1.

Discuss two aspects of the physical environment that influence the

development of
a culture and provide examples of how they could affect cultural norms.
Climate, the weather conditions within a general area over a long period of
time, can
influence the way people within a culture live. Deviation from temperate
climate is the
degree to which the average temperature of a given region will differ from
what is
considered to be the relatively “easiest” temperature to live in, which is 22
degrees Celsius.
Much hotter or colder conditions make life more difficult and demanding,
which then makes
people to do more to adjust and adapt. Harsher climates create greater
risks of food
shortage and spoilage, stricter diets, and more health problems.
Demanding climates require
special clothing, housing, and working arrangements, special
organizations for the
production, transportation, trade storage of food, and special care and
cure facilities. People
in hotter climates tend to organise their daily activities more around
shelter, shade, and
temperature changes that occur during the day. Whereas groups who live
nearer the poles
may organise their daily activities around available sunlight.
Climate
Deviation from temperate climate
Population density
Arable land
Diseases
Previous cultures
Contact with other cultures
Global changes in climate, as well as the incidence and prevalence of
infectious diseases in
different regions of the world have influenced the development cultures.
Global changes in
climate ha

2. Explain linguistic bias in cross-cultural research and two procedures for

establishing
linguistic bias.
Linguistic bias is when there is not semantic equivalence between
protocols (instruments,
instructions, questionnaires, etc.) used in cross-cultural comparison
studies. Two procedures
that establish linguistic bias are back translation and the committee
approach. Back
translation is where the research protocol in one language, is translated
into the intended
language, and back into the original language. If the back-translated
version is the same as
the original, linguistic bias is established. The committee approach is
where several bilingual
informants work together to translate a research protocol into a targeted
language. They
debate the various forms of words and phrases that can be used in the
target language. The
result reflects a translation that is the shared consensus of a linguistically
equivalent
protocol across languages and cultures.
- Linguistic bias definition
- Procedures to establish linguistic bias
oBack-translation
Original – translated language – back translated
oThe committee approach
Bilingual informants work together as a group
Debate various forms of words and phrases
Translate a protocol into targeted language

3. Discuss the differing levels of peer influence on socialisation.

There are three types of cultures with differing levels on socialisation; post
figurative
cultures, co figurative cultures, and pre figurative cultures. In post
figurative cultures, change
is slow, elders transfer their knowledge to children, and there is little peer
influence on
socialisation. In co figurative cultures, change occurs more rapidly and
elders continue to
transfer knowledge to children, however peers play a greater role in
socialising each other
than in post figurative cultures. In pre figurative cultures, culture is
changing so rapidly that
young people can be the ones to transfer knowledge to adults, and peers
also play a large
role in socialising each other compared to postfigurative and cofigurative
cultures.
- Three types of cultures
oPostfigurative
Very slow cultural change
Elders teach young individuals
Low peer influence
oCofigurative
More rapid cultural change
Elders continue to teach young individuals
Peer influence
oPrefigurative
Extremely rapid culture change
Young individuals teach elders
High peer influence

4. What is Kohlberg’s Postconventional morality and why is it problematic

from a
cross-cultural perspective?
Postconventional morality is Kohlberg’s third stage in his theory of moral
development,
emphasising moral reasoning on the basis of individual principles and
conscience. A person
operating at this level of morality would judge stealing within the context
either of societal
or community needs, or of his or her moral beliefs and values. Cross-
cultural studies have
raised questions about the universal generalizability of this stage in
particular. Studies
suggest that people from different cultures reason differently about moral
dilemmas.
- Postconventional morality definition
oMoral reasoning on the basis of individual principles and conscience.
oE.g. judge stealing in the context of either
Societal or community needs, or
His or her moral beliefs and values.
- Problems
oUniversal generalizability
oDifferent cultures reason differently

5. What is collective identity and why is it important?

Collective identity is a form of identity that refers to our recognition that
we belong to social
categories, such as occupation, religion, or culture. It is important
because humans have a
universal need for affiliation. Creating a collective identity addresses this
innate need and
helps us create meaningful and lasting relationships which help us
reproduce, ensuring
survival and help us to live longer, healthier and happier lives.
- Collective identity definition
oRecognition that we belong to social categories
- Why is it important?
oUniversal need for affiliation
Create meaningful and lasting relationships
Helps us reproduce, ensuring survival
Helps us live longer, healthier, and happier lives

6. Discuss the cross-cultural and the cultural indigenous perspectives of

personality.
The cross-cultural perspective generally views personality as something
separate from
culture, which therefore allows for personality comparisons to be made
between cultures.
The cultural indigenous perspective views personality as constellations of
traits and
characteristics found only in a specific culture. Personality and culture are
not separate, but
mutually constituted with each other.
- Cross-cultural perspective
oPersonality separate from culture
oAllows for comparisons to be made between cultures
- Cultural indigenous perspective
oPersonality as constellations of traits and characteristics found in a
specific
culture.
oPersonality and culture not separate
oMutually constituted with each other

