Empowerment Series The Skills of

Helping Individuals Families Groups

and Communities 8th Edition Shulman
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 Chapter 10

The Preliminary Phase in Group Practice: The Group as a Mutual-Aid System

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following statements represents the difference between open-ended

groups and fixed membership groups?
a. Open-ended groups encourage open discussion, while fixed membership
groups address a very specific issue.
b. Open-ended groups use mutual aid as the core process, while fixed
membership groups do not use mutual aid.
c. Open-ended groups allow different members to come and go each group
meeting, while a fixed membership group is comprised of the same clients
each group meeting.
d. Open-ended groups encourage open discussion, while fixed-membership
groups encourage confrontation.

ANS: C PG: 370 EPAS: 2.1.10g

2. _______ is a process marked by an alliance of individuals who need each other to

work on common problems.
a. Group aid
b. Communal support
c. Mutual support
d. Mutual aid

ANS: D PG: 352 EPAS: 2.1.7a

3. Racial composition of a group can affect which of the following processes:

a. cleavage
b. white flight
c. tipping points.
d. all of the above

ANS: D PG: 377 EPAS:2.1.10g

4. Which of the following is not a part of the dynamics of mutual aid?

a. the dialectical process
b. rehearsal
c. the individual interview
d. developing a universal perspective

ANS: C PG: 354 EPAS: 2.1.7b

Test Bank-1
5. Which of the following statements is true regarding the dialectical process:
a. Group members share their own views on a topic under discussion.
b. Each member brings to the group the norms of behavior and the
societal taboos that exist in our larger culture.
c. Group members use empathy to convey differences of opinion.
d. All of the above

ANS: A PG: 354 EPAS: 2.1.10j

6. Which of the following is NOT an obstacle to mutual aid?

a. difficulty of open communication in taboo areas
b. identifying the common ground
c. the complexity of the group as a whole
d. the “all-in-the-same-boat” phenomenon

ANS: D PG: 365 EPAS: 2.1.10d

7. The case of Survivors of Sexual Abuse Group and the Mandated Reporter, is an
example of
a. group setting
b. screening criteria in group practice
c. ethical issues in group practice
d. group timing

ANS: C PG: 391 EPAS: 2.1.3b

8. The group leader:

a. is a member of the group that only helps with the logistics of the group.
b. is a mediator between the individual-group interaction.
c. has one client: the group.
d. all of the above.

ANS: B PG: 365 EPAS: 2.1.10j

9. Which of the following statements is true about group work:

a. Some group leaders doubt their abilities to lead group.
b. The group leader should personally own the group outcome in order for
success.
c. To be licensed all social workers must have group work experience.
d. The best group workers work in inpatient settings.

ANS: A PG: 367 EPAS: 2.1.10g

10. When a client grants permission to a group leader or other professional person to
use specific intervention procedure, it is an example of:
a. the dialectical process

Test Bank-2
 b. sharing data
c. informed consent
d. acceptance

ANS: C PG: 372 EPAS: 2.1.2b

11. Which of the following statement is correct?

a. Some administrators believe group work is a cost-saving measure and
time-saving, because it reduces the number of individual sessions.
b. Often group work requires increased costs compared to individual work.
c. Group work is most effective when it is the personal project of a
concerned leader.
d. a and b

ANS: D PG: 372 EPAS: 2.1.10k

12. In 2006, Corey wrote about the importance of understanding the multicultural
context of a group. Which of the following statements about his views is
FALSE?
a. Multicultural group work involves strategies that cultivate understanding
and appreciation of diversity.
b. In a multicultural group, the lack of a common goal due to differing
backgrounds is a major obstacle.
c. A group is a place that promotes pluralism.
d. none of the above

ANS: B PG: 376 EPAS: 2.1.4c

13. The form of the group in relation to time needs to be connected to group ______.
a. purpose
b. phase
c. mutuality
d. modality

ANS: A PG: 380 EPAS: 2.1.10g

14. In the case of Recruiting for a School Parent Group, the worker
a. is unable to reach past the illusion of work.
b. explores indirect cues during the interview.
c. is unable to tune in to the parent’s indirect cues.
d. a and b.

ANS: B PG: 385 EPAS: 2.1.10j

15. Which of the following is NOT a potential ethical concern associated with group
practice?

Test Bank-3
 a. Conflict between the best interest of group and best interest of individual
members.
b. Democratic group decision making.
c. Conflict between group norms and values and those of society.
d. Professional incompetence of worker.

