CHAPTER 8 – The Organization of Knowledge
in the Mind
HOW ARE OBJECTS PLACED INTO
CATEGORIES?
 Concepts and Categories
 Procedural s Declarative Knowledge
 Feature-Based Categories:
 Prototype Theory:
 Semantic-Network Models Collins s
 Quillian’s Network Model
 Schemas and Scripts
REPRESENTING RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
CATEGORIES: SEMANTIC NETWORKS
What Is a Connectionist Model?
How Are Concepts Represented in a
Connectionist Network?
CONCEPT
- It is an idea about something that
provides a means of understanding the
world.
- Each concept in turn relates to other
concepts, such as apple, which relates
to redness, roundness, or fruit.
CATEGORY
- It is a group of items into which
different objects or concepts can be
placed that belong together because
they share some common features, or
because they are all similar to a certain
prototype.
Types of Categories:
 Natural categories are groupings that
occur naturally in the world.
 Artifact categories are groupings that
are designed or invented by humans to
serve particular purposes or functions.
Declarative Knowledge
- Various means of organizing declarative
knowledge that can be expressed in
words and other symbols (i.e.,
“knowing that”).
- Your knowledge in these areas relies on
your mental organization of declarative
knowledge.
Procedural Knowledge
- This is knowledge about how to follow
procedural steps for performing actions
(i.e., “knowing how”).
FEATURE-BASED VIEW
- This means that each feature is an
essential element of the category.
- Together, the features uniquely define
the category; they are defining features
(or necessary attributes):
- For a thing to be an X, it must have that
feature. Otherwise, it is not an “X.”
PROTOTYPE THEORY
- It takes a different approach: grouping
things together not by their defining
features but rather by their similarity to
an averaged model of the category.
- A prototype is a “typical” member of
the category.
- Characteristic features describe the
prototype but are not necessary for it.
- High prototypicality means that a
category member closely resembles the
category prototype (it is like a “typical”
member of the category).
- Low prototypicality means that the
category member does not closely
resemble a typical member of the
category.
THE EXEMPLAR APPROACH: THINKING ABOUT
EXAMPLES
• It involves determining whether an
object is similar to a standard object.
• However, whereas the standard for the
prototype approach is a single
“average” member of the category, the
standard for the exemplar approach
involves many examples, each one
called an exemplar.
• Exemplars are actual members of the
category that a person has encountered
in the past.
 • Thus, if a person has encountered
sparrows, robins, and blue jays in the
past, each of these would be an
exemplar for the category “birds.”
THEORY-BASED VIEW OF CATEGORIZATION
• It is also known as explanation-based
view.
• A theory-based view of meaning holds
that people understand and categorize
concepts in terms of implicit theories,
or general ideas they have regarding
those concepts.
• For example, what makes someone a
“good sport”?
• In the feature-base view, you
would try to isolate features of
a good sport.
• In the prototype view, you
would try to find characteristic
features of a good sport.
• In the exemplar view, you
might try to find some good
examples you have known in
your life.
• In the theory-based view, you
would use your experience to
construct an explanation for
what makes someone a good
sport.
 A good sport is someone who, when he
or she wins, is gracious in victory and
does not mock losers or otherwise
make them feel bad about losing. It is
also someone who, when he or she
loses, loses graciously and does not
blame the winner, the referee, or find
excuses.
ROSCH’S APPROACH
• Rosch distinguished three levels of
categories:
• the superordinate level, which
we will call the global level
• the basic level, and
• the subordinate level, which we
will call the specific level
INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTIC NETWORKS:
• The network consists of nodes that are
connected by links.
• Each node represents a category or
concept, and concepts are placed in the
network so that related concepts are
connected.
• In addition, properties associated with
each concept are indicated at the
nodes.
• The links connecting the nodes indicate
that they are related to each other in
the mind.
• It is a hierarchical model, because it
consists of levels arranged so that more
specific concepts, such as “canary” and
“salmon,” are at the bottom, and more
general concepts are at higher levels.
COLLINS AND QUILLIAN’S HIERARCHICAL
MODEL
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATIONS
SCHEMAS
• It is a mental framework for organizing
knowledge. It creates a meaningful
structure of related concepts.
• For example, we might have a schema
for a kitchen that tells us the kinds of
things one might find in a kitchen and
where we might find them.
• They are very similar to semantic
networks, except that schemas are
often more task-oriented.
• A script, a kind of schema, contains
information about the particular order
in which things occur. In general, scripts
are much less flexible than schemas.
However, scripts include default values
for the actors, the props, the setting,
and the sequence of events expected to
occur.