7. What is androgynous gender identity and what relationship does it have

with self-
acceptance in girls and boys? How might that relationship be associated
with
gender stereotypes?
Androgynous gender identity is where characteristics from both male and
female genders
are endorsed. Studies conducted in the United States have found that
adolescent girls who
adopt an androgynous identity have higher levels of self-acceptance than
either masculine
or feminine girls. On the other hand, boys with a more masculine identity
(rather than an
androgynous gender identity) is associated with higher levels of self-
acceptance.
Gender stereotypes are generally considered universal across all cultures.
Men are generally
viewed as strong, active, critical people who are dominant, aggressive,
and strive for
achievement, so it is therefore unsurprising that adolescent boys with a
more masculine
identity have higher levels of self-acceptance, as masculinity is what most
cultures
encourage.

8. What does cross-cultural research tell us about the concept of

intelligence?
Cross-cultural research is coming to realise that intelligence, in its
broadest sense, may be
defined as “the skills and abilities necessary to effectively accomplish
cultural goals.” On one
level, people of all cultures share a similar view of intelligence. At the
same time, however,
cultural differences naturally exist because of differences in how cultures
define goals and
the skills and abilities to achieve those goals. Cross-cultural research is
coming to realise that
intelligence, in its broadest sense, may be defined as “the skills and
abilities necessary to
effectively accomplish cultural goals.”
- Intelligence definition
oSkills/abilities necessary to accomplish cultural goals.
- Cultures share a similar view of intelligence
oDifferences exist because of how cultures define goals

9. Explain hypercognition and hypocognition and what they tell us about a

culture.
Provide an example.
Hypercognition is the term used to refer to cultures that create words to
differentiate many
emotional states. Hypocognition is the term used to refer to cultures that
lack words to
differentiate emotional states. These terms tell us how cultures view the
importance certain
emotional states. For example, German culture contains the word
Schadenfreude (deriving
pleasure from another person’s misfortune), which must be an important
enough emotional
state within their culture to have a word specifically for it.
- Hypercognition
oMany words for different emotional states
- Hypocognition
oLack words for different emotional states
- Tells us how cultures view importance of certain emotional states.
oE.g. Schadenfreude in German culture
Must be an important emotional state in their culture to have its own
word!

10. Discuss two obstacles to effective intercultural communication and

one strategy for
improving it.
Intercultural communication refers to communication between people of
different cultural
backgrounds. An obstacle to effective intercultural communication are
assumptions of
similarities, where it is assumed that others are the same, or at least
similar enough, to
make communication easy. Another obstacle is conflict; behaviours of
individuals from
another culture can be interpreted as transgressions against their value
system and morality,
which produces negative emotions and leads to conflict between cultures.
One strategy for improving intercultural communication is mindfulness; a
mental state
focusing on achieving awareness and acceptance of ones (and others)
feelings and thoughts.
Mindfulness allows people to be conscious of their own habits and cultural
expectations
concerning intercultural communication.

11. Discuss the relationships between racism and health disparities.

In a racially stratified society such as the United States, racism is a
pervasive psychological
stressor that has been consistently linked to poorer physical health across
various ethnic
minority groups, contributing to significant health disparities. Perceived
racism has been
linked to poorer physical health (such as greater risk of cardiovascular
disease) and
premature ageing among African Americans. In African American women,
racism-related
stress and poorer physical health may contribute to negative pregnancy
outcomes and
explain some of the disparity between African American and European
American infant
mortality.
- Racism statement
oLinked to poorer physical health across various ethnic minority groups
oContributes to significant health disparities.
- African Americans
oPoorer physical health
oPremature ageing
- African American women
oNegative pregnancy outcomes
Explain disparity btw AA and EA infant mortality.

12. In 2007 Lee, Kleinnmann and Kleinmann conducted in-depth

interviews with
Chinese Psychiatric outpatients diagnosed with depression. Discuss their
findings in
relation to universal and culturally specific aspects of depression.
Findings support both universal and culturally specific aspects of
depression; patients
reported symptoms that were similar to what is described in standard
universal diagnostic
systems such as loss of appetite, feelings of hopelessness, and suicidal
ideation. However,
they also reported symptoms that are not included in these diagnostic
systems and
therefore may be culturally specific. For example, “embodied emotional
experiences” where
emotional distress was combined with bodily experiences, particularly
centred around the
heart. These differences suggest that symptoms associated with
depression are rooted in
the particular cultural context.

13. Discuss two of the barriers that prevent people from seeking mental
health
treatment