ANS: B PG: 390 EPAS:2.1.2b

True or False Questions

16. The use of role-playing is an example of a skill used in the process of developing
a universal perspective.

ANS: F PG: 361 EPAS: 2.1.10g

17. “Looking for trouble when everything seems to be going your way” is a useful
skill for family work, but not for group work.

ANS: F PG: 367 EPAS: 2.1.10j

18. There are defined rules and guidelines that prescribe the composition of an
effective group.

ANS: F PG: 374 EPAS: 2.1.10g

19. The “all-in-the-same-boat” phenomenon is the mutual aid process in which group
members are strengthened to take on difficult tasks though the support of other members.

ANS: F PG: 356 EPAS: 2.1.10k

20. In the screening process, the worker assesses prospective members to see if there
will be common ground with other members.

ANS: T PG: 387 EPAS: 2.1.10d

Test Bank-4
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 Fig. 136.—Portion of the
radula of Gadinia
peruviana Sowb., Chili. ×
250. Type (c).
(c) Radula with an indefinite number of marginals, laterals (if
present) merging into marginals, central tooth present or absent,
inconspicuous, teeth all very small. This type of radula, among the
Nudibranchiata, is characteristic of certain sub-genera of Doris (e.g.
Chromodoris, Aphelodoris, Casella, Centrodoris), of Hypobranchiaea
and Pleurophyllidia; among the Tectibranchiata, of Actaeon, many of
the Bullidae, Aplustrum, the Aplysiidae, Pleurobranchus, Umbrella
and Gadinia (Figs. 136 and 137, C).
In the Pteropoda there are two types of radula. The
Gymnosomata, which are in the main carnivorous, possess a radula
with a varying number (4–12) of sickle-shaped marginals, central
tooth present or absent. In the Thecosomata, which feed on a
vegetable diet, there are never more than three teeth, a central and
a marginal on each side; teeth more or less cusped on a square
base.
Pulmonata.—The radula of the Testacellidae, or carnivorous land
Mollusca, is large, and consists of strong sickle-shaped teeth with
very sharp points, arranged in rows with or without a central tooth, in
such a way that the largest teeth are often on the outside, and the
smallest on the inside of the row (as in Rhytida, Fig. 139). The
number and size of the teeth vary. In Testacella and Glandina, they
are numerous, consisting of from 30 to 70 in a row, with about 50
rows, the size throughout being fairly uniform. In Aerope they are
exceedingly large, and only eight in a row, the outermost marginal
being probably the largest single tooth in the whole of the Mollusca.
The central tooth is always obscure, being, when present, simply a
weaker form of the weakest lateral; in genera with only a few teeth in
a row it is generally absent altogether.

Fig. 137.—Portions of the radula of

Opisthobranchiata, illustrating
types (b) and (c); A, Scaphander
lignarius L.; A´, one of the teeth
seen from the other side, × 40;
B, Lamellidoris bilamellata L.,
Torbay, × 60; C, Hydatina physis
L., E. Indies, × 75.
The first family of jaw-bearing snails, the Selenitidae, is distinctly
intermediate. The possession of a jaw relates it to the main body of
Helicidae, but the jaw is not strong, while the teeth are still, with the
exception of the central, thoroughly Testacellidan. The central tooth
is quite rudimentary, but it is something more than a mere weak
reproduction of the marginals. There are no true laterals. The
Limacidae show a further stage in the transition. Here the central
tooth has a definite shape of its own, tricuspid on a broad base,
which is more or less repeated in the first laterals; these, as they
approach the marginals, gradually change in form, until the outer
marginals are again thoroughly Testacellidan.[326] This is the general
form of radula, varied more or less in different genera, which occurs
in Nanina, Helicarion, Limax, Parmacella, and all the sub-genera of
Zonites. It is certain that some, and probable that all of these genera
will, on occasion, eat flesh, although their usual food appears to be
vegetable. The jaw is more powerful than in the Selenitidae, but
never so large or so strongly ribbed as in Helix proper.