LANGUAGE
- is the use of an organize means of
combining words to communicate with
those around us.
 - Words we use may be written, spoken
or otherwise signed (sign language).
- Not all COMMUNICATION is through
language.
Psycholinguistics
- The psychology of our language as it
interacts with the human mind.
- The study of the mental mechanisms
that makes it possible for people to use
language.
Linguistics
- study of language structure and change.
Neurolinguistics
- study of the relationships among the
brain, cognition and language.
Sociolinguistics
- study of the relationship between social
behavior and language.
Computational Linguistics
- study of language via computational
methods
Properties of Language
1. COMMUNICATIVE – Language permits
us to communicate with one or more
people who share our language.
2. ARBITRARILY SYMBOLIC – Language
creates an arbitrary relationship
between a symbol and what it
represents: an idea, a thing, a process, a
relationship or a symbol.
3. REGULARLY STRUCTURED – Language
has a structure; only particularly
patterned arrangement of symbols has
meaning, and different arrangements
yield different meanings.
4. STRUCTURED AT MULTIPLE LEVELS –
the structure of language can be
analyzed at more than one level.
(Sounds, meaning units, words and
phrases)
5. GENERATIVE, PRODUCTIVE – within the
limits of linguistic structure, language
users can produce novel utterances.
6. DYNAMIC – language constantly evolve.
Basic Components of Words and Sentences
1. Phonology – the sound system of language
Phoneme – is the smallest unit of sound that
affects meaning
Example: the word CHAT has 3 phonemes or
sounds (Ch/a/t)
2. Morphology – units of meaning involved in
word formation.
Morpheme – is the smallest unit of meaning
within a particular language.
Example: the word GIRL is 1 morpheme; when
you add the S, it will change the meaning and it
has now 2 morphemes.
3. Syntax – refers to the way we put words
together to form acceptable phrases and
sentences.
Example:
The cat killed the mouse
The mouse ate the cheese
The farmer chased the cat
*Try to combine these sentences to make a
more complex one.
4. Semantics – the system that involves the
meaning of words and sentences.
Compare the meanings of each highlighted
word in each sentence:
1. She has good understanding of the
problem.
She is very understanding person.
2. Stage 4 cancer is a critical stage
I hate it when you start being critical of my
acts.
5. Pragmatics – the system of using
appropriate conversation and knowledge.
Example: using polite and formal language in
public speeches.
Language Acquisition
It’s Characteristics
- Children speak the language that they
themselves construct through
interacting actively with
environment.
- They learn the language of others
through interaction, participation and
imitation.
- There appears to be a score high in
intelligence test tend to score high in
verbal ability tests.
Different Perspectives
 B.F. Skinner: Behavioristic View of
Language
- Language development is attributed to
environmental influence.
- Children learn language based on
reinforcement.
 Noam Chomsky: Universal Grammar
- Children have inborn mechanism that is
“programmed” to make language
learning possible.
 Eric Lenneberg: Critical Age Hypothesis
- Language acquisition is linked to
maturation.
- Critical period for language learning is
usually defined as lasting from about
age 2 to puberty.
 Jean Piaget: Cognitive Development
- Children have to understand a concept
before he/she can acquire the
particular language form which
expresses that concept.
6 Stages of Language Acquisition (Stages of
Language Acquisition (Lefrancois 1997)
STAGE 1: PRE-SPEECH
 This stage occurs before age 1.
 Crying is infant’s first communications.
 It advances from crying to cooing.
(Squealing sound)
 Babbling emerges at about 6 months.
STAGE 2: HOLOPHASE or SENTENCE LIKE
WORD
This occurs to a child after 1 year old. Children
their understand the names that stand for a few
people or objects, and produce their first
words.
STAGE 3: TWO WORD SENTENCES
 This two-word sentences occur at the
age of 18 months (1and ½ years old).
 In learning to speak, children first use
only two most meaningful words.
STAGE 4: MULTIPLE-WORD SENTENCES
 This appears by 2 to 2 and ½ years old.
 Learning to make good sentence.
 Children now make increasing use of
morphemes to express meaning.
 (For example: -ing or ed).
STAGE 5: MORE COMPLEX GRAMMATICAL
CHANGES & WORD CATEGORIES
The child is at the age of 2 and ½ to 4 years old.
Children begin to use the first complex
sentences. They start to link two or more
ideas in coordinate sentences.
STAGE 6: ADULT-LIKE STRUCTURES
This stage happens after the child is 4 years old.
They have been able to make
conversation to adult.
Language Comprehension
UNDERSTANDING WORDS
• Speech perception is fundamental to
language use for our everyday lives.
