A PARADIGM is a basic framework of assumptions, principals and methods from

which the members of the community work. It is a set of norms which tell a scientists how to
think and behave.
Paradigm, fox T. Kuhn, is a universally recognizable scientific achievement that, for
some time, provides model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners.

To become a paradigm, a system of beliefs must be attractive, widely accepted by a

large number of supporters, and at the same time non-trivial.
A shift from one paradigm to another causes a need to explain all the same facts again.

THE COMPARATIVE-HISTORICAL SCIENTIFIC PARADIGM

offers procedures for reconstructing the origin of languages from proto-
languages, establishing evolutionary changes and patterns of development of
related languages by comparing them at various stages of formation.
The Comparative Historical Paradigm was the first paradigm in linguistics, it
is concerned with comparing languages to establish their historical relatedness.

The birth of this direction was prepared, firstly, by the activity of normalizing languages by
creating monolingual and general rational grammars.
The idea of the common origin of certain languages was known since the 14th century (treatises
by A. Dante).
The founders are the German scientists Franz Bopp and Jacob Grimm, Danish researcher Rasmus
Rusk and Russian linguist A. Vostokov.
The discovery of Sanskrit by the English orientalist W. Jones in 1786:Sanskrit became a language
that was no longer inherently exotic or ' oriental', but a language with deep affrnities with European
classical and modern languages. It became a sister language and its 'discovery nudged the development
of historical and comparative linguistics, and modem linguistics in general.

Four stages of the development of linguistic comparatives are distinguished:

□ Romantic;
□ Naturalistic;
□ Neogrammarian;
□ Post Neogrammarian (structural);
• The completion of the paradigm, according to the scientist, was accomplished only
by A. Schleicher when he revised the concept of protolanguage, creating a chain of
continuous evolution of Indo-European languages

The naturalistic stage was characterized by the extension of the principles and methods of
natural sciences to the study of language and speech activity by the assimilation of language,
which develops independently of the wil of the speaker in an evolutionary way to a natural
phenomenon. The basis for linguistic naturalism was the evolutionary views of Ch. Darwin,
 the systematics of K. Linnaeus, J Lamarck, and the objective- idealist philosophy of history
of H. Hegel.

HISTORY OF STRUCTURALISM
□ Emerged in the late XIX century;
□ became dominant in the 20-s of the XX century;
□ was created as an alternative to comparative-historical linguistics;
□ was studied as a system with its specific features:
1) invariant elements, which in speech are related to their specific
realizations;
2) relations between elements arranged in a hierarchy of language levels:
syntagmatic, paradigmatic, epidigmatic.

THE FOUNDERS OF THE IDEA OF STRUCTURALISM

The most passionate supporters of the idea of linguistic structuralism
were F. de Saussure and the russian linguist 1. Baudouin de Courtenay.
The primacy of one of these two researchers in the development of linguistic
structuralism cannot be definitely determined.

HISTORY OF THE MEANING OF STRUCTURALISM BY

EMINENT SCIENTISTS OF THE 20TH CENTURY
o F. de Saussurc qualified language as a system, all elements of which form
a complete whole.
o According to F. Berezin, structuralist ideas were already in the air, "the
intellectual climate of the era demanded a more systematic study of
language, and Saussure's unique originality was that he created his own
complete and universal system regardless of the sources that inspired
him".

MAIN PRINCIPLES
□ systematicity,
□ ontological dualism,
□ reductionism,
□ relationalism,
□ oppositionality.
MATHEMATICAL METHODS OF STRUCTURALISM RESEARCH
Linguistic structuralism contributed to the integration of
mathematical research methods into linguistics

Structuralism is a general theory of culture and methodology that implies that

elements of human culture must be understood by way of their relationship to a
broader system. Within Structuralism, scientists have achieved outstanding success
in grouping the language units into one large and integral system. So, the system-
structural paradigm helps us get oriented in the language, its structure and system.

Functional linguistics is aimed at explaining linguistic forms through their

functions.
Definition of functional paradigm
□ The functional (pragmatic) scientific paradigm is characterized by the
perception of the object in its interaction with the environment as an activity, the
functioning of the system. Therefore, this paradigm is sometimes called structural
functional.
□ In other words, functional paradigm indicates linguistic approaches that are
centrally concerned with the function of language - that is what language does, and
how it does it in a given context. Functional linguistics is focused on deriving
grammatical, syntactic and textual structures from the ways in which language is
used. The object of research is the function of morphological and syntactic units.

