SYSTEMATICS LECTURE REVIEWER -used specialized descriptive

(FINAL EXAMINATION) terminology

-arrangement, position, orientation,
Contents: type, size, attachment, base,
o Identification, Plant Collection, margin, apex, venation, texture, and
Documentation, and Herbarium surface features
o Plant Collecting and Documentation ✓ Methods of Identification: *Identifying Plants
1. Taxonomic keys
PLANT IDENTIFICATION 2. Written description
3. Specimen comparison
✓ Identification- the process of associating an 4. Image comparison
unknown entity with a known one or recognizing that 5. Expert determination
the unknown entity does not have a known Taxonomic keys
counterpart ✓ Key-identification device that consists of sequentially
known and unknown entities refer choosing among a list of possibilities until the
to classes possibilities are narrowed down to one
groups of individuals ✓ Dichotomous key-most common type
delimited by features -compare two contrasting
✓ The entity itself can be a physical object or mental statements
concept Composed of two parts:
✓ Two entities are never exactly the same 1. Lead-each statement
✓ Critical consideration of identification is determining 2. Couplet- two (contrasting) leads
the characteristics and boundaries of the known. together
✓ In considering a possible taxa its critical to evaluate *Leads of couplet may be indented or
the ff: *Plant Identification numbered

1. Diagnostic characterization
(diagnosis)- listing or assessment of the
features of a taxon/entities that
distinguish it from all other taxa/entities
2. Identification- determining if diagnosis
of unknown falls within the diagnosis of
a known
✓ Molecular Plant Identification- acquiring one
✓ or more DNA sequences of one or more candidate
genes and comparing these with a repository of genes
associated with plant taxa
-Barcodes are used (a short orthologous ✓ Most keys are artificial or practical
sequences) ✓ Keys’ goal is to most easily and efficiently identify a
-obtained quickly; low cost given taxon, with no concern about classification into
-also assess stages of the life cycle and sex other groups
✓ Morphological Plant Identification-can utilize ✓ Rarely natural or phylogenetic
virtually all of our senses
-experts in a given plant group often rely on
smell, touch, and (occasionally) taste
-vision; primary means, hearing; not normally ✓ natural key
used -diagnostic (or even apomorphic) features
Two major conceptual ways that our are used to delimit “natural” groups, which
brains process information in plant are usually formal taxa
identification: -example: tribes of Asteraceae
1. Holistically (Holistic mental -characters are used; less useful in practical
processing) -an object is viewed or identification; denote the features used to
emphasized as a whole separate taxonomic groups
2. Analytically (Analytic processing)- ✓ Polyclave key- list presence/ absence of all features
parts of an object are emphasized - consists of a list of numerous character
-breaking down or subdividing the states, whereby the user selects all of states
whole object into parts that match the specimen
-implemented by a computer algorithm
 Image Comparison
- visually comparing it to photographs or
illustrations of known taxa
-books, webpage images
Disadvantage: photographs and
illustrations are usually available only
for a small subset of possible taxa
- iNaturalist

Expert Determination
- ask someone else, preferably an
✓ Why polyclave is expert in the group in question
better than dichotomous?
-Polyclave permits the use of a limited
subset of information to at least narrow
down the possibilities
-enable the user to identify the plant, even if
one or more types of data are missing from
the specimen
Disadvantage: availability; they have generally been written
only for a limited number of taxonomic groups
✓ Keys are just guides, not foolproof methods