Fig. 138.—Portion of the radula of Glandina truncata

Gmel. × 40.
 Fig. 139.—Portion of the radula of Rhytida
Kraussii Pfr., S. Africa. × 25.
When we reach the Helicidae, we arrive at a type of radula in
which the aculeate form of tooth—so characteristic of the Agnatha—
disappears even in the marginals, and is replaced by teeth with a
more or less quadrate base; the laterals, which are always present,
are intermediate in form between the central and the marginals, and
insensibly pass into the latter. In size and number of cusps the first
few laterals resemble the central tooth; in the extreme marginals the
cusps often become irregular or evanescent. As a rule, the teeth are
set squarely in the rows, with the exception of the extreme
marginals, which tend to slope away on either side. In some
Helicidae there is a slight approximation to the Zonitidae in the
elongation of the first marginals.
The above is the type of radula occurring in the great family
Helicidae, which includes not only Helix proper, with several
thousand species, but also Arion, Bulimus, Ariolimax, and other
genera. The jaw is almost always strongly transversely ribbed.
In the Orthalicidae (Fig. 140, C) the teeth of the radula, instead of
being in straight rows, slope back at an angle of about 45 degrees
from the central tooth. The central and laterals are very similar, with
an obtuse cusp on rather a long stem; the marginals become
bicuspid.
In the Bulimulidae, which include the important genera
Placostylus, Amphidromus, Partula, Amphibulimus, and all the
groups of South American Bulimulus, the jaw is very characteristic,
being thin, arched, and denticulated at the edges, as if formed of
numerous narrow folds overlapping one another. The radula is like
that of the Helicidae, but the inner cusp of the laterals is usually
lengthened and incurved. In Partula the separation between laterals
and marginals is very strongly marked.
The remaining families of Pulmonata must be more briefly
described. In the Cylindrellidae there are three distinct types of
radula: (a) Central tooth a narrow plate, laterals all very curiously
incurved with a blunt cusp, no marginals (Fig. 140, D); (b) radula
long and narrow, central tooth as in (a), two laterals, and about eight
small marginals; (c) much more helicidan in type, central and laterals
obtusely unicuspid, marginals quite helicidan. Type (c) is restricted to
Central America, types (a) and (b) are West Indian.
Pupidae: Radula long and narrow; teeth of the helicidan type,
centrals and laterals tricuspid on a quadrate base, marginals very
small, cusps irregular and evanescent. This type includes Anostoma,
Odontostomus, Buliminus, Vertigo, Strophia, Holospira, Clausilia,
and Balea.
Stenogyridae, including Achatina, Stenogyra, and all its sub-
genera: Central tooth small and narrow, laterals much larger,
tricuspid, central cusp long, marginals similar, but smaller.
Achatinellidae: Two types occur; (a) teeth in very oblique rows,
central, laterals, and marginals all of the same type, base narrow,
head rather broad, with numerous small denticles (Achatinella
proper, with Auriculella and Tornatellina, Fig. 140, E); (b) central
tooth small and narrow, laterals bicuspid, marginals as in Helix
(Amastra and Carelia).
 Fig. 140.—Portions of the radula of A, Hyalinia nitidula Drap.,
Yorkshire, with central tooth, first lateral, and a marginal
very highly magnified; B, Helix pomatia L., Kent, showing
central tooth, laterals, and one extreme marginal, the two
former also highly magnified; C, Orthalicus undatus Brug.,
Trinidad, with three laterals highly magnified; D, Cylindrella
rosea Pfr., Jamaica, central tooth and laterals, the same
very highly magnified; E, Achatinella vulpina Fér., Oahu,
central tooth (c) and laterals, the same highly magnified.
Succineidae: Central and laterals helicidan, bi- or tricuspid on a