Characteristics of 1
functional-pragmatic linguistics !
Functionalism has interdisciplinary nature. Functional studies boarder on
psychology (W. Chafe, R. Tomlin), sociology (S. Thompson), statistics (M. Dracr).
history and natural sciences (D. Nichols). Functionalism actively uses
quantitative methods - from simple I calculations (T. Givon) to statistics in full.
 Origin of functionalism
► The philosophical roots of functionalism can be found in the works of I. Kant. V.
James. F. Schiller. K. Popper. L. Vygotsky, S. Rubinstein. M. Bakhtin, etc. The germs of the
functional paradigm in linguistics were also observed in the positions of the German linguist
and philosopher V. von Humboldt, who saw the main goal of language science in the
transition of its study from systemic phenomena to their functioning in speech.
The famous linguists who used functional paradigm in their frameworks.
► Andre Martinet wrote two books which dedicated to Functional Syntax, "A functional
view of language" (1962) and “Studies in Functional Syntax” (1975). I
Martinet is one of the most famous French linguists and can be regarded as the father of
French functionalism. Founded by Martinet and his colleagues, SILF (Societe Internationale
de lingutstiquc fonctionnelle) is an international organisation of functional linguistics which
operates mainly in French.

► Simon Cornelis Dik was a Dutch linguist, most famous for developing the theory of
functional grammar, the foundations for which had been laid in his dissertation on
coordination. His most famous work was “The Theory of Functional Grammar”.

Sandra A. Thompson Is Professor Emerita of Linguistics at the University of

California at Santa Barbara. Her research interests center around the role of
discourse, especially everyday embodied conversational interactions, in shaping the
regularities that we call “grammar”, drawing on interactional data from English,
Chinese, and Japanese.
Thompson is known for her large body of research on Mandarin grammar, much of
which she has conducted in collaboration with colleague Charles LI.
She has also conducted research on discourse and grammar, collaborating with
linguists such as Paul Hopper.

The Cognitive Paradigm

The cognitive scientific paradigm in linguistics is characterized by a focus
on the study of language as a means of obtaining, storing,processing, and
using knowledge, on researching ways of conceptualizing and categorizing
the world of reality and internal reflective experience in a certain
language.
The processes associated with knowledge and information are called
cognitive. Thor synonyms are also the words
‘intellectual”, “mental”, “rational”. From the standpoint of cognitivism, a
person Is studied as an Information processing system. and human behavior
Is described and explained in terms ot its Internal states.

history
In linguistics,the problem of cognitive orientation is not new. Bock in antiquity.
Philosophers interpreted language as a means of learning about the world around us.
Ihe problem ot the retallofvslip between tarojoae and INnktoo lx» andent tools. Ihe
development <A wNcti yyno>WM Ixotxjil firsyuslicscloset lo II«*»

<<x [ItBvn vnr lot of ricvnksfiriKiril (|Kychrin<Jk:nl dtnclian In tngiMIcv dating »llh V.
von Humboldt, hgdtHc cwychcfcxjy. OK la I psychology). and mm reported II to tho
position ol mtomo vcrbrrtvn |for example, in yrx.r*g ynmnur. gtensotnalios. deiCrfplivBm.
botsav'irferr. wmo concepts ol Soviet IhgjMto) and Iripuslk; delotmhism f»i fc. Soy and &.
Whorl and User Id lews!.

Occurrence
Developments in cognitive psychology, psycholnguktics. computer science.
Information thoory, mathematical logic, anthropology, etc contributed to the
emergence of cognitive fngJstics. Cognitive linguistics considers language as a
cognitive loot tor encoding and transforming knowledge
Tne most Influential linguists working cf©rg these tnes and focusing centrally on
cognl-rve principles ond organization were
One of the important assumptions shored by al of these scholars Is that meaning
must be o primary locus of study, linguistic structures serve the function of
expressing meanings and hence the mopping correlation) between moaning and
form is a pnme object of linguistic analysis. Unguisfie forms, in this porcdigm. are
closeV Inked to the semantic structures they are designed to express.

Attractiveness ft! the new scientific paradigm lies io Its humanistic character:
language is considered not OS an
the spiritual world ot each speaker, linked with all the mental activity Q[ on
individual and the collective consciousness ot the people.

The synergetic paradigm is a new paradigm that has been created in the 21 st
century. The basis for the synergetic paradigm in linguistics is the qualification of
 the language system as complex, open, non-linear, evolutionary, which functions
due to the interaction of its own subsystems and the mutual determinism of other
external systems of the environment, having regulatory mechanisms that ensure
dynamics, self-organization and preservation of this system.

COGNITIVE COMMUNICATIVE AXIOLOGY OF FICTIONAL DISCOURSE

COMMUNICATIVE MANIFESTATION OF EVALUATION

The starting point of any speech act is a speech situation, i.c. a certain combination of
circumstances that forces a person into speaking.

The speech situation —»motive for speaking —»the need to speak.

Producing speech, we necessarily make use of use ready made schemes and cliches.
but sometimes we opt for creativity.
The utterance is determined by a communicative situation. The components of a
communicative situation are the speaker and his addressee, motives and goals of
communication, intentions, emotions, modality, attitude to the content of the message
and to the addressee, the mode of communication, place and time of communication, etc.