Pronunciation of words varies
considerably across people.
 • COARTICULATION – one or more  EXPERTISE: KNOWLEDGE AND
phonemes begin while other phonemes PROBLEM SOLVING
still are being produced.  Organization of Knowledge • Innate
Talent and Acquired Skill • Artificial
Example: Say the words “Palace” and  Intelligence and Expertise
“Pool”. They both start with “P” but notice  CREATIVITY
the shape of your lips when you say the P of
pool compared with the P of palace.

• McGurk Effect – demonstrates

powerfully how we integrate what we
hear with what we see.
• COPROLALIA – involuntary utterance of
socially inappropriate words or
sentences.
• COPOPRAXIA – making socially
inappropriate gestures
WHAT IS A PROBLEM?
Types of Problems
• Well-defined/well-structured problems
These are problems that have clear paths to
solutions
• ill-defined/ ill-structured problems
These problems lack clear paths to solutions

READING • Problem-solving- It is an effort to

Two basic kinds of process when learning to overcome obstacles obstructing the
read. path to a solution.
 LEXICAL PROCESS – used to identify
letters and words What are the methods people use to solve
 COMPREHENSION PROCESS – used to problems and make decisions?
make sense of the text as a whole. • Thinking - mental activity for
understanding, organizing and
DYSLEXIA – when people have difficulty in communicating
deciphering, reading and comprehending. • Problem solving- Cognition used to
reach goal by thinking/behaving in
Developmental Dyslexia – starts in childhood certain ways
Acquired Dyslexia – result of a traumatic brain • Trial and Error- One possible solution
injury. after another is tried until successful
• Algorithms: Specific steps for solving
CHAPTER 10: Problem Solving and Creativity
certain problems
 WHAT IS A PROBLEM? PROBLEM • Heuristic: Guess based on experience
SOLVING TYPES OF PROBLEMS (“rule of thumb”)
 Well-structured problems • Ill- ➢ Availability
structured problems and the role of ➢ Representative
insights •
➢ Means-End Analysis
 OBSTACLES AND AIDS TO PROBLEM
• Insight- The sudden perception of a
SOLVING
solution to a problem (“Aha!” moment)
 Mental Sets, Entrenchment, and
Fixation • Negative and Positive RESTRUCTURING AND INSIGHT
Transfer
• The Gestalt psychologists also
 Incubation • Neuroscience and
introduced the idea that restructuring is
Planning during Problem Solving •
Intelligence s associated with insight
 Complex Problem Solving
 • It is a distinctive and a sudden
realization of a problem’s solution.
• Although insights may feel as though
they are sudden, they are often the
result of much prior thought and hard
work.
RESTRUCTURING AND INSIGHT
E.G.: A woman who lived in a small town
married 20 different men in that same town. All
of them are still living, and she never divorced
any of them. Yet she broke no laws. How could
she do this?
The woman who was involved in multiple
marriages is a minister.
The critical element for solving this problem is
to recognize that the word married may be
used to describe the performance of the
marriage ceremony.
So, the minister married the 20 men but did not
herself become wedded to any of them.
To solve this problem, you had to redefine your
interpretation of the term married.
Others have suggested yet additional
possibilities.
For example, perhaps the woman was an
actress and only married the men in her role as
an actress. Or perhaps the woman’s multiple
marriages were annulled so she never
technically divorced any of the men.
NEWELL AND SIMON’S APPROACH
• Newell and Simon (1972) saw problems
in terms of an initial state—conditions
at the beginning of the problem— and a
goal state—the solution of the
problem.
• Newell and Simon conceived of
problem solving as involving a sequence
of choices of steps, with each step
creating an intermediate state.
• intermediate states for a particular
problem are called the problem space.
• According to Newell and Simon, the
person has to search the problem space
to find a solution, and they proposed
that one way to direct the search is to
use a strategy called means-end
analysis.
• Our overall goal in applying means-
end analysis to the Tower of Hanoi
problem is to reduce the size of the
difference between initial and goal
states.
• An initial goal would be to move the
large disc that is on the left over to the
peg on the right.
• However, if we are to obey the rules,
we can’t accomplish this in just one
step, because we can move only one
disc at a time and can’t move a disc
if another disc is on top of it.
The String Problem.
Imagine that you are the person standing in the
middle of this room, in which two strings are
hanging down from the ceiling. Your goal is to
tie together the two strings, but neither string is
long enough so that you can reach out and grab
the other string while holding either of the two
strings. You have available a few clean paint
brushes, a can of paint, and a heavy canvas
tarpaulin. How will you tie together the two
strings?