✓ Practical Identification *Identification

- often depend on the experience of the person
making the determination

o Always check and double-check an

identification
o Taxon identified could be new to a
region
Written Description o Identification could be negative,
indicating a taxon new to science
- compare features Filipino Plant Experts: Eduardo Quisumbing,
of the unknown plant
with written PLANT COLLECTING AND DOCUMENTATION
descriptions of the ✓ Collections
possible known taxa -generally consist of samples of plants that
are preserved by drying or by means of
- best used to verify liquid preservation
an identity after one or a few possibilities are -Kept alive, grown in greenhouse or garden
presented - live plants or propagules taken from the
wild and grown in an artificial environment
Specimen Comparison
- compare the plant in question to a ✓ Why Collect?
live or preserved plant collection, o provide resource material in systematic research
usually an identified herbarium o serve as reference material for named taxa. Such a
specimen reference plant collection is known as a voucher
-Synoptic collections: house specimen
generally one specimen of each taxon *a) Type specimen in formal naming
for a given region *b) reference for the identity of a taxon
- possible match should always be b.1. in systematic studies
verified with a written description since they are b.2. in field studies, e.g., floristic surveys
dependent that the herbarium specimen is correctly Voucher specimens-almost always dried
identified herbarium specimen
-serve as types in the valid publication of
new taxa names
 -serve as a reference in verifying the identity
of a plant taxon. If there is ever any doubt as
to a taxon’s identity
-studied to check a prior identification
o Provide information about the plan in a native habitat:
put info in database
Data base system- allows information on
plant morphology, ecology, phenology, and
geography to be summarized and
categorized
Methods of Collecting Plants
✓ Procuring a physical specimen
Specimen is obtained by:
1. collecting the plant
2. pressing and drying the plant
3. preparing a mounted herbarium specimen by
gluing the plants and a label (listing the field data)
to a sheet of standard herbarium paper
*How does one:
1. Obtain a specific plant(s) for a research study-use label
information from herbarium specimens to find localities
-Use maps to find likely habitats
2. Do a complete of plants for a field survey or floristic study
-Collect and identify every plant in a region during
different seasons and different years
-Note: Permission/Permits needed!
✓ Field Collecting
-collector should obtain prior permission or the
proper permit for collecting on a tract of land
-evaluate whether or not the species should be
collected
*Should you collect? What to collect?
Generally, don’t collect “listed” taxa:
1. Rare 2. Endangered 3. Threatened
Must know ahead of time which these are!
1st guideline: (recognize any possible “sensitive”
species)
-protected by law
2nd guideline: regardless of the legal status of a
plant species, any collecting should not endanger
the local population
When you collect, use “1 to 20”rule:
*-for every herb you collect, make sure there are at
least 20 in the population
*-for every branch of a shrub or tree, make sure there
are at least 20 more
- for every one plant sample you collect, there should
be at least 20 more present in the surrounding
population
- For herbs, the “1 to 20” rule applies to individual
plants; for shrubs and trees, it applies to shoots
removed
*HOW TO COLLECT?
In collecting an herb:
at least one whole plant must be completely dug up
to show roots and/or rootstocks. E.g., corm, bulb,
rhizome
(exception: plant that is extremely rare or endangered)
In collecting shrubs, trees and vines:
only one or more branch sufficient/need be clipped
off, using hand clippers to minimize damage to the
plant
In collecting flower, fruit, cone, with sporangia, etc.:
Collect a representative specimen that shows
vegetative and reproductive parts
Press Plants:
Portable field plant presses used in field
Transfer to standard herbarium press
1. Fold to fit ca. 11.5”x 16.5”; fill up area
2. Cut to fit and to prevent too much overlap; slice
rootstocks; slice flowers, fruits to show morphology
3. at least one leaf up, one down
4. collect extra material, if possible
5. divide into 2 or more sheets, if necessary
6. succulents: cut out tissue, soak in alcohol
Preparation of Plant Specimens
✓ Herbarium specimen
-consists of a pressed and dried plant
sample that is permanently glued and
strapped to a sheet of paper (of standard
in most U.S. herbaria) along with a
documentation label
-lasts for hundreds of years
✓ Plant press
- consists of several 12″ × 18″ pieces of
standard cardboard that are placed between
two outer 12″ × 18″ frames or 1/4″ plywood
pieces all secured by two straps
- Taller herbs may be bent into a “V,” “N,” or
“M” shape
- keep the space at the lower right corner (ca
3″ × 5″ area) free, as this is where the
herbarium label will be glued on the
herbarium specimen
 o Country/state/province/county/city: List as
needed.
o Specific locality information: List complete locality
data for possible relocation of habitat in the future,
including measured or estimated distance on roads or
trails.
o Latitude and longitude: Important to list for
biogeographic data systems. Use GPS device or put
dot on topographic map to reference plant collection
numbers.
o Source/accuracy of lat./long.: List how lat /long is
determined, e.g., by USGS 7.5’ quad or GPS device.
List (in seconds) accuracy of determination.
o Township and range: May be listed instead of
lat./long., but less preferable.
o Elevation (ft or m): List in units appropriate for
source of determination.
o Landmark information: Describe nearest major
landmark (preferably one listed on standard
✓ Plant specimens be dried at not too high a
topographic map) and list distance and direction from
temperature, to prevent DNA degradation
landmark.
Plant Data
o Collection number: A unique number associated
with the primary collector Standard format is for a
Plant Press
given
person to
Cardboards: ca. 12”x 18”
begin
Newspaper: ca. 11.5”x 16.5””
with “1”
for the
Tighten straps
first plant
Place in plant drier, 2-3 days
collected,
“2” for
Remove and check if dry
the second, etc. Another format is to transform the
(if it feels cool, not dry)
date into a collection number, e.g., “10VI94A,” in
which the month is in Roman numerals, “A”
Documentation of Plant Collections
represents the first plant collected that day, “B” the
-certain data be recorded at the time of collecting a
second plant, etc. Note: Duplicate specimens of a
plant
taxon collected at the same site and time receive the
same collection number. If one plant specimen is
divided into two (or more) parts, the labels for the
pressed sheets are listed as “1 of 2,” “2 of 2,” etc.