It is in the utterance that the communicative intentions of the speaker arc realized, as
well as his/her aim to inform or to get information, to encourage the addressee to do
something, or somehow influence the addressee.
Any utterance is produced in a wide context of background knowledge,
conventions and national-mental stereotypes. An utterance is characterized by
presupposition and implication.

Background knowledge is the information that is the same for the speaker and the
listener, i.c. the general fund of their knowledge of the world; this is the speaker and
listener’s awareness of certain facts. This kind of knowledge is implied, but not explicitly
pronounced in the dialogue, and it is the basis for linguistic communication.
«What did you think of Keith?»
«Oh, rather a nice little thing», l.said warily.
«He's certainly an improvement on some of Pier's friends», saidRowemt (Pym
Barbara. A glass of Blessings.

Conventions are forms of interaction, including verbal, that arc accepted in a given
society. Conventions include various aspects of the life of society: its traditions, norms,
values, ideas, customs and rituals.
 «And who’s this?» said Valerie archly at Toby. Toby buried ins fan’ :n his father's
neck «Our son. Toby», said Annie.
«What a gorgeous creature», said Valerie, «1 do love children» (Wickham
Madeleine. The Tennis Party, 41).

A stereotype is a standard opinion about social groups or individuals as members of

these groups. The stereotype reflects society’s perception of a certain class of people.
Stereotyping is caused by the law of economy of human efforts in understanding
complex objects, perception and assimilation of new information and the regulative
nature of the attitude.
Presupposition (originates from Latin p?ae-supposilio, that is, “a previous judgment
or assumption’“) is a reference to some information which occurs in the process of
utterance production and which is a crucial condition for grasping the meaning.
“Hello, there, Mrs. Williams! That's a lovely lilac you've got there: can / help you at
all? You really should he resting in weather like this, Mrs. Williams. What are you
doing?"
Before she could stop herself she’d replied, “Digging my fucking grave. At my age
what the fuck else would I he doing? " When she next looked up the MacDonald had done
(Butlin Ron. No more angels, 20).

Implication in logic is an operation that connects two phrases into a complex phrase
using a logical link. In linguistics implication means the conclusion that can be drawn
from something although it is not explicitly stated.
A fter he had left, Hamish phoned Tommel Castle and asked to speak to Priscilla. ^
“Miss Halburton-Smvthe is not at home, " said Jenkins.
“Look, get her to the phone, you horrible snob, and do it fast or I’ll come up there
and knock your teeth in, ” said Hamish pleasantly.
When Priscilla answered the phone, she said, “What did you sa\> to Jenkins? lie
was cringing and creeping and saying he didn V know I was in the castle and yet
he’djust served me a drink before you called ” (Beaton M.C. Death of a perfect wife).

In a particular communicative situation, the speaker has to choose between common

cliches and individual ideas. If an idea is expressed not clearly, corrections are made.

EVALUATION AS A COGNITIVE PHENOMENON

Evaluation helps a person to orient himself in the world and directs ////////////////////////
John Locke: things are good or evil, only in reference to pleasure or pain. What we
call good causes or increases pleasure, or diminishes pain in us. What we call evil
produces or increases pain, or diminishes any pleasure.
 Evaluation is realized at the sensual and rational levels.
Evaluation often happens automatically, extremely quickly, unconsciously.
Evaluation is seen as a cognitive operation, which presupposes the use of two types
of knowledge: the knowledge of the evaluated object and the knowledge of the evaluator's
own inner needs.
An utterance is plunged into macro- and microcontcxt and is determined by the
worldview that is created during a person's life.
Evaluation structure includes the evaluator, object, subject and criterion of
evaluation.
Evaluator is the person from whose point of view evaluation is given. Evaluation is
determined by the physiological state of the evaluator, his experience, social and
professional status, education, intelligence, age, gender and other factors.
The object of evaluation can be a thing, action, situation, a person, the speaker
himself (self-evaluation), an interlocutor or a third person who is absent or present at the
time of speech.
The subject of evaluation is that aspect of the object which is evaluated.
The criterion of evaluation is its motivation, i.e. arguments that lead to certain
evaluation: positive, negative or mixed. Evaluation may be guided by feelings, emotions,
ideals, standards.

Evaluation is characterized by selectivity. From a multitude of various objects

people evaluate those, which are significant for them at a given moment, and those that
provoke their emotions.
Evaluation as a cognitive process in a person's mind occurs on an on-going hasis,
while expression of evaluation in speech occurs by far less frequently.
A wish or reluctance to produce speech evaluation is determined by a set of
pragmatic factors.
If an evaluative speech act takes place, it will not always equal an evaluative
cognitive judgment (as to its intensity, or even
quality, "BAD" ~ deviation from the norm in the direction of decreasing.
The process of evaluation includes the following stages: identifying essential
characteristics of an evaluation object, choice of evaluation criteria, choosing evaluation
devices, either verbal (lexical, grammatical, stylistic) or non-verbal.

