Social Policy and Administration: Eldoret Technical Training Institute - Lodwar Campus

ELDORET TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE –LODWAR CAMPUS
SIAYA NOTES
SOCIAL POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL POLICY
Social policy is an activity that tries to formulate and implement a decision to solve
social diseases. Social development workers must have knowledge, skills and
attitudes to enable them understand and know how social policies are made and
administered for the achievement of set goals. Social development workers are
expected to examine organization structure of the institution that make and
implement policies to enable them translate these policies into programs and assess
their effectiveness.
Definition of terms:
Policy- is a general statement of understanding which provide or challenges thinking of an
individual.
Policy-is a plan of action.
Points of reference
i) When programs are being developed.

ii) When decisions are being taken about people, employees or particular issue
in general.
Social policy:-social policy relates to guidelines for the changing, maintenance or creation of
living conditions that are conducive to human welfare.
Statement that guide the government and NGO in an effort to provide social services to the needy
citizen in the society.
Administration
Effective coordination of organizational activities to facilitate effective and efficiency attachment
of goals and objectives
Social policy and Administration
Is concerned with effective policy implementation in order to achieve goals and objectives of
social service provision.
- Social policy is that part of public policy that has to do social issues, in most European
countries; those types of insurance are made mandatory by law.
ELDORET TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE –LODWAR CAMPUS 1

- Social policy aims to improve human welfare and to meet human needs for education,
health, housing and social security. In an academic environment social policy refers to
the study of the welfare state and the rang of responses social needs.
- In United States politics, social policies are those which regulate and govern human
behavior in areas such as sexuality and general morality. Social policies are in contrast to
other more traditional forms of political policy, such as foreign policy and economic
policy. Modern day social policy may deal with the following issues:
a) Abortion and regulation of it practice
b) The rules surrounding issues of marriage, divorce and adoption
c) Poverty, welfare and homelessness.
- Social policy may influenced by religion and the religious beliefs of politicians.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD POLICY
1. Should contribute to social problems and ensure attainment of government policy
2. clearly well understood
3. should be uniform
4. offer equity and justice to those who are affected by it
5. grass support in order for it t succeed
6. Should be founded upon facts and joint judgment.
7. social policy should be flexible
8. Should be definite, positive and clear for people to understand it.
ROLE OF SOCIAL POLICY
a) facilitate the provision of social service to citizen
b) Promote fairness, equity and justice to all people.
c) Promote uniformity in decision making.
d) outlines approaches that needs to be adopted in solving issues to society
e) improve quality of lives of people
f) ensure survival of the government
g) helps in addressing critical needs and problems in society
h) Helps in creation of awareness through information, education and communication.
i) Improves communication between social service providers and beneficiaries.
FACTORS INFLUENCING SOCIAL POLICY
1. Cultural norms and values- should go in line with the cultural activities.
2. political set-up
3. pressure group/lobby group

4. availability of financial resources

5. donor or development partners
6. Level of community participation.
FORMS/CLASSES/TYPES OF SOCIAL POLICIES
1. Enabling policies- enacted by government to ensure the provision of environment.
2. Deterrent policies- put in place for social control purposes.
3. Technical policies- that are related to technical decision.
4. Broad based policies- are general policies that are formulated at ministerial levels.
5. Departmental policies- formulated at departmental level.
No

TOPIC 2 DECISION MAKING

Is a course of action consciously chosen from available alternatives for the purpose of achieving
desired results.
 A decision is a judgment, a resolution or even a determination. A decision is an act of
selection of a particular alternative of solving a problem.
Important ideas regarding definitions:

- decision involves a chance
- it involves method process conscious level
- it is purposeful
- it made to facilitate the attainment of objectives
STAGES/STEPS IN DECISIN MAKING
1. DEFINITION
It consists of defining the objectives of decision to be made. It also involves defining the problem
requiring decision, which means identifying, analyzing and clearly stating the problem for which
a decision is to be made.
2. INFORMATION
All necessary background information should be obtained. Certainly all available facts, opinion,
data have to be collected.
3. ALTERNATIVES
It consists of identifying, gathering and developing the various possible alternatives must be
subjected to searching details.
4. ANALYSIS
For making the analysis meaningful, the alternatives must be subjected to searching details
5. EVALUATION
It consists of testing and evaluating the proposed actions, solutions and decisions.
6. SELECTION
It consists of making selection of the best alternative courses of action, solution or decision.
7. TESTING

It consists of putting the decision in specific test and practice. The purpose of testing is to
evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of the solution.
8. IMPLEMENTATION
The implementation of the final alternative comprises of the execution of the final selection and
testing solution to the existing problem necessitated in the given circumstances in the
organization at a certain time
9. FOLLOW-UP
It consists of obtaining necessary information about implementation work. The manager must be
watchful so as to determine success or otherwise, the degree of success or failure and the reason
of it.
10. MODIFICATION
It consists of determining necessary changes and make supplementary decision for adopting the
most agent one thereby modifying the decision.
MODELS OF DECISION MAKING