In Gestalt terms, the solution to the problem
occurred once the participants restructured
their representation of how to achieve the
solution (get the strings to swing from side to
side) and their representation of the function of
the paintbrush (they can be used as a weight to
create a pendulum).
Solution to the String Problem.
Many people assume that they must find a way
to move themselves toward each string and
then bring the two strings together. They fail to
consider the possibility of finding a way to get
one of the strings to move toward them, such
as by tying something to one of the strings,
then swinging the object as a pendulum, and
grabbing the object when it swings close to the
other string.
THE RUSSIAN MARRIAGE PROBLEM
In a small Russian village, there were 32
bachelors and 32 unmarried women.
Through tireless efforts the village
matchmaker succeeded in arranging 32 highly
satisfactory marriages. The village was proud
and happy. Then one night, two bachelors
died. Can the matchmaker, through some
quick arrangements, come up with 31
heterosexual marriages among the 62
survivors?
NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE TRANSFER
Positive Transfer
 Occurs when the prior knowledge
benefits the learning task
 It is when a previous item is correctly
applied to present subject matter
Negative Transfer
 It occurs when previous performance
disrupts the performance of a second
task
 It can be referred to as interference and
overgeneralization.
USING ANALOGIES TO SOLVE PROBLEMS
• Analogical problem solving- It is a
technique through which the solution
to a similar problem is used to guide
solution of a new problem.
• Analogical transfer- It is the transfer of
experience from solving one problem to
solving another, similar problem.
• Source Problem
• Target Problem
A problem when using analogies to solve
problems
USING ANALOGIES TO SOLVE PROBLEMS
• The process of analogical problem
solving involves the following three
steps:
• Noticing - That there is an analogous
relationship
between the source story and the target
problem.
• Mapping - the correspondence
between the source story and the
target problem.
 To use the story to solve the problem,
the participant has to map
corresponding parts of the story onto
the test problem by connecting
elements in one story to elements in
the target problem
• Applying the mapping to generate a
parallel solution to the target problem.
USING ANALOGIES TO SOLVE PROBLEMS
INVESTIGATING COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Problems Involving Transfer
The Radiation Problem
 Imagine that you are a doctor treating a
patient with a malignant stomach
tumor. You cannot operate on the
patient because of the severity of the
cancer.
 But unless you destroy the tumor
somehow, the patient will die. You
could use high-intensity X-rays to
destroy the tumor...
 Unfortunately, the intensity of X-rays
needed to destroy the tumor also will
destroy healthy tissue through which
the rays must pass. X-rays of lesser
intensity will spare the healthy tissue,
 but they will be insufficiently powerful
to destroy the tumor...
 What kind of procedure could you
employ that will destroy the tumor
without also destroying the healthy
tissue surrounding the tumor?
 Initial State Goal: Use rays to destroy
tumor
 Resources: Sufficiently powerful rays
 Constraint: Unable to administer high-
intensity rays from one direction only
 Solution Plan: Administer low-intensity
rays from multiple directions
simultaneously
 Outcome: Tumor destroyed by rays
The Military Problem
 A general wish to capture a fortress
located in the center of a country.
There are many roads radiating
outward from the fortress. All have
been mined. Although small groups of
men can pass over the roads safely, any
large force will detonate the mines. A
full-scale direct attack is therefore
impossible. What should the general
do?
 Initial State Goal: Use army to capture
fortress
 Resources: Sufficiently large army
 Constraint: Unable to send entire army
along one road
 Solution Plan: Send small groups along
multiple roads simultaneously
 Outcome: Fortress captured by army
Convergence Schema
 Initial State Goal: Use force to
overcome a central target
 Resources: Sufficiently great force
 Constraint: Unable to apply full force
along one path alone
 Solution Plan: Apply weak forces along
multiple paths simultaneously
 Outcome: Central target overcome by
force
USING ANALOGIES TO SOLVE PROBLEMS
• One thing that makes noticing
difficult is that people often focus on
surface features, specific elements
that make up the problem, such as
the rays and the tumor.
Effect of Making Surface Features More Similar
● Surface features of the source
problem and the target problem can
be very different.
USING ANALOGIES TO SOLVE PROBLEMS
Effect of Features Varying the Structural
 Features are the underlying principle
that governs the solution.
 SUMMARY: Analogical transfer is better
when the surface and the structural
features of the source and target
problems are more similar.
Incubation
• It refers to putting the problem aside
for a while without consciously thinking
about it—offers one way in which to
minimize negative transfer.
• It involves taking a pause from the
stages of problem solving.