o Photograph documentation: For keeping track of
photos or other images.
o Collector (primary): The one person associated with
a plant collection.
o Associated collector(s): Other people present or
aiding in collecting. These names are not directly
associated with the collection number.
o Taxon: Scientific name of species (a binomial of
genus + specific epithet), including authorship. If
applicable, also list the subspecies (ssp.) or variety
Field Site Data
(var.) name, including authorship. In final form, the
[List a locality number to cross-reference to other
scientific name is always underlined or italicized.
collections.]
o Ann./bien./per., habit, height, branching: Circle or
o Date of collection: List Day — month (spell out to
list duration (annual, biennial, or perennial), habit
avoid confusion) — year
(herb, shrub, subshrub, vine, or 1305 tree), height
o Time (optional): Sometimes important for noting the
from ground level (in metric, not essential if entire
time of flowering.
plant is collected), and any distinguishing features of
 the branching pattern that are not apparent from the
specimen itself.
o Fl./Fr., colors, other notes: Circle or list phenology,
whether plants are in flower and/or fruit. Precisely
describe the colors of unusual vegetative parts and of
all flower parts (e.g., of calyx, corolla, anthers). If
precision needed for colors, use a chart (e.g., Royal
Horticultural Society Color Charts. Describe features
that are obscure or might be lost from specimen upon
drying. Other field notes may include references to
additional research studies or additional field
observations, such as observed visitors/pollinators.
o Population size/distribution: A few notes about the
size and distribution of the population are useful, such
as “very rare,” “population very large (> 1000
individuals per hectare),” or “plants locally common.”
o Physical habitat/substrate: Physical habitat refers to
abiotic features, such as “dry creek bed,” “granite
outcrop,” or “flood plain.” For substrate, list color and
basic soil type (e.g., clay, clay-loam, loam, sandy-
loam, sand, gravel, boulder, or rock). More detailed
information can include soil series and/or rock type.
o Slope/aspect/exposure: List angle of slope, from
none (flat) to 90° (cliff face). Aspect is general
compass direction toward which slope is facing
Exposure is either exposed, partly shaded, or shaded.
o Community/vegetation type: Both immediate and
surrounding plant communities/vegetation types may
be listed for a single plant collection.
Community/vegetation type may be general (e.g.,
“chaparral” or “woodland”) or precise. A precise
designation of community type (modified from
Radford, A. E., et al. 1981. Natural Heritage:
Classification, Inventory, and Information. University
of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill) is as follows:
1. Determine the boundaries of the community, based on
overall similarity of species composition. This may not be
clear cut, as one community may intergrade with another
or show much variation.
2. Identify layers present in the community: canopy (tall
tree and lianas, if present) / subcanopy (smaller tree layer
under canopy) / shrub or subshrub / herb. A vine, epiphyte,
moss, or lichen layer also may be defined if a major
component of the community.
3. For each layer of vegetation, assess the total cover,
measured as the degree to which the total area of the
community is covered by members of a given layer.
Designations of cover are (1) closed (50–100% cover); (2)
open (25–50% cover); or (3) sparse (< 25% cover).
4. For each of the common species of a given layer (e.g.,
the shrub layer), assess relative cover, measured as the
degree to which each species of the layer contributes to
the total cover of that layer alone. (Other ecological
measures, such as importance value, may be used
instead, but relative cover is perhaps easiest to “eyeball”
in the field.) Assess relative cover as (a) dominant = > 50%
relative cover; (b) codominant = 25–50% relative cover.
5. Summarize the community type by listing layers
separated by a “/” in sequence from tall to short layers,
e.g., tree/shrub/herb/moss Note: Dominant or co-
dominant vines and epiphytes are listed at the end
separated by, respectively, a double slash (“//”) or triple
slash (“///”). List as follows: (a) total cover; (b) dominant
species, if one species is dominant (50–100% cover); or
(c) codominant species, if two or more species are
codominant (25–50% cover), each species present
separated by a hyphen. Note: You may use “mixed trees,”
“mixed shrubs,” or “mixed herbs” as a layer designation
where collectively the group of “mixed” species is
dominant or codominant, but each individual species is <
25% relative cover. This designation may be followed by a
listing of the more common species (those with at least
10% relative cover) in parentheses.
6. Follow the community type with a designation of
vegetation type. This is based on habit, habitat, and cover
of species present. Examples include forest (closed
trees), woodland (open trees), savanna (sparse trees with
intervening grassland), chaparral (closed, evergreen,
sclerophyllous shrubs), scrub (open to sparse shrubs),
grassland or meadow, strand (sparse, low shrubs/herbs),
marsh (aquatic shrubs and/or herbs in slowmoving water),
swamp (closed to sparse aquatic trees), pond, vernal pool.
Example: Open Malosma laurina – Artemisia californica /
closed Erodium botrys scrub community
Meaning: The total cover of the shrub layer is open (25–
50% total site area). Malosma laurina and Artemisia
californica are a codominant in the shrub layer (25–50%
relative cover). Erodium botrys is a dominant in the herb
layer, which is closed (> 50% relative cover). The
vegetation type is a scrub (open shrubs).
I.D. by/date/source: List the person who identified the
taxon, even if it is the same as the primary collector. Also
list the date, usually just the 1307 month and year, and the
source or reference of determining the taxon identity. The
source will generally be a flora of the region, but could
include monographic treatments or expert determination.
Accession number: After the plant collection is
processed into an herbarium sheet and deposited in an
herbarium, list the herbarium acronym and accession
number for a complete record of the collection. Accession
numbers are usually cited in publications to document a
collection
Liquid-Preserved Collections
-maintains the shape, size, and internal structure of plant
tissues
Anatomy, Embryology, Palynology, etc. :
FAA (Formalin-Acetic Acid-Alcohol (Ethanol)
(10 parts 70% ethanol: 1 part 37% formalin:
1 part glacial acidic acid)
Cytology (chromosome numbers/counts):
Carnoy’s (100% ethanol: glacial acetic acid )
(3 parts 100% ethanol: 1 part glacial acetic
acid
 Ultrastructure: Using Electron microscopy
Fixatives: Glutaraldehyde, osmium tetroxide,
formalin