A model refers to a representation or something which a copy can be based on because on
because it is extremely good. A model can be a person, a thing or even an idea. This person, thing
or idea has characteristic that one would like to copy. So that characteristics in the model
influences a person to make a decision as per admired qualities of the model. Eg in leadership,
some people use Nelson Mandela the former South African President as a model.
A. At the community level
Here if problems experienced by the individuals are not dealt with by the government, informal
groups come up. These informal groups can be inform of lobby groups or social advocate groups.
They are just ordinary members of the community who have felt that something must be done to
solve the existing problem, and start agitating for change.
B. Ministry of department
Officers concerned here collect data through research methods, analyze it and present it relevant
authorities for policy formulation. It’s through the contribution of the employees at the grass root
level that the policy makers are able to know the weight of the problem on the ground and come
up to formulate relevant policies. The Kenyan government is able to learn the problems being
experienced at the grassroots level through the provincial administration and the local leaders
C. International organization

Many countries derive their policies from international bodies like UN especially policies to do
with human rights, environment, employment e.t.c. countries who are members of the UN
declarations committing themselves to implement the recommendations of the convention.
D. Political parties
Many policies used in a country are a derivative of the ruling party manifesto. Eg the free primary
education policy was in National Rainbow Coalition (NARC) manifesto. As political parties
campaign to be voted in, they are always expected to launch their party manifestos or decrees of
what they will do to promote development in the country.
E. Scholarly research /academic research
Scholars conduct research on social problems and their recommendations are mostly adopted by
policy makers. Companies’ sponsor students who are at their master’s and doctorate levels to
conduct research especially on their products and services and the information the students came
up with is shared with them. They use the original research data to make policies on how to
improve their products.
F. Other countries
Other country policies can form the basis for another country decision making, especially on
economic policies, workable education policies e.t.c. eg 8.4.4was borrowed from Canada.
G. Disasters
Whenever a disaster occurs like floods and lightening that are destructive, the government comes
up with policies to guide them for future protection. Eg in 1998 Kenya suffered a terrorist attack
and many people died, as a result policies to deal with terrorism came up which are being
implemented even today. With the onset of floods, houses collapsing, earth tremors etc the
government has been producing policies to deal with these situations.
H. National Philosophies
A philosophy refers to internalized attitude, idea, view point, thinking, way of life or even a
belief, mostly shared by a group of people or a community. ‘HARAMBEE’ philosophy was
advocated by the first president of Kenya the late Mzee Jomo Kenyatta which stated that in order
to fight the three social evils the community was suffering from after independence ie ignorance,
diseases, poverty: people must join hands together, pull resources together and fight as a nation.
DECISION MAKING RULES

1. IRREVERSIBLE
These are most types of decisions, which if made once cannot be unmade. Whatever is decided
would then have its repercussions for a long time to come

2. REVERSIBLE
These are decisions that can be changed completely, before, during or after the agreed action
begins. Such types of decision allow one to acknowledge a mistake early in the process rather
than perpetuate it.
3. EXPERIMENTAL
These types of decision are not final until the first result appear and prove themselves to be
satisfactory. It requires positive feedback before one can decide on a course of action.
4. TRIAL AND ERROR
In this type f decision, knowledge is derived out of past mistake. A certain course of action is
selected and is tried out, if the result are positive, the action is carried further, if the result appear
negative, another course of action is adopted.
5. MADE IN STAGES
Here the decisions are made in steps until the whole action is completed. It allows close
monitoring of risks as one accumulates the evidence of outcome and obstacles at every stage.
It permits feedback and further discussion before the next stage of decision is taken.
6. COUTIOUS
It allows time for contingencies and problems that may crop up later at the time of
implementation. The decision makers hedge their best of efforts to adopt the right course.
7. CONDITIONAL
Such types of decisions can be altered if certain foreseen circumstances arise. It is an either/or
kind of decision with all options kept open. It prepares one to react if the competition makes a
new move or if the game plan changes radically.
8. DELAYED
Such decisions are put on hold till the decision-makers feel that the time right. A go-ahead is
given only when required elements are in place. It prevents one from making a decision at the
wrong time or before all other facts are known.

TOPIC 3 : SOCIAL POLICY FORMULATION

Policy formulation-is the creation or development of policies necessary to solve existing
problems in society.
 Policy formulation is the development of effective and acceptable courses of action for
addressing what has been placed on the policy agenda.
Not that there are two parts to this definition of policy formulation:-
a) Effective formulation:- means that the policy proposed is regarded as a valid, efficient
and implementable solution to the issue at hand. If the policy is seen as ineffective or
unworkable in practice, there is no legitimate reason to propose it.
b) Acceptable formulation:- means that the proposed course of action is likely to be
authorized by the legitimate decision makers, usually through majority-building in a
bargaining process.
There are then two aspects of policy formulation: the analytical and the political. Effective
policy alternatives, presumably based on sound analysis, must be conceived and clearly
articulated. A political choice among these alternatives must be made. The policy must be
authorized through a political process such as legislation or regulation.
Characteristics of policy formulation