quadrate plate, marginals denticulate on a narrow base; jaw with an
accessory oblong plate.
Janellidae: Central tooth very small, laterals and marginals like
Achatinellidae (a).
Vaginulidae: Central, laterals, and marginals unicuspid
throughout, on same plan.
Onchidiidae: Rows oblique at the centre, straight near the edges;
central strong, tricuspid; laterals and marginals very long, falciform,
arched, unicuspid.
 Auriculidae: Teeth very small; central narrow, tricuspid on rather a
broad base; laterals and marginals obscurely tricuspid on a base like
Succinea.
Limnaeidae: Jaw composed of one upper and two lateral pieces;
central and lateral teeth resembling those of Helicidae; marginals
much pectinated and serriform (Fig. 141, A). In Ancylus proper the
teeth are of a very different type, base narrow, head rather blunt,
with no sharp cusps, teeth similar throughout, except that the
marginals become somewhat pectinated (Fig. 141, B); another type
more resembles Limnaea.
 Fig. 141.—Portions of the radula of
A, Limnaea stagnalis L., with
the central tooth and two first
laterals, and two of the
marginals, very highly,
magnified; B, Ancylus fluviatilis
Müll., with two of the marginals
very highly magnified; C, Physa
fontinalis L., with central tooth
and two of the marginals very
highly magnified.
Physidae: Jaw simple, but with a fibrous growth at its upper edge,
which may represent an accessory plate; radula with very oblique
rows, central tooth denticulate, laterals and marginals serriform,
comb-like, with a wing-like appendage at the superior outer edge
(Fig. 141, C).
 Chilinidae: Central tooth small, cusped on an excavated triangular
base, marginals five-cusped, with a projection as in Physa, laterals
comb-like, serrations not deep.
Amphibolidae: Central tooth five-cusped on a broad base, central
cusp very large; two laterals only, the first very small, thorn-like, the
second like the central tooth, but three-cusped; laterals simple,
sabre-shaped.
Scaphopoda.—In the single family (Dentaliidae) the radula is
large, and quite unlike that of any other group. The central tooth is a
simple broad plate; the single lateral is strong, arched, and slightly
cusped; the marginal a very large quadrangular plate, quite simple;
formula, 1.1.1.1.1 (Fig. 133, B).
Cephalopoda.—The radula of the Cephalopoda presents no
special feature of interest. Perhaps the most remarkable fact about it
is its singular uniformity of structure throughout a large number of
genera. It is always very small, as compared with the size of the
animal, most of the work being done by the powerful jaws, while the
digestive powers of the stomach are very considerable.
The general type of structure is a central tooth, a very few laterals,
and an occasional marginal or two; teeth of very uniform size and
shape throughout. In the Dibranchiata, marginals are entirely absent,
their place being always taken, in the Octopoda, by an accessory
plate of varying shape and size. This plate is generally absent in the
Decapoda. The central tooth is, in the Octopoda, very strong and
characteristic; in Eledone and Octopus it is five-cusped, central cusp
strong; in Argonauta unicuspid, in Tremoctopus tricuspid. The
laterals are always three in number, the innermost lateral having a
tendency to assume the form of the central. In Sepia the two inner
laterals are exact reproductions of the central tooth; in Eledone,
Sepiola, Loligo, and Sepia, the third lateral is falciform and much the
largest.
 Fig. 142.—Portion of the radula of Octopus
tetracirrhus D. Ch., Naples, × 20.
In Nautilus, the only living representative of the Tetrabranchiata,
there are two sickle-shaped marginals on each side, each of which
has a small accessory plate at the base. The two laterals and the
central tooth are small, very similar to one another, unicuspid on a
square base.