THE TRANSFORMATION OF AN EVALUATIVE COGNITIVE

JUDGMENT INTO AN EVALUATIVE UTTERANCE
Sometimes the speaker has no genuine purpose to express evaluation: he or she is
forced to instantly assess the interlocutor's strong points to sound realistic. Thus, the
recognized necessity of a positive evaluative utterance may precede the evaluative
cognitive process.
 Site took off her coat and hat. and glanced about for a minor. ..Do I look awful?» she
said, not finding one., and trying to tidy her hair. «You look wonderful», said Kay
(Sarah Waters. The Night Watch. 260).
Positive evaluation often allows the addresser to skirt a topic, to soften refusal or
criticism, thus serving as a tactics realizing certain communicative strategies. In such
circumstances, the realized necessity of producing an evaluative utterance also comes
first.

The variants of the correlation between an evaluative judgment (EJ) and an

evaluative utterance (EU):
1) EJ = EU in terms both of "+ / –" character and the degree of intensity;
2) EJ ≠ EU in terms of their "+ / –" character (EJ is negatively coloured ("–" icon),
while EU is positively coloured ("+" icon), or vice versa);
3) EJ ≠ EU as to the degree of intensity (EJ is a rational positive evaluation, EU is
an exaggerated emotional evaluation);
4) EJ → no EU;
5) no EJ → EU as a ritual communicative act

Not every evaluation formed in a person’s mind gets transformed into an adequate
utterance. Etiquette regulations prevent a communicant from expressing his/her
negative evaluation. A positive evaluation will not become verbally or non-verbally
explicit if the evaluator is jealous of the evaluation object or angry at them, or follows
some communicative strategies (e.g.. manipulation).
Thus, being shaped into an utterance, a mental judgment goes through pragmatic
filters. At this stage, the sincerity / insincerity factor becomes foregrounded, as well as
the degree of evaluation intensity.

POSITIVE EVALUATIVE SPEECH ACTS TAXONOMY

John Austin .
The theory of speech acts has proved that words are not used just to say things, i.c.
describe states of affairs, but rather to do things actively (Austin 1962; Searle 1969;
Strawson 1967; Wierzbicka 1991)
The focus of the speech act theory has been on utterances, especially those made in
conversational and other face-to-face situations.
A speech act is "a basic minimal unit of verbal communication, an intentionally and
situationally determined, as well as grammatically and semantically organised utterance,
that is accompanied by corresponding actions of the speaker, which are directed at the
addressee and his reaction’' (Олена Селіванова 2010: 425).
A speech act is un utterance that serves a function in communication.
According to Austin (1962) in his speech acts theory, there are 3 actions related to
speech acts. While locutionary act is the action of making a meaningful utterance,
illocutionary act is performing an intentional utterance, perlocutionary act talks about
producing the effect of the meaningful, intentional utterance.
 ТАКСОНОМИЯ ПОЗИТИВНОЙ ОЦЕНОЧНОЙ РЕЧИ
Теория речевых актов доказала, что слова используются не просто для того,
чтобы говорить вещи, т.е. описывать положение дел, а для того, чтобы делать вещи
активно (Остин 1962; Searle 1969; Strawson 1967; Wierzbicka 1991)
В центре внимания теории речевых актов были высказывания, особенно
сделанные в разговорных и других ситуациях лицом к лицу.
Речевой акт - это «базовая минимальная единица словесного общения,
намеренно и ситуативно определенная, а также грамматически и семантически
организованная речь, которая сопровождается соответствующими действиями
говорящего, которые направлены на адресата и его реакцию» '(Олена Селіванова
2010:425).
Речевой акт - это необъявление, которое служит функции в общении.
Согласно Остину (1962) в его теории речевых актов есть 3 действия,
связанные с речевыми актами. В то время как локационный акт - это действие,
заключающееся в создании значимого высказывания, иллюзионный акт - это
выполнение намеренного высказывания, перлокуционный акт говорит о создании
эффекта значимого, намеренного высказывания.

SPEECH ACTS TAXONOMY (CLASSIFICATION):

• representatives.
• expressives.
• directives.
• declarations
 • commissives.
Representatives are the speaker's observation of certain things then followed by
stating the fact or opinion based on the observation (speakers state, suggest, hypothesize,
swear, insist, boast, complain, and conclude). They commit the speaker to the truth of
the expressed proposition.
Directives are used to get someone else to do something. These speech acts include
requesting, questioning, command, orders, and suggesting.
Commissives commit the speaker to some future course of action, these include
promising, threatening, offering, refusal.
Expressives express a psychological state. These speech acts include thanking,
apologizing, welcoming, and congratulating. They are also called behabitives (speech
acts in which the speaker expresses an emotion or attitude, often towards the hearer).
Declarations are speech acts that the utterances effect immediate changes in the
institutional state of affairs. These speech acts include declaring war, christening, firing
from employment.
Positive evaluation becomes communicatively expressed in approval, praise,
compliment and flattery speech acts.
Approval, praise, compliment, and flattery speech acts are syncretic illocutionary
speech acts, as they simultaneously realize two or more illocutions.
Their common illocutionary aims are
 to express positive evaluation of certain people, things, state of affairs, or
ideas.
 to make a positive emotional impact upon the addressee and tocreate a
favourable conversation atmosphere.

