SHS Physical Science Lesson

STOICHIOMETRY
Content Standards:
The learners demonstrate understanding of the following:
1. aspects of chemical changes:
a. How fast a reaction takes place
b. How much reactants are needed and how much products are formed in a reaction
c. How much energy is involved in a reaction.
2. how energy is harnessed

What is Chemical Reaction?

 A chemical reaction is in which the bonds are broken within reactant molecules, and new
bonds are formed within product molecules in order to form a new substance.
Symbols used in the Chemical Equation
Symbol Meaning
used to separate one reactant or product from another
+ Left: read as “combines with” or “reacts with”
Right: read as “and” or “plus”
used to separate the reactants from the products - it is pronounced

"yields" or "produces" when the equation is read
used when the reaction can proceed in both directions - this is called an
⇌ equilibrium arrow
(g) indicates that the substance is in a gaseous state
↑ an alternative way of representing a substance in a gaseous state
(s) indicates that the substance is in a solid state
↓ an alternative way of representing a substance in a solid state
indicates that the substance is dissolved in water - the aq comes from
(aq)
aqueous
indicates that heat is applied to make the reaction proceed

(l) indicates that the substance is in a liquid state

Chemical Equations
Chemical equations are symbolic representations of chemical reactions. The reacting materials
(reactants) are given on the left, and the products are displayed on the right, usually
separated by an arrow showing the direction of the reaction. The numerical coefficients next
to each chemical entity denote the proportion of that chemical entity before and after the
reaction.
What is Stoichiometry? [stoy·kee·aa·muh·tree]
 The quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
 The term came from the Greek words stoicheion, meaning “element”, and metron meaning
“measure”

Mole (molar) Ratio – the ratio of moles of reactants and products according to the coefficients in
the balanced chemical equation.

Limiting reagent - the substance in a chemical reaction that controls or limits the maximum
amount of product formed

Excess reagent - the reactant present in quantities greater than necessary to react with the
quantity of the limiting reagent.

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Balancing a chemical equation involves a certain amount of trial and error. Consider the following
examples below:

H2 (g) + O2 (g)  H2O (l)

1. Count each type of atom in reactants and products. Does the same number of each atom
appear on both sides of the arrow? If not, the equation is not balanced, and you need to go to
step 2.
H2 (g) + O2 (g)  H2O (l)
Reactants Products
H=2 H=2
O=2 O=1
We have 2 Hydrogen atoms and 2 Oxygen atoms on the left side of the equation. They are
called the ‘reactants.’ On the right side, we have 2 Hydrogen atoms and 1 Oxygen atoms. It
is called the ‘product’. Since our product is unbalanced, we have to balance it.

2. Place coefficients, as needed, in front of the symbols or formulas to increase the number of
atoms or molecules of the substances. Use the smallest coefficients possible. Warning!
Never change the subscripts in chemical formulas . Changing subscripts changes the
substances involved in the reaction. Change only the coefficients.
 The coefficients are also known as moles. In our equation, the ratio of Hydrogen gas (H 2) and
Oxygen gas (O2) is 2:1. Therefore we need 2 moles of H 2 and 1 mole of O2 to form 2H2O. The
limiting reactant is O2 while the excess reactant is the H2.

2H2 (g) + O2 (g)  2H2O (l)

Reactant Product
H=2×2=4 H=2×2=4
O=2 O=1×2=2
3. The equation is now balanced.

Sample Exercises:
Balance the following equations:
1. Fe + O2 Fe2O3
2. CS2 + Cl2  CCl4 + SCl2
3. Fe + H2O2  Fe3O4 + H2
4. C6H
12O6
Step 1: CS2+ Cl2  CCl4 + SCl2
→
C= 1 C=1 C2H6
Step 1: Fe + O2  Fe2O3 O+
S=2 S=1
CO2
Cl=2
Fe= 1 Cl=4+2=
Fe=2 6
O=2 O=3
Step 2: CS2(l) + 4Cl2  CCl4 + 2SCl2 LAW
Step 2: 4Fe + 3O2  2Fe2O3
C= 1 C=1 OF
S=2 4
Fe= 1×4= S=1×2=2
Fe=2×2=4
Cl=2×4= 8
O=2×3=6 Cl=4+(2×2)=
O=3×2=6 8

CONSERVATION OF MASS AND

STOICHIOMETRY

Step 1: Fe + H2O2  Fe3O4 + H2

Fe= 1 Fe=3
H=2 H=2
O=2 O=4

Step 2: 3Fe + 2H2O2  Fe3O4 + 2H2

Fe= 1×3=3 Fe=3

H=2×2=4 H=2×2=4
O=2×2=4 O=4
Law of Conservation of Mass states that mass is neither created nor destroyed in any ordinary
chemical reactions. This follows that in any reaction, the total mass of the products is always equal to
the mass of the reactions.

Using this molar ratio and a balanced chemical

equation, we can compute for the quantity of𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 another 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
substance involved in the reaction. A mole ratio is the ratio=
of moles of reactants and products according to 1 the 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
coefficients in the balanced chemical equation.