Fig. 143.—Alimentary canal of Helix aspersa L.: a, anus; b.d, b.d´, right and
left biliary ducts; b.m, buccal mass; c, crop; h.g, hermaphrodite gland; i,
intestine; i.o, opening of same from stomach (pyloric orifice); l, l´, right
and left lobes of liver; m, mouth; oe, oesophagus; r, rectum; s.d, salivary
duct; s.g, salivary gland; st, stomach; t, left tentacle. (After Howes and
Marshall, slightly modified.)
 Salivary glands are found in most Glossophora. They occur in one
or two pairs on each side of the pharynx and oesophagus, the duct
usually leading forwards and opening into the anterior part of the
pharynx (see Figs. 143, 144). They are exceptionally large in the
carnivorous Gasteropoda. In certain genera, e.g. Murex, Dolium,
Cassis, Pleurobranchus, the secretions of these glands are found to
contain a considerable proportion (sometimes as much as 4·25 per
cent) of free sulphuric acid. This fact was first noticed by Troschel,
who, while handling a Dolium galea at Messina, saw the creature
spit a jet of saliva upon a marble slab, which immediately produced a
brisk effervescence. A number of the genera thus provided bore
through the shells of other Mollusca and of Echinoderms, to prey
upon their soft tissues, and it is possible that the acid assists in the
piercing of the shell by converting the hard carbonate of lime into
sulphate of lime, which can easily be removed by the action of the
radula.[327] In the majority of the Cephalopoda there are two pairs of
salivary glands, one lying on each side of the mouth, the other on the
middle of the oesophagus.
Fig. 144.—Alimentary canal, etc.,
of Sepia officinalis L.: a,
anus; b.d, one of the biliary
ducts; b.m, buccal mass; c,
coecum; i, ink-sac; i.d, duct
of same; j, jaws; l.l, lobes of
the liver; oe, oesophagus; p,
pancreatic coeca; r, rectum;
s.g, salivary glands; st,
stomach. (From a specimen
in the British Museum.)
 Fig. 145.—Gizzard of
Scaphander lignarius L.: A,
showing position with regard
to oesophagus (oe) and
intestine (i), the latter being
full of comminuted fragments
of food; p, left plate; p´, right
plate; p.ac, accessory plate;
B, the plates as seen from
the front, with the enveloping
membranes removed,
lettering as in A. Natural
size.