TASK. Name approval objects:

6) “Nice day out, ” he commented) (Meyer. Twilight).
7) The Loxford sign gleamed briefly from the black hedgerows.
“Lovely village, ” Mike Vinson said, “smashing. I grew up in Harlesden. You don’t
know you're born, growing up here ” .(Trollope J. The Rector’s Wife, 82).
Look at the examples which belong to a different class. NOT APPROVAL.
WHY?
8) Well, this is a good-sized room, ” said Stephen cheerfully. “You should fit a
lot of guests in here. ” “Yes, I suppose so, ” said Don (Wickham M. The
Tennis Party).
9) What a charming house you do have. You did buy it from the Sheppards? ”
[Agatha Christie].
10) "About your novels, " he said. "The plots are so well-laid.
11) «That was delicious», she said when she'd finished « Thank you».
12) «Mv pleasure» [Highmore J. Message, 257].

The most important fact about approval evaluation objects is that they never refer
to the addressee's sphere of interests , the approval recipient (the addressee)
and the evaluation object of approval never overlap.
 13) "You ought to go, " Charlie said to Laura. His wineglass was almost
empty already. "You ought to go and do one of her pottery courses. They're
very successful. People love them. They come back year after

The illocutionary aims pursued by Недобросовестные цели,

APPROVAL speech act addressers are преследуемые адресатами речей
the following: APPROVAL, следующие:

□ the intention to express positive o намерение выразить

evaluation of the object’s features or позитивную оценку особенностей
actions: объекта или действий:
□ the intention to affect positively o намерение позитивно
the speaker's emotional state. повлиять на эмоциональное
□ the intention to establish a contact состояние выступающего.
with the interlocutor: o намерение установить
□ the intention to mitigate refusal or контакт с собеседником:
criticism and thus save the interlocutor's o намерение смягчить
face: последствия отказа или критики и
□ the intention to change an тем самым сохранить лицо
undesirable topic and thus save the собеседника:
speaker's own face. o намерение изменить
нежелательную тему и тем самым
сохранить лицо оратора.

PRAISE THE OBJECT OF PRAISE CAN BE

the interlocutor a person who is not present during a
speech exchange
собеседник лицо, которое отсутствует во время
речи

PRAISE SUBJECTS ХВАЛИТЬ СУБЪЕКТОВ

moral and intellecnial traits, moral and moral and intellectual traits, skills,
intellectual traits, skills, and actions of actions, and appearance of a third
the interlocutor person

моральные и интеллектуальные моральные и интеллектуальные

качества, моральные и качества, навыки. фракции. и
интеллектуальные качества, навыки появление третьего лица
и действия собеседника

PRAISE as a positive evaluative ХВАЛА как позитивный оценочный

expressive syncretic speech act, its
evaluation subjects being the moral and
intellectual traits, skills and actions of
the interlocutor or a person who is not
present during a speech exchange but is
praised by the speaker, as well as
appearance of a third person.
When she went back to the kitchen, the
fan was spinning busily "How clever of
you. Charles," said Agatha. "What a
relief! How did you get that big screw
undone?"(M.C. Beaton "Agatha Raisin
and the wizard of Evesham").
экспрессивный синкретический
речевой акт, его субъектами оценки
являются моральные и
интеллектуальные черты, навыки
и действия собеседника или
человека, который не присутствует во
время речевого обмена, но высоко
оценивается спикером, а также
появление третьего лица.
Когда она вернулась на кухню,
вентилятор усердно крутил "Как
умно с вашей стороны. Чарльз,"
сказала Агата. "Какое облегчение!
Как тебе удалось отстегнуть этот
большой винт?"(М.С. Битон "Агата
изюм и волшебник Ившама").

"How was your work with Khaled? "
Khader asked me when we walked back
through the dock.
"Very good. I like him. 1 liked working
with him. I'd still be with him if you
hadn't put me to work with Madjid "
(G.D. Roberts "Shantaram").
"Как прошла ваша работа с
Халедом? " - спросил Хадер, когда мы
возвращались через причал.
"Очень хорошо. Мне он нравится.
Мне нравилось работать с ним. Я
все еще была бы с ним, если бы вы не
заставили меня работать с
Маджидом " (Г.Д. Робертс
"Шантарам").

Praise is mainly directed from a senior Похвала в основном адресована

(as to their age or social status) speaker старшему (по возрасту или
to a junior one. социальному статусу) оратору
младшему.