Living Collections

-removed from the wild

-properly labeled with permanent metal or plastic tags, with
collection information corresponding to a voucher specimen
deposited in an herbarium; same with liquid -preserved
collections
-permitting long-term observations, e.g., through an entire
reproductive stage, or experimental manipulations, such as
breeding studies
▪ Grow in greenhouse or botanic garden
▪ Valuable for long-term studies

Collections for Molecular Studies

-DNA studies involve collecting plant tissue pieces and
immersing them in silica gel, labeled with taxon and collector
information. The gel dehydrates the material, preserving DNA
for future extraction. Extracted material is frozen at -80°C or
fixed in ethanol, but may not preserve DNA. Fresh material is
needed for allozyme analysis, and extra material is stored in a
cooler.
▪ DNA: dried in silica gel
▪ Allozymes: fresh material

Images as Plant Specimens

▪ Photographic images
▪ E. Woody tree (whole plant, bark of a nature and
▪ immature tree, twig during growth, adaxial and abaxial
leaf surfaces showing venation margins, ✓ Reference book for herbaria?
inflorescence, lateral and front views of a flower, and Index Herbariorum
lateral view of a fruit Holmgren, P.K., N.H. Holmgren, and L.C. Barnett, eds.
▪ Detailed information on the location (latitude and 1990. Index herbariorum, part I: The herbaria of the
longitude), date and time, size scale, community world, 8th ed. New York: New York Botanical Garden
structure, abiotic environmental factors etc.
http://www.nygb.org/bsci/ih/ih.html
*What is an herbarium? (continously updated)
-A place where preserved plant
collections are kept, usually pressed
and dried plant specimens attached to a
sheet of paper=Herbarium specimen

Function or Purpose of Herbaria?

▪ Maintain plant specimens
▪ Act as centers of plant
systematics research