Fig. 146.—Section of the stomach of Melongena,

showing the gastric plates (g.p, g.p,) for the
trituration of food; b.d, biliary duct; g.g, genital
gland; i, intestine; l, liver; oe, oesophagus; st,
stomach. (After Vanstone.)
 3. The Oesophagus.—That part of the alimentary canal which lies
between the pharynx and the stomach (in Pelecypoda between the
mouth and stomach) is known as the oesophagus. Its exact limits
are not easy to define, since in many cases the tube widens so
gradually, while the muscular structure of its walls changes so slowly
that it is difficult to say where oesophagus ends and stomach begins.
As a rule, the oesophagus is fairly simple in structure, and consists
of a straight and narrow tube. In the Pulmonata and
Opisthobranchiata it often widens out into a ‘crop,’ which appears to
serve the purpose of retaining a quantity of masticated food before it
passes on to the stomach. In Octopus and Patella the crop takes the
form of a lobular coecum. In the carnivorous Mollusca the
oesophagus becomes complicated by the existence of a varying
number of glands, by the action of which digestion appears to begin
in some cases before the food reaches the stomach proper.
4. The Stomach.—At the posterior end of the oesophagus lies the
muscular pouch known as the stomach, in which the digestion of the
food is principally performed. This organ may be, as in Limax, no
more than a dilatation of the alimentary canal, or it may, as is usually
the case, take the form of a well-marked bag or pocket. The two
orifices of the stomach are not always situated at opposite ends;
when the stomach itself is a simple enlargement of the wall of one
side of the alimentary canal, the cardiac or entering orifice often
becomes approximated to the orifice of exit (pyloric orifice).
The walls of the stomach itself are usually thickened and
strengthened by constrictor muscles. In some Nudibranchs
(Scyllaea, Bornella) they are lined on the inside with chitinous teeth.
In Cyclostoma, and some Bithynia, Strombus, and Trochus there is a
free chitinous stylet within the stomach.[328] In Melongena (Fig. 146)
the posterior end of the oesophagus is provided with a number of
hard plate-like ridges, while the stomach is lined with a double row of
cuticular knobs, which are movable on their bases of attachment,
and serve the purpose of triturating food.[329] Aplysia has several
hard plates, set with knobs and spines, and similar organs occur in
the Pteropoda. But the most formidable organ for the crushing of
food is possessed by the Bullidae, and particularly by Scaphander
(Fig. 145). Here there is a strong gizzard, consisting of several plates
connected by powerful cartilages, which crush the shells, which are
swallowed whole.
Into the stomach, or into the adjacent portions of the digestive
tract, open the ducts which connect with the so-called liver. The
functions of this important organ have not yet been thoroughly
worked out. The liver is a lobe-shaped gland of a brown-gray or light
red colour, which in the spirally-shelled families usually occupies the
greater part of the spire. In the Cephalopoda, the two ducts of the
liver are covered by appendages which are usually known as the
pancreatic coeca; the biliary duct, instead of leading directly into the
stomach, passes into a very large coecum (see Fig. 144) or
expansion of the same, which serves as a reservoir for the biliary
secretions. At the point of connexion between the coecum and
stomach is found a valve, which opens for the issue of the biliary
products into the stomach, but closes against the entry of food into
the coecum. In most Gasteropoda the liver consists of two distinct
lobes, between which are embedded the stomach and part of the
intestine. In many Nudibranchiata the liver becomes ‘diffused’ or
broken up into a number of small diverticula or glands connecting
with the stomach and intestine. The so-called cerata or dorsal lobes
in the Aeolididae are in effect an external liver, the removal of which
to the outside of the body gives the creature additional stomach-
room.
The Hyaline Stylet.—In the great majority of bivalves the
intestine is provided with a blind sac, or coecum of varying length.
Within this is usually lodged a long cylindrical body known as the
hyaline or crystalline stylet. In a well-developed Mytilus edulis it is
over an inch in length, and in Mya arenaria between two and three
inches. The bladder-like skin of the stylet, as well as its gelatinoid
substance, are perfectly transparent. In the Unionidae there is no
blind sac, and the stylet, when present, is in the intestine itself. It is
said to be present or absent indifferently in certain species.
The actual function performed by the hyaline stylet is at present a
matter of conjecture. Haseloff’s experiments on Mytilus edulis tend to
confirm the suggestion of Möbius, that the structure represents a
reserve of food material, not specially secreted, but a chemical
modification of surplus food. He found that under natural conditions it
was constantly present, but that specimens which were starved lost
it in a few days, the more complete the starvation the more thorough
being the loss; it reappeared when they were fed again. Schulze, on
the other hand, believes that it serves, in combination with mucus
secreted by the stomach, to protect the intestine against laceration
by sharp particles introduced with the food. W. Clark found that in
Pholas the stylet is connected with a light yellow corneous plate, and
imagined therefore that it acts as a sort of spring to work the plate in
order to comminute the food, the two together performing somewhat
the function of a gizzard.[330]
5. and 6. The Intestine, Rectum, and Anus.—The intestine, the
wider anal end of which is called the rectum, almost invariably
makes a bend forward on leaving the stomach. This is the case in
the Cephalopoda, Scaphopoda, and the great majority of
Gasteropoda. The exceptions are the bilaterally symmetrical
Amphineura, in which the anus is terminal, and many
Opisthobranchiata, in which it is sometimes lateral (Fig. 68, p. 159),
sometimes dorsal (Fig. 67). The intestine is usually short in
carnivorous genera, but long and more or less convoluted in those
which are phytophagous. In all cases where a branchial or
pulmonary cavity exists, the anus is situated within it, and thus varies
its position according to the position of the breathing organ. Thus in
Helix it is far forward on the right side, in Testacella, Vaginula, and
Onchidium almost terminal, in Patella at the back of the neck, slightly
to the right side (Fig. 64, p. 157).
In the rhipidoglossate section of the Diotocardia (Trochus, Haliotis,
etc.) the rectum passes through the ventricle of the heart, a fact
which, taken in conjunction with others, is evidence of their
relationship to the Pelecypoda.
 Fig. 147.—Ink-sac of
Sepia, showing its
relation to the rectum:
a, anus; d, duct of
sac; i.g, ink-gland; i.r,
portion of the sac
which serves as a
reservoir for the ink; o,
orifice of ink-gland; r,
rectum; sp, double set
of sphincter muscles
controlling upper end
of duct. (Modified from
Girod.)
In nearly all Pelecypoda the intestine is very long and convoluted,
being sometimes doubled forward over the mouth. Towards its
terminal part it traverses the ventricle of the heart, except in Ostrea,
Anomia, Teredo, and a few more. The anus is always at the posterior
end of the animal, adjacent to and slightly above the adductor
muscle.
Anal glands, which open into the rectum close to the anus, are
present in some Prosobranchiata, e.g. Murex, Purpura. In the
Cephalopoda the anal gland becomes of considerable size and
importance, and is generally known as the ink-sac (Fig. 147); it
occurs in all known living genera, except Nautilus. The ink-sac
consists of a large bag generally divided into two portions, in one of
which the colouring matter is secreted, while the other acts as a
reservoir for its storage. A long tube connects the bag with the end of
the rectum, the mouth of the tube being controlled, in Sepia, by a
double set of sphincter muscles.