A praise addresser should have a moral Адресат похвалы должен иметь

right to praise another person's traits of моральное право восхвалять черты
character or actions. A praise speech act характера или действия другого
makes its addresser superior to the человека. Хвалебный акт делает
addressee: the speaker should be some своего адресата выше адресата:
kind of authority in a certain sphere. оратор должен быть своего рода
авторитетом в определенной сфере.
The illocutionary aims pursued by Неблаговидные цели, преследуемые
PRAISE speech act addressers arc речевым актом PRAISE, в
largely determined by the fact whether значительной степени определяются
the interlocutor and the object of тем, является ли собеседник и объект
praise are one and the same person. If похвалы одним и тем же человеком.
they are. the illocutionary aims of Если они есть. Неблагоприятные
PRAISE speech act arc the following: цели речи ХВАЛА акт дуги
следующие:
□ the intention to express positive o намерение выразить
evaluation of the object's features or позитивную оценку особенностей
actions: объекта или действий:
□ the intention to share the speaker's o намерение поделиться
positive emotions and thus to affect положительными эмоциями оратора
positively the speaker's emotional state. и тем самым позитивно повлиять на
□ the intention to establish contact его эмоциональное состояние.
with the interlocutor; o намерение установить контакт с
□ the intention to mitigate refit sal собеседником;
or criticism and thus save the o намерение смягчить
interlocutor's face: последствия ремонта или критики и
□ the intention to change an тем самым сохранить лицо
undesirable topic and thus save the собеседника:
speaker's own face. o намерение изменить
нежелательную тему и тем самым
сохранить лицо оратора.
If the speaker praises a person who is Если докладчик хвалит человека,
not present at the moment of speech который не присутствует в момент
and thus the interlocutor is the выступления и, таким образом,
recipient of a собеседник является получателем
message, but not an object of praise, сообщение, но не объект похвалы,
praise is still aimed at qualifying the похвала по-прежнему направлена на
evaluation object's actions or features as квалификацию действий или
being adequate/good (1). but it also функций объекта оценки как
implies: адекватных/хороших (1). но это
также подразумевает:
14) the latent intention to 6) скрытое намерение упрекнуть
reproach an interlocutor, or to call собеседника или призвать его к тому
them for the same behaviour as же поведению, которое
the praised person demonstrated. продемонстрировал человек,
15) the intention to defend the получивший высокую оценку.
third person, who is the object of 7) намерение защитить третье лицо,
 evaluation, from the interlocutor's являющееся объектом оценки, от
negative evaluative statements.
“It's no good Simon." Alan said. "You
can't write her off as a gold-digger or a
marriage-wrecker or a legal groupie or
a sex bomb Yon can’t write Dad off.
either, as a classic male menopause
victim wanting to reassure himself he
could still double the world's population
if he wanted to She’s the real thing.
She’s a proper person" (J. Trollope
"Marrying the mistress").
We 're going down for a sit-in
We?-
Stephanie and me.
"Stephanie?“
“You know Stephanie. " Another
mouthful, and another bacon rasher
disappeared His parents watched
The one with the hair?"
"It's easier to look after like that.
Cropped "
"She could shave It right off and polish
the skin, " said Esther "Then she could
seal it, to preserve the shine "
That was not worthy of you. Mother."
"I'm sorry." she said. Humbly, I am not
at my best when hungry, and your father
keeps getting at me” - Alan took out his
cigarettes and failed to offer her one—
but she's a very nice girl, I know, and
extremely bright. I like her. I understand
she is very popula”.
"It is true”, - said Peter nobly. "that she
does sometimes get mistaken for
a boy, by the older generation. [Fay
Weldon. A fai woman's joke. P. 33].
негативных оценочных заявлений
собеседника.
"Это нехорошо, Саймон", - сказал
Алан. "Ты не можешь списать ее на
то, что она золотоискательница или
разрушительница брака, или
легальная поклонница, или секс-
бомба, которую Йон не может
списать с отца. либо, как
классическая жертва мужской
менопаузы, желая успокоить себя, он
все еще может удвоить население
мира, если захочет, чтобы она была
настоящей. Она настоящий человек"
(Дж. Троллоп "Женится на
любовнице").
Мы собираемся устроить сидячую
забастовку
Мы? -
Стефани и я тоже.
"Стефани? "
"Ты знаешь Стефани. " Еще один
полный рот, и еще одна сыпь с
беконом исчезла Его родители
смотрели
Та, что с волосами?"
"Так намного проще. Обрезанный "
"Она могла бы сбрить его и
отполировать кожу", - сказала
Эстер "Тогда она могла бы
запечатать его, чтобы сохранить
сияние "
Это было недостойно тебя. Мама."
"Мне жаль." - сказала она. Смиренно,
я не в лучшей форме, когда голоден, и
твой отец продолжает доставать
меня" - Алан достал сигареты и не
смог предложить ей их, но она очень
милая девушка, я знаю, и очень умная.
Она мне нравится. Я понимаю, что
она очень населена".
 "Это правда", - благородно сказал
Петр. "Что ее иногда принимают за
мальчик из старшего поколения. [Фэй
Уэлдон. Шутка Фай. П. ЗЗ].
"She thinks she s in bloody Wimbledon "Она думает, что она в кровавом
or something. “ she said disparagingly " Уимблдоне или что-то в этом роде.
Very funny. Just look at her." she "Она сказала пренебрежительно "
persisted, watching as Cressida neatly Очень смешно. Просто посмотри на
put away a backhand volley "Thinks нее." Она настаивала, наблюдая, как
she's a bloody pro. " She’s got a nice Крессида аккуратно убирает залп
technique ," said Patrick. 'we could all слева "Думает, что она чертов
learn from her (Wickham. 1996: 82). профессионал. "У нее хорошая
техника ," сказал Патрик. 'Мы все
могли бы учиться у нее (Уикхем.
1996: 82).