• For example, suppose you find that you
are unable to solve a problem. None of
the strategies you can think of seem to
work.
• Try setting the problem aside for a
while to let it incubate.
CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING
DIVERGENT THINKERS
• They have more than a handful of
means and ways to solve problems.
• They are creative thinkers since both
create new, novel ideas, and solutions
to various problems.
CONVERGENT THINKERS
• A convergent thinker has a limited and
specific solution to a problem, the
solution being tested and proven
effective in the past.
 • They have a tendency to refuse change
or innovation.
OBSTACLES TO PROBLEM SOLVING
• Mental Set- It is a frame of mind
involving an existing model for
representing a problem, a problem
context, or a procedure for problem
solving.
• Another term for mental set is
entrenchment.
Problem-Solving Barriers
• Confirmation bias- Search for evidence
that fits beliefs while ignoring evidence
not fitting beliefs
• Mental set- Persist in using past
problem- solving patterns
• Functional fixedness- Thinking about
only most typical functions of objects
HW # 1
1. Trying to find characteristic features of
the typical member of the category.
Prototype View
2. Trying to isolate a specific feature
within a certain category. Feature-
Base View
3. Trying to recall actual members of the
category that was encountered from
the past. Exemplar View
4. Explanation is rather complex and is
experienced-based. Theory- Base View
5. Is the most widely accepted hierarchical
approach in distinguishing categories.
Rosch’s Approach
Quiz # 1
1. The distance between concepts does
not predict how long it takes for us to
retrieve certain information. False
2. Our concept can be added but can
never be modified. False
3. There will be a spreading activation
wherein you are primed by a certain
stimulus. True
4. Schemes are often task- oriented. True
5. It is easier for us to complete a task if
you have both Declarative and
Procedural knowledge. True
6. Knowing the way to your house while
walking from your school is a
Declarative Knowledge. True
7. In studying Semantic Network concepts
are connected by means of
relationships. True
8. A boat has a high prototypically of a
vehicle. False
9. Also known as “knowing that”.
Declarative Knowledge
10. Also known as “knowing how.”
Procedural Knowledge
11. Are necessary attributes in feature-
based view. Defining Features
12. Category member is disparate from the
common member of the category. Low
Prototypically
13. Category member is analogous from the
common member of the category. High
Prototypically.
14. Social schemas are pattern that should
be followed much like scripts. False
15. Artificial Categories are designed and
invented by humans. True
HW # 2
1. Studies how people around you can
change the way you speak.
Sociolinguistic
2. Studies how humans communicate with
machines. Computational Linguistics
3. Concerned with the nature of language.
Linguistic
4. Studies how language is represented in
the brain. Neurolinguistics
 5. Process by which the sounds of 14. In this stage, children can now use WH
language are heard, interpreted and questions and can keep up longer
understood. Speech Perception conversations. Adult-Like Structures
15. Individuals with dyslexia have
QUIZ # 2
difficulties in comprehension
1. Lexie uncontrollably shouts that her processing. False
pants is on fire everywhere she goes.
HW # 3
This is an example of an individual with
Coprolalia. True 1. Regarded as unwelcome and needing to
2. System of using appropriate be dealt with. Problem
conversation and knowledge. 2. Have clear paths to solutions. Well-
Pragmatics defined problems
3. He proposed that understanding 3. Lack of clear paths to solutions. Ill-
concepts comes first before language. defined problems
Jean Piaget 4. Lack of clear paths to solutions. Trial
4. A child uttering "Mama" is in what stage and Error
of Language Acquisition? Holophrase 5. Involves specific steps to solve a
5. He proposed that only human beings problem. Algorithms
are capable of learning language 6. Conditions at the beginning of a
because the ability to learn grammar is problem. Initial State
innate to us. Noam Chomsky 7. Solution to the problem. Goal State
6. Smallest unit of meaning within a 8. Intermediate State for a particular
particular language. Morpheme problem. Problem Space
7. He proposed that human brain is 9. Small goals that can help us to be closer
designed to acquire language at a to the main goal. Subgoals
certain time. Eric Lenneberg 10. Is any carryover of knowledge or skills
8. McGurk suggests that we rely solely on from one problem situation to another.
what we hear. False Transfer
9. Which stage of Language Acquisition
does a child learn how to link two or
more ideas in a sentence? More
Complex Grammatical Changes &
Word Categories
10. It is the way words are organized to
produce meaningful sentences. Syntax
11. Children speak language that they
themselves created. True
12. In his approach, reinforcement is a key
factor in language development. B.F.
Skinner
13. Words are symbols which represent
something. True