- It should be definite, conscious and clear.
- Understood by all stakeholders.
- flexible and have degree of permanency
- founded upon facts
- compatible with public expectations
- intention of policy should be clear
REASONS FOR POLICY FORMULATION

1. Need to solve problem in community or organization
2. Need to diversify services provided by and organization to its client.
3. Meet challenges and changes brought by external factors
4. Provide unity among members
5. Improve effectiveness in terms of service delivery
6. Ensure equitable distribution of resources

ROLE OF STAKEHOLDERS IN POLICY FORMULATION

1. identification of problems
2. helps in providing ideas for policy formulation
3. provide resources necessary for policy formulation and development
4. help in implementation of policy
5. assist in creation of awareness
6. participate in monitoring and evaluation
The importance of social research in social policy
a) It gives a realistic assessment of the existing situation- social policy becomes a reaction
to that situation eg if a research is conducted on poverty, various aspects or dimensions of
poverty are brought out as a consequence, policy agenda is provided for poverty
alleviation.
b) Through social research goals are clarified, and respective consequences of different
policies are brought into surface.
c) It assist in predicting costs, and benefits of programs- social research accurately allocate
costs and benefits to specific programs and policy options and they compare those costs
and benefits and agree on the costs, cost effective strategy to be taken.
d) It may help shed light on critical areas of policy. Eg we might have to believe that formal
education is important but through social science research, we may find that people do
not quite like it, because it takes away children when they are small and that young
educated people take away authority from the old.
e) It helps us test assumptions behind our objectives
f) Helps uncover records behind failure or success of program.
g) Bring about awareness on a given problem.
FACTORS THAT INHIBIT FULL UTILIZATION OF SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH
a) Some countries lack good academic climate or environment. Eg long bureaucracy of
doing research in Kenya
b) Policy makers may be feeling superior and assume that they understand the people and
their problems better especially the politicians, thus failing social research.
c) Sometimes research tackles research problems in technical ways eg they produce reports
that are academic to policy makers. These reports may be too abstract or too detailed.
d) Research work may be slow so that policy makers do not get results as soon as they
require them.

e) Some policy makers think that research cannot bring anything new
f) Policy makers try to generalize for the whole country while researchers are not ready to
generalize for the entire country on the basis of micro-studies.
TECHNIQUES USED IN SOCIAL RESEARCH
a) COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS:- this technique tries to assess desirability of different
policies by trying to compare the cost and benefits. It is usually used to determine if a
project offers a net economic return or to evaluate means of achieving a specific
objective.
b) EVALUATION RESEARCH:- this involves measuring the effect of programs against
what it was set to achieve. This helps in improvement of the design and internal
structures of the program.
c) IMPACT ASSESSMENT RESEARCH:- here we look at the way the program has
helped the target group. The question here is on the positiveness and negativeness of the
program effects on the concerned. This helps us to deal with intangible cost and benefits.
Types of impact assessment:
 Environmental impact assessment- it arose in reaction to over emphasis of economic
criteria in judging project worthiness in the course of which environmental impact was
ignored. It attempts to sensitize members of the community to take the biological and
physical factors in consideration while affecting any program.
 Social impact assessment- brings out many social implications of setting up a project eg
about population change effect.
 Social economic impact assessment- looks at how income is distributed in the country,
employment issues, taxation etc.
 Institutional impact assessment- has to do with financial and administrative effect eg if
the finances are sufficient to host the program, whether the project affects the financial
flow of an institution and if the institution has an administrative capacity to deal with self
help groups.
d) SOCIAL INDICATORS RESEARCH:- they are statistical time series used to monitor
the social system, helping to identify changes and to guide intervention to alter the
course of social change. Elements of social indicators could be:-
 Unemployment rate
 Crime rate
 Estimates of life expectancy
 School enrolment rate

 Rates of voting in elections

 Rural urban migration
 Housing problem
 Rise in crime rate
 Rapid congestion e.t.c
SKILLS IN SOCIAL POLICY RESEARCH
- identification of research problem
- formulation of hypothesis
- coming up with research design
- data collection skills
- data analysis skills
- drawing conclusion and recommendation on what is needed
FACTORS INFLUENCING SUCCESS OF SOCIAL POLICY

The success in any program will depend on the following:-
- Participatory level in decision making process;- here every person must be involved in
decision making especially the beneficiaries, the implementers and the policy makers.
While doing the need assessment, the beneficiaries are to state clearly in terms of priority
what their needs are and what they want done about these needs. If they are not involved,
there will be a problem of implementation because they may not support the program.
- Procedures- for a program to succeed the process used must be simple, clear and easily
understood. If the process is complex then even the implementers may not be able to do
their work properly
- availability of resources
- support from stakeholders
- availability of skilled personnel
FACTORS INFLUENCING FAILURE OF SOCIAL POLICY

Many factors may come in the way during the implementation process leading to failure of
the project. Some of them could be:-
- Lack of Effective coordination and participation of people- participation refers to
cooperation or taking part in what is happening on the project. If people do not take, the program
will fail. Coordination refers to joining hands and putting all efforts together in achievement of a
task.