SELF PRAISE САМОВОСХВАЛЕНИЕ

From a pragmatic perspective, self-
С прагматической точки зрения
praise is a face-threatening act. Positive
самовосхваление - это угрожающий
face is the desire that one's positive self-
акт. Положительное лицо - это
image be “appreciated and approved of” желание, чтобы позитивный образ
(Brown and Levinson 1987. 61). Le. the человека был "оценен и одобрен"
desire “to be valued, liked and admired,
(Браун и Левинсон 1987. 61). Le.
and to maintain a positive self-image" желание "быть оцененным, любимым
(Holmes 2009. 711). Self-praise has и восхищенным, а также
primarily been seen as a face threat toподдерживать позитивный образ себя"
the addressee, in that it indicates that the
(Holmes 2009. 711). Самопохвала в
speaker does not care about the hearer's
первую очередь рассматривается как
feelings (Brown and Levinson 1987.67). угроза для адресата, поскольку она
However, it can also be understood as aуказывает на то, что оратора не
threat to the positive face of the speaker
волнуют чувства слушателя (Браун и
of the utterance, as they may be seen to
Левинсон 1987.67). Однако его можно
be ego-centric and “invested in their self-
также понимать как угрозу для
descriptions" (Speer 2012. 56). позитивного лица оратора
Self-praisers employ a range of высказывания, поскольку они могут
mitigation strategies such as attempting
рассматриваться как эго-центричные
to denv the act of self-praise . и "вложенные в их самоописание"
(Спир 2012. 56).
Самовосхваляющие используют ряд
стратегий по смягчению последствий,
таких как попытка лишить себя
похвалы .
COMPLIMENT is a positive COMPLIMENT - это
evaluative expressive syncretic speech позитивный оценочный
act. characterized by the overlapping of экспрессивный синкретический
the addressee and the evaluation object. речевой акт. характеризуется
The main fact about compliment is that it наложением адресата и объекта
is always exaggerated, which is оценки. Главный факт о комплименте
presupposed by the speaker's main заключается в том, что он всегда
intention: he/she wishes to please the преувеличен, что предполагает
recipient by means of positive evaluation главное намерение оратора: он/она
of his / her appearance or желает угодить получателю
accomplishments. посредством позитивной оценки его /
ее внешности или достижений.

Предметом оценки в акте

The subject of evaluation in a комплимента является внешний вид
compliment speech act is the hearer's слушателя, его имущество и
appearance, possessions, and достижения.
accomplishments. Я пойду с тобой. Я всегда так
I will come with you. I’m ever so безумно увлечен антикварные куклы и
madly keen on antique dolls and I must я должен сказать, что один вы
say, that one you got is the most получили является самым
fascinating and beautiful thing I've ever захватывающим и красивым вещь я
seen (M.C. Beaton. Agatha Raisin and когда-либо видел (М.С. Битон. Агата
the love from hell). изюм и любовь из ада).

