STATE UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES – ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGES OF

AGRICULTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES (SUC-ACAP)

REVIEW MATERIALS FOR

THE LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR AGRICULTURISTS

Soil Science

Introduction
Soil Physics
Soil Chemistry
Soil Microbiology
Soil Fertility, Conservation, and Management
Soil Survey, Classification, and Land Use

2021

i
ISBN #

All rights reserved. No part of this module may be used or reproduced in any
manner without written permission from the State Universities and Colleges-
Association of Colleges of Agriculture in the Philippines (SUC-ACAP).

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface v

Foreword vii

List of Writers and Contributors viii

I. INTRODUCTION 1
Lesson 1. Soil Genesis 1
Lesson 2. Weathering of Rocks and Minerals 5
Lesson 3. Soil Profile Development 21

II. SOIL PHYSICS 25

Lesson 1. Soil Color 26
Lesson 2. Soil Texture 36
Lesson 3. Soil Structure 45
Lesson 4. Soil Density 53
Lesson 5. Soil Porosity 59
Lesson 6. Soil Water 65
Lesson 7. Soil Consistency 79
Lesson 8. Soil Temperature 85

III. SOIL CHEMISTRY 89

Lesson 1. Soil Colloids 90
Lesson 2. Silicate Clays 97
Lesson 3. Cation Exchange 103
Lesson 4. Percentage Base Saturation and Exchangeable
107
Sodium Percentage
Lesson 5. Soil pH 111
Lesson 6. Liming 118

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 Lesson 7. Soil Salinity and Sodicity 124

IV.SOIL MICROBIOLOGY 131

Lesson 1. Soil Organisms and their Activities 132
Classes of Soil Organisms 132
Organic Matter Decomposition 146
Nutrient Cycling 146
Lesson 2. Soil Organic Matter 156

V. SOIL FERTILITY, CONSERVATION, AND MANAGEMENT 174

Lesson 1. Introduction to Soil Fertility and Conservation 175
Lesson 2. Soil-Plant Relationships 180
Lesson 3. Evaluation of Soil Fertility 190
Lesson 4. Characteristics of Different Problem Soils 209
Lesson 5. Erosion Process and Mechanics 216
Lesson 6. Soil Erosion Measurement and Management 223

VI. SOIL SURVEY, CLASSIFICATION, AND LAND USE 232

Lesson 1. Soil Classification 233
Soil Morphology – Profile Characterization 233
Horizon Designation 234
Diagnostic Horizons 239
Nomenclature of Soil Taxonomy 242
Soil Orders 249
Lesson 2. Soil Survey and Mapping (GIS) 262
Lesson 3. Land Use and Land Evaluation 287

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 PREFACE

Republic Act 8435 or the Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997,
simply known as AFMA, was enacted on December 22, 1997. It is a policy
instrument defining measures to modernize Philippine agriculture for the country to
compete in the global market. A basic human resource development framework in
modernizing agriculture under the Act is to enhance the professional competency of
agriculturists by upgrading the standards of the agriculture and fisheries education
that will ensure to similarly upgrade the quality and sustainability of, and promote
global competitiveness, at all levels.

One strategy for professionalizing the agriculture sector is the Licensure

Examination for Agriculturists (LEA). First implemented in 2003, LEA serves as a
standardized evaluation tool to identify graduates of Agriculture and Agriculture-
related degree programs who are academically and technically fit to be admitted in
the agricultural profession. The three-day examination consists of multiple-choice
type questions in the following component subjects: Crop Science, Soil Science,
Crop Protection, Animal Science, Agricultural Economics and Marketing, and
Agricultural Extension and Communication.

The COVID-19 pandemic has been a major concern of all higher education
institutions. When review sessions for licensure board exams are already supposed
to be grinding, SUCs are confronted by the reality that face-to-face review is
undeniably not possible. Under the circumstance, universities face new pressures
to provide an engaging, motivating, and effective teaching and learning experiences
for both reviewees and reviewers.

Following this, the SUC-ACAP, with its goal of advancing the agriculture
professional competency among their member-institutions, and the College of
Agriculture and Food Science, UP Los Baños embarked on a joint initiative to
enhance the capability of the SUC faculty particularly those engaged in the conduct
of review classes in preparation for the Licensure Exam for Agriculture (LEA). To
achieve this, the joint initiative conducted three online lectures, namely, 1)
Innovative Teaching Methods and Tools Designed for Online Review Classes by no
less than the Chancellor of the UP Open University, Dr. Melinda dP. Bandelaria.
This online course aimed at introducing the faculty participants to the particularities
of conducting review classes online with the use of innovative methods and tools; 2)
Test Construction: the Multiple-Choice Type Test from a seasoned UP faculty, Dr.
Blanda R. Sumayao, which gave the faculty-participants the opportunity to review
the principles and rules for constructing multiple-choice type tests; and 3) Design

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and Development of Review Materials for LEA, again with Dr. Bandelaria with the
objective of providing the faculty-participants the necessary knowledge and skills in
designing and developing review materials and planning for the delivery of online
review sessions.