- Community apathy- apathy refers to unconcern, indifference, passivity e.t.c.. if a

community is not concerned with projects, it will fail because the community members may
not support the process. For the project to succeed then the members must be concern about
it.
- Harsh environment
-limited resources and misuse.- resources refers to assets, property means, belongings,
wealth e.t.c. if resources are not enough as per the requirement of the project, then the project
may not succeed as expected.
- Inadequate skilled personnel
- Delays- this refers to loitering, procrastination, lagging e.t.c. programs may fail if the
implementers are not following the time frame and doing the right thing the right time. If
resources are delayed and if workers are dragging themselves, them the activities may fail or
may not benefit the people they were intended to.
- Lack of transparency and accountability
- Political interference
- Poor planning and budgeting
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH POLICY IN SOCIAL POLICY
11. provide accurate information for policy formulation and implementation
12. promote participation and involvement of other stakeholders
13. ensure good policy are formulated
14. useful in policy evaluation
15. ensure decision making is based on factual information
16. helps in awareness creation
17. helps to discover social problem
18. provide forums to discuss social issues
TOPIC 4 POLICY ANALYSIS AND DEVELOPMENT

Policy analysis- is the process of determining which of various alternatives policies will best
achieve the set goals.
IMPORTANCE OF POLICY ANALYSIS
- ensure good policies are formulated
- provide information and necessary resources
- help determine process and policy approach

- provide opportunity to consider views of stakeholders

- help check process formulation
- help generate debate for policy
- promote participation and involvement of stakeholders
THE PROCESS OF POLICY ANALYSIS

Involves approaches and methodologies
Approaches to policy analysis
1) Analycentric approach- focuses on individual problem and their solutions. it is micro
scale and interpretation is technical in nature. Its aim is to identify the effective and
efficient solution to social problem.
2) Policy process formulation approach- its focus is on political process involved as well as
the stakeholder involvement. Aims at determining what process and means is used.
3) Metapolicy approach- is the content approach. Its scope is macro scale. it focuses on
wider issues in society and its problem interpretation is usually of structural nature.
MODELS OF POLICY ANALYSIS

a) Institutional Model- social policies are determined by social institutions which give the
policy its legitimacy hi
b) The process Model- focus on policy creation process and steps followed in creating
policy.
c) Rational Model- are policies intended to achieve maximum social gain. Rational policy
maximizes the cost; is the best policy
d) Incremental Model- it pre-supposes that policy is a continuation of previous activities of
an organization with minimal changes made in previous policies.
e) Group Model- political system role is to enforce compromise between various conflicting
interests in society.
f) Elite Model- policy is a reflection of interest of those individuals within the society that
have better access to power rather the demands of the maker.
STAGES/STEPS OF POLICY ANALYSIS

j) problem definition stage
k) Re-examination of the existing policies.
l) collection of information/data

m) decision making
n) implementation
o) evaluation
ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN POLICY DEVELOPMENT

1. provide conduisive environment for policy formulation
2. provide financial resources to support development of policies
3. Provide human resource.
4. Assists in mobilization of resources.
5. provide forums for policy development
6. participate in policy development process
7. Helps to pilot.
PROCESS OF POLICY DEVELOPMENT

Policy cycle is a tool used for analysis of the development to the policy item.
Stages in Policy Development.

1. problem identification
2. agenda setting
3. policy formulation
4. decision making
5. policy implementation
6. policy analysis and evaluation
ROLE OF POLICY ANALYSIS
- produce argument for the debate about public policy
- produce evidence for decision about public policy
- keep accurate policy records
- handle technical and aspect of policy analysis
- act as policy consultancy
ADVANTAGES OF POLICY ANALYSIS

1. Provide opportunity to the public and other stakeholders to air their views about policy
2. provide evidence that policy had followed
3. ensure that policy is refined, so that iit can address the problem

4. provide expertise with opportunity to curry out through investigation about the policy
5. Ensure that only relevant policies are developed.
STEPS IN GOVERNMENT POLICY MAKING/system theory/policy making

1. Problem to government- i) perception of the problem
ii) Presentation
2. Action in government- i) formulation of policy
ii) Appreciation
3. Government to problem.
4. Policy to government
5. Problem solution or change- i) invention
ii) Termination
TOPIC 5 SOCIAL POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

-Is a systematic process of translation policy design into practical action.
-implementation is the realization of an application, or execution of a plan, idea, model,
design, specification, standard or policy.
In political science, implementation refers to the carrying out of public policy. Legislatures
pass laws that are then carried out by public servants working in bureaucratic agencies. This
process consists of rule making, rule administration and rule adjudication. Factors impacting

implementation include the legislative intent, the administrative capacity of the implementing
bureaucracy, intent group activity and opposition, and presidential or executive support
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