If you are given a specific mass of substance, how do you know how much of the other
Reactants are you going to use? Can you also know the amount of product that you are going to
form? To solve this, you need to follow the steps in solving stoichiometric problems:

A LIMITING REACTANT is the substance in a chemical reaction that controls or limits the
maximum amount of product formed while an excess reagent is the reactant present in quantities
greater than necessary to react with the quantity of the limiting reagent. In your activity, the limiting
reagent (ingredient) is the onion while the excess reagent(ingredient) are the chickens.

Sample Problem:
If 200.0 g of Sulfur reacts with 100g of Chlorine, what is the limiting reactant? What mass of Disulfur
chloride is produced?

Step 1: Write down the given and the unknown quantities in the problem.

Given: Mass of Sulfur= 200.0 g

Mass of Chlorine= 100.0 g

Unknown: a) limiting reactant

b) mass of Disulfur chloride
Step 2: Balance the Chemical Equation

Step 3: Convert Mass of reactants to mole

(Use the molar mass (inverse) as a conversion factor)
***molar mass of the reactant is equivalent to its atomic weight multiplied by the subscript (no. of
atoms)

Step 4: Calculate the mole ratio of the reactants

To determine the actual ratio of moles, divide the available moles of chlorine by the available
moles of sulfur which you calculated on Step 3.

To get the Stoichiometric ratio, divide the moles of Chlorine to the moles of sulfur
from the balanced chemical equation.
Determine the Limiting Reactant based on the comparison of actual and stoichiometric
ratios

The actual ratio tells us that we need 1.808 mol of Cl 2 for every mole of S8. In the stoichiometric
ratio, 4 moles of Cl2 is needed for every mole of S8. Since only 1.808 mole of chlorine is actually
available for every 1 mole of sulfur instead of 4 moles of chlorine required y the balanced chemical
equation then Chlorine is the limiting reactant.

Step 5: Calculate the product formed.

(Now, 190.4 g of S2Cl2 is produced when 1.410 mol of Cl2 reacts with an excess of S8.)
Note: This is the theoretical yield.)

EXCESS REACTANT is a substance that is not fully consumed in a chemical reaction. It is

also known as an excess reagent.

With the same given as the limiting reactant, we will determine the excess reactant.

Step 1: Mole to Mass Conversion

(Multiply the moles of chlorine by the mole ratio of sulfur (unknown) to chlorine to obtain the
number of moles of sulfur (unknown). Remember that the unknown is the numerator while the
known is the numerator).

Step 2: Calculate the Mass needed

Step 3: Calculate the mass of the excess reactant

PHYSICS
(ASTRONOMY)
How did the Ancient Greeks know that the Earth is Round?

Eratosthenes, a Greek Mathematician, told that no

vertical shadow was cast as the sun rays fall vertically in
the city of Syene in Egypt during summer solstice.
Eratosthenes noted that at the same time a shadow was
cast as the sun rays fell at an angle of 7.2° [one fiftieth
(1/50) of a circle in ancient Greek writings] in the city of
Alexandria. He assumed that the sun was so distant that
the rays fall parallel to each other on the Earth’s surface
and that the difference in the shadows cast in the two
cities was due to the curvature of Earth’s round surface.

The distance between Syene and Alexandia was found to be 5000 stadia (approx. 800 km). Thus,
Eratosthenes thought the Earth’s circumference must be 50 x 5000 stadia or 250,000 stadia
(40,000 kilometers).

Now, what is the significance of the spherical shape of Earth? The sense of symmetry by Greeks
demands a spherical Earth located at the center of the sphere of heavens.

Approximate Equatorial Circumference of Earth: 40,075 km

Approximate Meridional (North & South pole) Circumference of Earth: 40,008 km
Shape of the Earth: OBLATE- SPHEROID
ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS KNOWN TO MEN BEFORE THE ADVENT OF
TELESCOPES
1. Early Man associated Astronomy with agriculture, religion, divination, prophecy, and belief
systems.

2. Ancient Babylonian, Assyrian, and Egyptian knew the length of the year and Egyptians,
adopted a calendar based on 365 days a year.

3. The Egyptians also kept track of the yearly cycle of the star Sirius which corresponds to the
flooding of Nile.

4. Early Chinese civilizations kept track of the comets, meteors, and dark spots of the Sun.

5. Mayan civilization also developed a calendar based on the movements of Venus.

6. Polynesians utilized the stars for navigation.

ANCIENT ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORIES/ MONUMENTS

STONEHENGE, ENGLAND
Built in phases, beginning perhaps as early
as 3,100 BC. Its design seems to
correspond to the observation of many
astronomical events such as solstices,
eclipses, moon cycles, and more.

EL CARACOL, MEXICO
Ancient Mayan observatory building and provided a way for the
Mayan people to observe changes in the sky.