The Kidneys

The kidneys, nephridia,[331] renal or excretory organs, consist

typically of two symmetrical glands, placed on the dorsal side of the
body in close connexion with the pericardium. Each kidney opens on
the one hand into the mantle cavity, close to the anus (see Fig. 64, p.
157), and on the other, into the pericardium. The venous blood
returning from the body passes through the vascular walls of the
kidneys, which are largely formed of cells containing uric acid. The
blood thus parts with its impurities before it reaches the breathing
organs.
The kidneys are paired in all cases where the branchiae are
paired, and where the heart has two auricles, i.e. in the Amphineura,
the Diotocardia (with the exception of the Neritidae), the Pelecypoda,
and all Cephalopoda except Nautilus, which has four branchiae, four
auricles, and four kidneys. In other Gasteropoda only one kidney
survives, corresponding to the left kidney of Zygobranchiate
Gasteropods.
Besides their use as excretory organs the kidneys, in certain
groups of the Mollusca, stand in very close relation to the genital
glands. In some of the Amphineura the generative products, instead
of possessing a separate external orifice of their own, pass from the
genital gland into the pericardium and so out through the kidneys
(see Fig. 61 C, D, p. 154). In the Diotocardia it is the right kidney
alone which serves, besides its excretory functions, as a duct for the
emission of the generative products, the left kidney being at the
same time greatly reduced in size. Thus in Patella the left
nephridium is small, the right being much larger; both function as
excretory organs, but the right serves as a mode of conveyance for
the seminal products as well. In certain Pelecypoda (e.g. Yoldia,
Avicula, Modiola, Pecten, Spondylus) the genital glands
communicate directly, and with a similar object, with the renal pouch
on the same side of the body, but in the majority of cases the orifices
are distinct.

The following memoirs will be found useful for further study of this
portion of the subject:—
D. Barfurth, Ueber den Bau und die Thätigkeit der
Gasteropodenleber: Arch. Mikr. Anat. xxii. (1883), pp. 473–524.
Th. Behme, Beiträge zur Anatomie und Entwickelungsgeschichte
des Harnapparates der Lungenschnecken: Arch. Naturges. iv. (1889),
pp. 1–28.
R. Bergh, Semper’s Reisen im Archipelago der Philippinen;
Nudibranchiata: Theil ii. Band ii. (1870–78), Band iii. (1880–1892).
W. G. Binney, Terrestrial Air-breathing Mollusks of the United
States: Bull. Mus. C. Z. Harv. iv. (1878), 450 pp.
„ On the Jaw and Lingual Membrane of North American
Terrestrial Pulmonata: Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. (1875), pp. 140–243.
J. T. Cunningham, The renal organs (Nephridia) of Patella: Quart.
Journ. Micr. Sc. xxiii. (1883), pp. 369–375.
„ „ Note on the structure and relations of the kidney in
Aplysia: Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neap. iv. (1883), pp. 420–428.
R. von Erlanger, On the paired Nephridia of Prosobranchs, etc.:
Quart. Journ. Micr. Sc. xxxiii. (1892), pp. 587–623.
H. Fischer, Recherches sur la Morphologie du Foie des
Gastéropodes: Bull. Scient. France Belg. xxiv. (1892), pp. 260–346.
 C. Grobben, Morphologische Studien über den Harn- und
Geschlechtsapparat, sowie die Leibeshöhle, der Cephalopoden: Arb.
Zool. Inst. Wien, v. (1884), pp. 179–252.
„ Die Pericardialdrüse der Gasteropoden: ibid. ix. (1890), pp.
35–56.
B. Haller, Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Niere der Prosobranchier:
Morph. Jahrb. xi. (1885), pp. 1–53.
A. Hancock, On the structure and homologies of the renal organ in
the Nudibranchiate Mollusca: Trans. Linn. Soc. xxiv. (1864), pp. 511–
530.
A. Köhler, Microchemische Untersuchung der Schneckenzungen:
Zeits. Gesamm. Naturw. viii. (1856), pp. 106–112.
Ad. Oswald, Der Rüsselapparat der Prosobranchier: Jena. Zeits.
Naturw. N.F. xxi. (1893), pp. 114–162.
R. Perrier, Recherches sur l’anatomie et l’histologie du rein des
Gastéropodes prosobranches: Ann. Sc. Nat. Zool. (7), viii. (1889), pp.
61–315.
C. Semper, Reisen im Archipelago der Philippinen; Land
Pulmonata: Theil ii. Band iii. (1870–77).
C. Troschel, Das Gebiss der Schnecken: Berlin, 1856–1892.
W. G. Vigelius, Ueber das Excretionssystem der Cephalopoden:
Niederl. Arch. Zool. v. (1880), pp. 115–184.