1. Availability of funds
2. A pool of expertise
3. Participation
4. Plan of action
5. Monitoring and evaluation
PROCESS OF POLICY IMPLEMENTATION
This will depend on the nature of the organization structure and the way it works. The project
itself must accommodate the way it will be laid down up to the achievement of the set objectives.
Depending on the projects, awareness can be created; human resource can be put in place and
other requirements. Together with this, monitoring and evaluation can continuously be done.
The social work methods bellows also have their own way of policy implementation.
A) IMPLEMENTATION OF ACTIVITY
An activity is an action. This action is geared towards achievement of certain goals or objectives
in implementation process.
There are six basic welfare methods:
a) Case work
b) Group work
c) Community work
d) Social action
e) Social research
f) Social work and welfare administration profession
Activity:
Write short notes on each of the above methods of Social Work
In these Basic Social Work Methods, professional competence is applied to achieve certain goals
Here social policy is transformed into action.
The purpose of administration or implementation process is to facilitate combined efforts of a
group of people to achieve common objectives.
These include:

1. Getting facts appropriate to the agency objectives and progress as a basis for taking
decisions
2. Process for analyzing the available important facts and taking opinions about the future,
having in mind probable future happening that may bear upon the program of social
welfare agency.
3. A process for identifying and selecting for action. Once several alternative are available
to the welfare considerations, the forecasts are made.
4. Making plans for effective carrying out objectives of the agency on the basis of
alternatives selected.
5. Recruiting, selecting, appointing, inducting, training and supervising staff essential for
the enterprise and in accordance with the plans and organized revision of work.
6. Arranging division of work into units that can be assigned someone for implementation.
7. Establishing continuous use of appropriate measures, procedures and practices to ensure
that all activities in the welfare agency contribute to the attainment of the selected
objectives of the agency program
8. Process for collecting, recording and analyzing of appropriate facts during the course of
the total process that will serve as basis.
9. Process of laying down and following certain financial practices in order to ensure
economic and wise utilization of public fund.
10. Process of establishing sound communication and maintain effective community relation.
MODEL OF POLICY IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS

Policy of free primary education
Implementation by Ministry of Education
Beneficiaries being students
Done through the Ministry of Education
ROLE OF AGENTS IN POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

a) Ensuring that the target people is aware and is continuing with the policy creation of
awareness.
b) they plan role of technical assistance
c) the agent may also play an education role in policy.
d) play role of persuading its target

CHALLENGES OF POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

- Political interference
- Insufficient resources.
- inadequate skilled personnel
- unwillingness of community participation
- corruption
- lack of transparency and accountability
- poor monitoring and evaluation
- lack of objectivity
TOPIC 6 SOCIAL POLICY EVALUATION

Evaluation- refers to assessment, appraisal, examination, judgment e.t.c.
It’s a process which attempts to determine as systematically and objectively as possible the
relevant effectiveness, efficiency and impact of activities in the light of specified objectives
Effectiveness reefers to the capability or productiveness
Efficiency is the ability or competency

Impact refers to impression either positive or negative

Therefore to evaluate is to try to see if the activities are effective and efficient in meeting
specified objectives and the positive-ness and negative-ness of the products of those activities
IMPORTANCE OF EVALUATION
1. Help policy makers to make informed decisions which are fun.
2. To asses impact of policy and how it affects the community.
3. help in determining success of policy
4. Assist in providing remedial measures to the policy.
5. It provides information in relation to a policy program.
FACTORS AFFECTING POLICY EVALUATION

1. Policy evaluation is an expensive exercise.
2. lack of clear objectives
3. lack of expertise
EVALUATION TECHNIQUES/METHODS
These are the procedures, approaches or styles used in evaluation process. They include the
following:
i) First Hand information:- this is the simplest method used in getting first hand information
about the progress, performance, problem areas of the project e.t.c. Those who provide this
information are the staff and others mostly involved with direct implementation of programs and
those who are benefiting from the program. Also direct observation is very crucial a freend gives
very effective evaluation. The disadvantage of this method is that it may be applicable for a big
project
ii) Formal/ Informal Periodic Reports:- informal reports are casual, un-official and mostly not
written or based on any real or true information. However they give information about a case and
are very valuable. Written reports which are formal and submitted at specific period of time are
highly relied upon for purpose of evaluation. The written reports are got with a great deal of help
through planned set of schedules and questionnaires. Their disadvantage/ irritation is that they do
not give information on qualitative basis i.e how good or bad something is and do not show/
indicate any direction/trend about the future or current problem areas.