Joan Manes: by offering Джоан Манес: Выражая

compliments, the speaker expresses комплименты, оратор выражает
approval or admiration for the listener, одобрение или восхищение
and that solidarity between interlocutors слушателем, и таким образом
thus is established. устанавливается солидарность между
собеседниками.
Anna Wierzbicka: compliments are
usually intended to make others feel Анна Вирцбицка: комплименты
good and are performed for maintaining обычно предназначены для того,
"good interpersonal relationships". чтобы другие чувствовали себя
Nessa Wolfson: compliments can хорошо, и исполняются для
be considered social lubricants that serve
поддержания "хороших
to "create or maintain rapport". межличностных отношений".
Несса Вольфсон: комплименты
можно считать социальными
смазками, которые служат для
"создания или поддержания
взаимопонимания".
The illocutionary aims of COMPLIMEX Нездоровые цели речевых актов
I speech acts are: COMPLIMEX I:
1) the intention to show the 1) намерение проявить доброту
hearer kindness, to do them a courtesy or слушателя, оказать ему любезность
to reassure them, which is caused by или успокоить его, что вызвано
politeness strategies or a wish to вежливостью или желанием
maintain good interpersonal поддерживать с ним хорошие
relationships with them; межличностные отношения;
2) the intention to express the 2) намерение выразить
speaker's emotional state by qualifying эмоциональное состояние
the evaluation object's features as being выступающего, квалифицировав
adequate/good (the object of evaluation признаки объекта оценки как
being the interlocutor or the people who адекватные/хорошие (объектом
are close to him/her); оценки является собеседник или
3) the intention to express близкие ему/ей люди);
gratitude to the addressee for their З) намерение выразить благодарность
actions; адресату за их действия;
4) the intention to comfort and 4) намерение успокоить и успокоить
reassure the object of evaluation, "save объект оценки, "сохранить его/ее
his/her face". лицо".

A compliment is expected when the Комплимент ожидается, когда на

hero of the event, for example, the bride, мероприятии появляется герой
appears at the event; when the recipient мероприятия, например, невеста;
has changed his or her appearance in any когда получатель каким-либо образом
way: has new clothes on, has changed изменил свою внешность: надел
hair style, is wearing unusual make-up, новую одежду, сменил прическу,
when guests are served being food. etc. носит необычный макияж, когда
гостям подают еду. итд.
A compliment is often associated
with such rituals as congratulations, Комплимент часто ассоциируется с
toasting, showing one's home to the такими ритуалами, как поздравления,
guests who have arrived. тосты, показывающие дом
приехавшим гостям.

FLATTERY is a pseudosincere FLATTERY - это псевдооценочный

positive evaluative manipulative
expressive syncretic speech act,
characterized by forethought, by a
certain strategy, and also, by its
addressee and evaluation object being
the same person. Flattery evaluation
subjects are the addressee's appearance,
their moral and intellectual traits, skills,
accomplishments, and actions. The
speaker flatters the addressee not being
манипулятивный экспрессивный
синкретический речевой акт,
характеризующийся
предусмотрительностью,
определенной стратегией, а также тем,
что адресатом и объектом оценки
является один и тот же человек.
Субъектами лестной оценки являются
внешность адресата, их моральные и
интеллектуальные качества, навыки,
motivated by some feelings but wishing достижения и действия. Оратор
to gain some benefit. льстит адресату, не будучи
мотивированным какими-то
чувствами, но желая получить какую-
то выгоду.
As far as the social status is Что касается социального
concerned, the bulk of flattery speech статуса, то основная часть лестных
acts is directed from a communicant of a высказываний направляется от лица,
lower status towards the one of a higher имеющего более низкий статус, к
status. лицу, имеющему более высокий
статус.
The illocutionary aims pursued by
FLATTERY speech act addressers are: Недобросовестные цели,
1) the pseudosincere intention преследуемые адресатами закона
to please the addressee, to improve their FLATTERY о речи:
emotional state by qualifying their own 1) псевдо-намерение
(or their relatives') traits or actions as угодить адресату, улучшить его
being good; эмоциональное состояние,
2) the intention to persuade the квалифицировав свои собственные
addressee of the addresser's sincerity; (или родственные) черты или
3) the latent intention to gain действия как хорошие;
benefit, material or immaterial; 2) намерение убедить адресата в
4) the latent intention to искренности его намерений;
encourage the addressee to do things that З) скрытое намерение получить
are beneficial for the addresser. выгоду, материальную или
нематериальную;
4) скрытое намерение побудить
адресата делать то, что отвечает
интересам адресата.
A backhanded compliment is an Двусмысленный комплимент - это
insult disguised as a compliment оскорбление, замаскированное под
Backhanded compliments run the gamut комплимент Двусмысленные
from clueless comments to rude remarks, комплименты, которые охватывают
and can also be a form of весь спектр от невежественных
microaggression. комментариев до грубых замечаний, а
"Your haircut really slims your также могут быть формой
face." микроагрессии.
"You're So Charming When You "Твоя стрижка очень стройная."
Make &D Effort.” "Вы так очаровательны, когда
"Your Instagram Makes You Seem прилагаете усилия."
So Fun!” "Твой Инстаграм делает тебя такой
"You Look So Great In That Photo. веселой!"
I Can't Even See Your Acne!" "I Love "Ты выглядишь так здорово на этой
How You'll Just Wear Anything." фотографии. Я даже не могу увидеть
Since the intention of such твои прыщи!" "Я люблю, как ты
"compliment^' is clearly not to please the просто будешь носить что-нибудь."
recipient, they can hardly be perceived Поскольку цель такого "комплимента
as compliments, rather as a quip. ' явно не в том, чтобы угодить
получателю, они вряд ли могут
восприниматься как комплименты, а
скорее как насмешка.