PYRAMIDS OF GIZA, EGYPT

 Researchers have spent years trying to understand how the
builders were able to align the pyramid so precisely, and
most accept that the ancient engineers used the motion of
the Sun. So, it's clear that the pyramids hold celestial
significance and that they were built with a mastery of the
sky in mind.

ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS BEFORE THE ADVENT OF TELESCOPES

I. Diurnal Motion apparent daily motion of stars and other celestial bodies across the sky due
to Earth’s rotation.

1. Fixed stars moving in the sky at the same arrangement and speed as most of the stars
are.

2. Planetes ‘wandering stars’ in Greek. The seven wandering stars are the Sun, moon,
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

II. Annual Motion- apparent yearly motion of stars and other celestial bodies across the sky due
to Earth’s revolution.

1. Zodiac and the Ecliptic

 Ecliptic is the great circle that is the apparent path of the Sun among the constellations in
the course of a year; from another viewpoint, the projection on the celestial sphere of the
orbit of Earth around the Sun. The constellations of the zodiac are arranged along the
ecliptic.
 These 13 constellations served to mark the time for planting and used by astronomers
to develop a chart called horoscope.
2. Equinoxes and Solstices
 An equinox is an event in which a planet’s subsolar point passes through its Equator. The equinoxes
are the only time when both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres experience roughly equal
amounts of daytime and nighttime.

During the equinoxes, solar declination is 0°. The word equinox is derived from two Latin words
- aequus (equal) and nox (night).

a. Vernal Equinox- Vernal equinox falls about March 20 and 21. Start of Spring

b. Autumnal Equinox- Autumnal Equinox falls about September 22 and 23. Start of Autumn or
Fall

A solstice is an event in which a planet’s poles are most extremely inclined toward or away from the
star it orbits.

a. Summer Solstice- falls between June 20 and June 21. Start of Summer.
Solar declination is about 23.5°N (the Tropic of Cancer).

b. Winter Solstice- falls between December 21 and December 22. Start of Winter.
Solar declination is about 23.5° S (the Tropic of Capricorn).

III. Precession- slow ‘wobbling’ of Earth’s axis of rotation due to the gravitational pull of the Moon
and Sun.

Hipparchus in 150 BCE has discovered based on his observation that the north celestial pole has
changed during the period of a half - century.
 Because our planet is not an exact sphere, but bulges a bit at the equator, the pulls of the Sun and
Moon cause it to wobble like a top. It takes about 26,000 years for Earth’s axis to complete one circle
of precession. As a result of this motion, the point where our axis points in the sky changes as time
goes on.

1. Thuban- North star of Earth last 5,000 years

2. Polaris is the star closest to the north celestial pole today (it will reach its closest point
around the year 2100).
3. Vega in the constellation of Lyra will be the North Star in 14,000 years.

IV. Eclipses occur when either the Earth or moon cast a shadow into each other.

SOLAR ECLIPSE LUNAR ECLIPSE

4.1 Solar Eclipse

A solar eclipse happens when the moon passes
between the Earth and the sun. Solar eclipses
usually happen about twice a year during a new
moon phase.

THREE TYPES OF SOLAR ECLIPSE

4.1.1 Total Solar Eclipse occurs when the moon passes between the
Earth and the sun, blocking the sun's light. This reveals the sun's
outer atmosphere, called the corona.
4.1.2 Annular Solar Eclipse occurs when the moon passes between
the Earth and the sun, but doesn't completely cover the sun. This
solar eclipse is characterized by a Ring of Fire that surrounds the
moon.

4.1.3 Partial Solar Eclipse happens when the Moon passes between
the Sun and Earth but the Sun, Moon, and Earth are not perfectly
lined up.

4.2 Lunar Eclipse

A lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth's
shadow darkens the Moon. This happens
when the Earth is between the Sun and
the Moon, blocking the Sun's light. Lunar
eclipses can only happen during a full
moon.

THREE TYPES OF LUNAR ECLIPSE

4.2.1 Total Lunar Eclipse- The Moon moves into the inner part of
Earth’s shadow, or the umbra.

A blood moon is a total lunar eclipse that gives the moon a

reddish appearance.

Why Red?
Some of the sunlight passing through Earth’s atmosphere reaches the Moon’s surface, lighting
it dimly. Colors with shorter wavelengths ― the blues and violets ― scatter more easily than
colors with longer wavelengths, like red and orange. Because these longer wavelengths
make it through Earth’s atmosphere, and the shorter wavelengths have scattered away, the
Moon appears orangish or reddish during a lunar eclipse. The more dust or clouds in Earth’s
atmosphere during the eclipse, the redder the Moon appears.

4.2.2 Partial Lunar Eclipse

An imperfect alignment of Sun, Earth and Moon

results in the Moon passing through only part of
Earth's umbra. The shadow grows and then recedes
without ever entirely covering the Moon.

4.2.3 Penumbral Lunar Eclipse

The Moon travels through Earth’s penumbra, or the
faint outer part of its shadow. The Moon dims so
slightly that it can be difficult to notice.

Prepared by:

JOHN EZEKIEL A. PIORQUE

PHYSICAL SCIENCE TEACHER