iii) Graphic presentation:- they come through use of display or charts, graphs,
pictures, illustrations e.t.c. well designed presentations which take lesser
space are visible and understandable and facilitate comparisons giving good
results. The disadvantage of graphic presentation is that they are costly and
time consuming to process.
iv) Standing Evaluation Review Committee:- these committee have been
appointed by management and they meet frequently and regular intervals.
The members are experts and specialists in their work. They identify the
problems which require agent attention, they look at alternatives solution and
suggest the way forward to managers.
v) Project Profile:- project profile is the outline or model of the project from
the beginning to the end. The evaluators find out if each stage is fitting per
requirement of the model.
vi) Cost Effective Analysis:- cost refers to the price, the value, the amount e.t.c.
to be effective is to be competent, qualified, able e.t.c. to analyse is to get a
breakdown, a subdivision or a separation. Generally, cost effectiveness
analysis is a method of evaluation whereby we draw a graph or a table and
compare the cost/ value of our activity and the benefits or effectiveness of
that activity. Here we are able to note whether the cost was worth the benefit
and vice versa. If the cost we incur in doing something is less or equal to the
benefit we get , then we say the project was effective. If not, we say the cost
was more than or not worth the benefit. We try to find out the minimum cost
we can use or we need to reap the maximum benefit or achieve a particular
aim.
DETERMINATION OF EFFECTIVENESS
The effectiveness of a project or an activity can be found out by looking at the following factors:
a) Achievement of directed goals:- here we try to find out if the goals we set out to achieve
have been achieved. If yes we say the project was effective and if not we say it was not
effective.
b) Participation and sustenance of programs:- here we find out if the target participated
in the programs as we had anticipated and if the project can live beyond those who
initiated i.e can it survive on its own? Are systems in place to make it survive? We say
that the program was very effective.

c) Clientele satisfaction:- clients are customers and users of the products of our programs.
We try to find if their needs were met through our program. If yes, we say that the project
was effective and if no, we say it was not effective
d) Extend to which the problem is solved:- here we try to find out how far the difficulty
was dealt with or sorted out. That extend will show us the effectiveness of the program.
REASONS WHY PROGRAMS MAY BE INEFFECTIVE

1. Lack of clear aims:- this happens when the program continue being funded even if the
initial objective was achieved e.g relief programs which are residual but maybe made
routine.
2. Program changing its goals and objectives:- e.g a rural program may have started as a
nutrition program but shifted to family planning.
3. Empire building:- some professionals starts seeing programs as a source of livelihood .
Family or friends only benefit – not the community.
4. Emergence of new programs and subprograms:- eg by expanding and creating new units
to attract more resources.
TYPES OF POLICY EVALUATION
1. formation/ongoing- process evaluation
2. summative
3. base line/feasibility
4. Mid-term
5. Terminal/ end term evaluation
TOPIC 7 SOCIAL POLICY ADMINISTRATION

Is the application or implementation of social service activity by social service agencies.

Administration refers to management, governance, decision making, supervision, organization

e.t.c. Once a policy has been made it needs to be managed to be able to achieve its goals. Various
groups and arms of government are involved in policy administration. These involves:-
a) Legislature:- refers to law makers or the parliament. The work of parliament apart from
formulating and making policies is to ensure that they are implemented through the
various government ministries.
b) Bureaucrats:- policies are administered through various organizations like the private
sector or Non- Governmental Organizations and Missionary Organizations plus the
government public sector. All the above have structures and clearly defined roles of the
office bearers. They work together to ensure that the policies they stand for are
administered to meet their goals.
c) Judiciary:- this is another arm of government that deals with policy administration. It
has to do with courts and judges. Judiciary ensures that after parliament has made
policies, anybody who has an obligation to that policy affects it. If not they subject a
person to penalty as stipulated by the policy.
d) Pressure groups:- these are groups that ensure that particular policies are administered
as they are supposed to be. They act as watchdogs of policy implementers. They use all
ways and means like advocacy, lobbying, dialogue, demonstration, rallying e.tc. to
compel the concerned to administer policies as they are supposed to be. They include
human rights groups, Katiba Watch et.c.
PRINCIPLE OF ADMINISTRATION
a) An administrator must have a complete understanding of the contents of the program
technical knowledge and skills
b) An administration should encourage participants by sharing out responsibilities based on
group principles and process
c) There should be well defined and though out practices and procedures to be followed
uniformly
d) Each member of the agency should be made to feel the work entrusted unto him or her is
very important and vital for the purpose of the agency.
e) The process and procedures of the agency are means of meeting the end goals in the
welfare of the target group
f) Practices should be flexible to the group needs

g) The administrative process should be based on democracy and shared on democracy and
responsibility
h) There should be arrangement of periodic evaluation of the administrative process,
procedures, practices and results achieved.
FUNCTIONS OF ADMINISTRATION
1. Determine the purpose aim and objectives of the organization
2. Establishing structure of the organization
3. Directing the work of the organization, selecting and developing an able and adequate
staff
4. Working with Boards and committees
5. Provide financial, administrative security and handling finances
6. Maintain effective public relations and proper coordination with other agencies or
networking with other agencies
7. Evaluating accurately the total outcome in relation to established purposes
8. Looking ahead and forecasting so that services are kept consistent with changing needs
and resources.
CHALLENGES IN POLICY ADMINISTRATION
Here the focus is on factors influencing success and factors influencing failure in the process of
policy administration. These challenges will emanate from constrained resources, misuse of
resources, incompetent personnel and many others as per the project. But we can scrutinize the
factors determining success and those that determine failure of a program to get a fuller picture.
FACTORS INFLUENCING SUCCESS

i) The participatory level of decision making process- here every person must be
involved in decision making especially the beneficiaries, the implementers and the policy
makers. While doing the need assessment, the beneficiaries are to state clearly in terms of
priority what their needs are and what they want done about these needs. If they not
involved there will be problem in implementation because they may not support the
programs.
ii) Also for a program to succeed, the process used must be simple, clear and easily
understood. If the process is complex then even the implementers may not be able to
do their work properly.
FACTORS INFLUENCING FAILURE

