been a subject on social discussions for quite some time up to the present. Gender equality refers to a view
that all genders, including men and women, should receive equal treatment, and therefore should not be
discriminated against based on their gender. UNICEF (United Nations children’s Fund) describes gender
equality as “women and men, and girls and boys, enjoy the same rights, resources, opportunities and
protections. It does not require that girls and boys, or women and men, be the same, or that they be treated
exactly alike.

Global Warming and Climate Change

Many researchers on global warming and climate change focus mostly on what it will bring to the future.
Climate change serves as a new challenge to humans
today. The changing climatic conditions that we experience tell us that there is an
existing environmental problem that needs to be addressed immediately so that it will not give too much
negative impact to human beings in the future. Everyone must do something and act on global warming
and climate change to ensure the survival of human species.
Today, different programs are being implemented worldwide to prevent further global warming and avoid
climate change. Despite of this, its effect will definitely last many years from now. Therefore, adaptation to
the resulting changes in climate change is necessary. The goal of adaptation to climate change is to
increase the ability of our environmental, social, and economic system to cope with the problem.
Responding to Social, Political, and Cultural Change
Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy focused at giving all citizens a strong sense that they are
members of the overall society. This also includes access to public funds, public organizations, egalitarian
rights and acceptance by national figures.
Participatory governance is a kind theory which put emphasis on democratic engagement
through deliberative practices. The desired output of participatory governance is citizen
engagement. Participation is a fundamental goal of most government institutions. The right to participate in
a society’s decision-making processes has been accepted as a basic human right.
New media - media to mass media, to electronic media, and now to the so-called new media. Technology
has a great influence on our way of living; it also widens our social circle. New media is a generic term for
the many different forms of electronic communication that are made possible through the use of
computer technology.
Social networking is a more casual form of social media. The most popular example is Facebook. Social
networking is just one of the different forms and types of social media. Others include forums,
microblogging, bookmarking, video sites and search engines.
Social movement is defined as a set of attitudes and self-conscious actions by people seeking to change
society. Social movements involve a large number of people mobilize to endorse or resist any social and
cultural change.
Environmentalism is a social movement whose advocacies are in line with concerns for the environment –
its protection and improvement.
Feminism is for the women’s liberation movement. It is a feminist movement which is a series of political
campaigns to push for reforms on issues involving women such as reproductive health, domestic
violence, fair labor practices, political suffrage and sexual harassment.