1. Lack of effective participation and coordination.- participation refers to cooperation or

taking part in what is happening on the project. If people do not take part, the program
will fail. Coordination refers to joining hands and putting all efforts together in
achievement of a task. If groups or people do not share responsibilities and work as a
team then the program may die. Everyone must work with each other for the success of
the program.
2. Processes:- this refers to methods, procedures or proceedings in policy implementation. If
methods are not clear and simple to those applying them, then there will be massive
failure in policy implementation.
3. Community apathy:- apathy refers to unconcern, indifference, passivity etc. if a
community is not concerned with projects, they will fail because the community
members may not support that process.
4. Limited resources and misuse
5. Delays
TYPES OF POLICY ADMINISTRATION AGENCIES/CATEGORIES OF
ORGANIZATION
Organizations can be classified as follows:
1. Government organizations:- they fall under different government ministries like
Agriculture, Labour, Education e.t.c. the government control them for public benefit.
2. Non-Governmental Organizations:- these are organizations started by individuals to
substitute government efforts in the provision of welfare services. Most of them are
international organizations like World Vision, Plan International e.t.c
3. Private Sector:- they are inform of companies and they are out for profit making. So
they get a policy like on education and sell services to people eg Private learning
institutions, private health care providers e.t.c
4. ToPressure Groups and Community Groups:- they are smaller organizations of
people and they seek to implement policies that fit their interests eg on Micro-financing
of small groups e.t.c.
SOCIAL ADMINISTRATION
1. The Provision of Welfare:
Social welfare can be provided by agencies such as the;

a) Public sector
b) Private sector
c) Voluntary sector
d) Mutual aid
e) Informal sector
2. The Public Services:
a) The structure of social services
b) Social service management
c) Planning
d) Finance
e) Evaluating policy
3. Service Delivery
a) Targeting
b) Rationing
c) Discretion
d) Empowering users
Social policy is an applied subject: it was developed to meet the needs of the people who would
be working in the public services. Social administration is an area of the field concerned with the
practicalities of service organization and delivery. In the US it is dealt with as ‘public policy’ or
‘policy analysis’
The Provision of Welfare

There are five main sectors:
1. Public sector (provision by the state)
There are four main arguments for public sector provision:-
a) Universal standards- the state is uniquely able to impose a general regime and so can
ensure uniform or minimum standards
b) Social control- control is used where people need protection (eg child abuse), as
punishment (like prisoners), and where control increases freedom (like compulsory
education)
c) Economic benefit- the state may be able to perform the action more cost effectively than
is the case elsewhere. National health systems have proved to be cheaper than many
liberal systems
d) Residual provision- the state may act as a safety net where other sectors do not provide

The main arguments against are;-

a) Economic efficiency:- state provision does not have clear incentive to reduce unit costs
b) Clientelism:- state provision can be the source of patronage or corruption
c) Paternalism:- states make decision for people who could choose for themselves.
2. Private (provision for profit by commercial organizations and individuals)
Economic liberals argue that the private market is the best method of arranging the distributions
of resources. Arthur Seldon argues that the price mechanism leads to:
a) Choice for the consumer
b) A service led by the consumer rather than by the professions
c) More efficient services at lower costs (because this increases profitability)
d) Responsiveness to need (because their payments depends on it)
e) Education of people as to the implications of their choice
The main arguments against this position are:
 Market failure-market do not work if people do not have choices (eg in Health Care),
where there are monopolies, and if people do not bear the cost of their actions
themselves.
 Exclusion- markets excludes bad risks and people with extreme needs
 Social preference- market respond to individual preferences; social needs may be
different
3. Voluntary (provision of non-profit basis)
The sector is extremely diverse, ranging from small local societies to large very professional
agencies. Jones and Bradshaw classified the different types of volunteering as follows:
a) Direct service giving
b) Running voluntary organizations
c) Participation of self help groups
d) Fundraising
e) Public service (many elected officials are unpaid volunteers)
f) Pressure groups activities
The role of the voluntary sector is often supplementary to statutory services, but it can also be
seen as complementary through:
 The initiation of new approaches and techniques
 The development of specialist expertise
 The establishment of partnership with statutory services-like the provision of meals
 Provision of groups which statutory services do not reach, like drug addicts.

4. Mutual aid (provision by solidarity)

Mutual aid is sometimes represented as private, and sometimes as voluntary. There is a good case
to consider this category as a sector in itself, because the organization and the behavior of
solidaristic groups is quite different from that of other non-profit organizations. Historically
mutual aid was one of the main foundations of welfare organizations, through trade unions,
professional associations and friendly societies; in many countries, solidaristic services of this
kind have continued to be one of the main focuses through which welfare is provided
The central principle of mutual aid has been voluntary collective effort, which is both self-
interested and supportive of others. People who enter such arrangements make some kind of
contribution –such as paying a subscription, offering labour or participating in management-and
receive support on mutual basis.
5. Informal (provision by friends, neighbours and families)
Informal sector consists of communities, friends, neighbours and kin. The emphasis of informal
care has grown for three reasons:-
a) Ideology- conservatives have emphasized the pluralistic nature of welfare and an organic
view of society as a series of interconnecting relationships and the role of family and
duty.
b) The emphasis on community care:- the discharge of people from institutions and
maintenance of individuals at home, has led to a greater emphasis on the role of carers.
c) Comprehensive planning:- most care is provided by informal carers, not the state: the role
of the state is supplementary to the care given by others. Planning has to take this into
account.
CHALLENGES IN POLICY ADMINISTRATION

1. Lack of political good will
2. lack of support by government support
3. lack of support by top management
4. lack of community participation
5. lack of funds to implement the policy
6. lack of commitment by the implementers
7. lack of adequate policy research and analysis
8. resistance by local authorities
9. lack of competence experts to implement policies

TOPIC 8 SOCIAL WELFARE POLICY

THE WELFARE STATE AFTER 1848
The key elements of the welfare state were understood as being;
a) social security

b) health
c) housing
d) education
e) welfare and children (the personal social services)
Contemporary arguments emphasized the interrelated nature of these services, and the importance
of each for the others. However, the administrative division between the services was reinforced
by reactions against the unifying and all embracing nature of the poor which led to a strong
distinction being made between income maintenance, health and welfare services.
TYPES OF SOCIAL WELFARE POLICY
1. compulsory social insurance
2. pension or social security policies
3. social health policies
4. free or low cost education policies
5. social work and community policies
TYPES OF SOCIAL WELFARE POLICIES IN KENYA

- health INSURANCE
- education
- national social security fund (NSSF)
- health policies
- pension scheme and social security policies
CHALLENGES OF SOCIAL WEFARE POLICIES IN KENYA

-high poverty level
-corruption
-poor priorities by government
-lack of information
-insufficient funds
-lack of transparency and accountability
-poor planning
IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL WEFARE POLICIES
1. they guide on the provision of social welfare service
2. Ensure needy citizen are assisted adequately.
3. help improve living standard of people

4. ensure equal distribution of resources

5. Help reduce the gap between rich and poor.
TOPIC 9 EMERGING TRENDS

- National Social Security Fund
- Free Primary Education
- Free Medical Services etc

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ELDORET TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE –LODWAR CAMPUS

SOCIAL POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION

i) When programs are being developed.

ELDORET TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE –LODWAR CAMPUS 1

ELDORET TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE –LODWAR CAMPUS 2

4. availability of financial resources

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TOPIC 2 DECISION MAKING

Important ideas regarding definitions:

STAGES/STEPS IN DECISIN MAKING

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MODELS OF DECISION MAKING

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DECISION MAKING RULES

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ELDORET TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE –LODWAR CAMPUS 7

TOPIC 3 : SOCIAL POLICY FORMULATION

Characteristics of policy formulation

REASONS FOR POLICY FORMULATION

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ROLE OF STAKEHOLDERS IN POLICY FORMULATION

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 Rates of voting in elections

FACTORS INFLUENCING SUCCESS OF SOCIAL POLICY

FACTORS INFLUENCING FAILURE OF SOCIAL POLICY

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- Community apathy- apathy refers to unconcern, indifference, passivity e.t.c.. if a

TOPIC 4 POLICY ANALYSIS AND DEVELOPMENT

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- provide opportunity to consider views of stakeholders

THE PROCESS OF POLICY ANALYSIS

MODELS OF POLICY ANALYSIS

STAGES/STEPS OF POLICY ANALYSIS

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ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN POLICY DEVELOPMENT

PROCESS OF POLICY DEVELOPMENT

Stages in Policy Development.

ADVANTAGES OF POLICY ANALYSIS

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STEPS IN GOVERNMENT POLICY MAKING/system theory/policy making

TOPIC 5 SOCIAL POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

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FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

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MODEL OF POLICY IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS

ROLE OF AGENTS IN POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

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CHALLENGES OF POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

TOPIC 6 SOCIAL POLICY EVALUATION

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Impact refers to impression either positive or negative

FACTORS AFFECTING POLICY EVALUATION

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REASONS WHY PROGRAMS MAY BE INEFFECTIVE

TOPIC 7 SOCIAL POLICY ADMINISTRATION

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Administration refers to management, governance, decision making, supervision, organization

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FACTORS INFLUENCING SUCCESS

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1. Lack of effective participation and coordination.- participation refers to cooperation or