The Project initiative also gave the faculty-participants the opportunity to

review their course syllabus viz-a-viz CMO #14 S. 2008 or the CHED-prescribed
outline which enabled them to design and develop this harmonized syllabus for
each of the six core subject matter area. The review materials are thus a product of
many minds and talents, that is, of faculty-participants from the different SUCs. I
would like to acknowledge all the writers/contributors who willingly presented
themselves to the initiative and for strictly following deadlines in submitting drafts; to
all University Presidents and the Deans of the Colleges of Agriculture who have
been highly committed to the objective of this Project initiative and for the support
provided to the faculty-participants; to all Cluster and Sub-Cluster Coordinators for
the constant reminders and follow-ups; and to the SUC-ACAP Secretariat for the
untiring administrative support.

And lastly, we are grateful to the College of Agriculture and Food Science, UP
Los Baños for being true to its commitment of being a public service University,
providing scholarly and technical assistance to its sister and brother SUCs.
Specifically, we thank the Subject Area Coordinators/Specialists who unselfishly
guided our faculty participants throughout their journey in the project, as well as the
Technical Assistants and Administrative Staff who have lend full support to attaining
the objectives of the joint initiative.

As I have always reiterated in many occasions, let us be reminded that student

preparation for the licensure is just one of the factors that would determine
performance. It is still incumbent upon us SUCs or higher educational institutions to
ensure that we will be able to provide the necessary prerequisite services and
institutional support in order for students to ultimately pass successfully and help
advance the students’ professional careers post licensure exam.

The preparation for publication of these review materials was supported by the
SUC-ACAP.

EDGARDO E. TULIN, PhD

President, SUC-ACAP

/Sept 2021

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 FOREWORD

Unlike in Lord of the Rings and Harry Potter films, there are no wizards,
Balrogs, Voldemort, precious rings, or elderly wands, on the journey to becoming a
professional agriculturist. But there are narrow bridges and mazes that you must
travel and cross over. One of these challenges is the Professional Licensure Exam.

In the current climate where globalization, changing natural conditions,

production, and social composition; migratory movements, among others, have
significantly impacted most agricultural landscapes in the developing world, more
than ever, the Licensure Exam for Agriculture has become all the more relevant as it
prepares graduates of Agriculture to embrace the tasks ahead of them with utmost
professionalism by way of recognizing their expert knowledge and practice. The
Licensure Examination for Agriculture was established to recognize the expert
knowledge and practice of aspiring professional agriculturists.

This Review Material produced by the faculty participants of the joint initiative
of the UPLB College of Agriculture and Food Science (UPLB-CAFS)- State
Universities and Colleges-Association of Colleges of Agriculture in the Philippines
(SUC-ACAP) is a comprehensive resource that covers all the six core subject areas
in the field of agriculture namely, Agricultural Economics, Agricultural Extension,
Animal Science, Crop Protection, Crop Science, and Soil Science. I commend the
faculty of the CAFS who unselfishly devoted their time in coaching and mentoring
the faculty participants as well as in providing direction during the development of
the review materials. The materials hope to serve as a valuable review tool to
students of SUC-ACAP member institutions.

I wish you the best in your journey and beginning your career as a professional
agriculturist.

ELPIDIO M. AGBISIT, JR., PhD

Dean
College of Agriculture and Food Science
UP Los Baños
/Sept 2021

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 List of Writers/Contributors

Soil Fertility, Conservation, and Management Cluster

Lovely Luar-Perez (University of Rizal System) – Cluster Leader
Anane R. Sereñina (Mindoro State College of Agriculture and Technology)
Salvo O. Salvacion (Southern Luzon State University)
Venus O. Saz, Ph.D. (Cavite State University)
Grace R. Enojada (Cebu Technological University)

Soil Physics Cluster

Nonilona Daquiado, Ph.D. (Central Mindanao University) – Cluster Leader
Jeam Catague (Palawan State University) – Co-cluster Leader
Joseph Paul Abad, Ph.D. (Tarlac Agricultural University)
Mel Chrisel Sales, Ph.D. (University of Southern Mindanao)
Rodelio Alejo (Bulacan Agricultural State College)
Paul John Pangilinan (Central Luzon State University)

Soil Chemistry Cluster

Ryan T. Sarimong, Ph.D. (Capiz State University Burias Campus) – Cluster Leader
Ronaldo G. Orpiano, Ph.D. (Occidental Mindoro State College)
Rafael R. Rafael, Ph.D. (Pampanga State Agricultural University)
Eva R. Orlina, Ph.D. (Aklan State University)
Arsenio D. Bulfa, Jr. (Silliman University)
Virginia Isabelle Mapa (Tarlac Agricultural University)

Soil Microbiology Cluster

Ma. Lourdes O. Marzo, Ph.D. (Western Philippines University) – Cluster Leader
Angel Lovely Pama (Western Philippines University)
Jocelyn A. Bernabe, Ph.D. (Mariano Marcos State University)
Emilie Gonzales (Pampanga State University)
Jonnie Huervana (West Visayas State University)
Jerome Jorolan (Southern Philippines Agribusiness & Marine & Aquatic School of Technology)
Jan Micah Manaman* (Pampanga State University)
*contributor

Soil Survey, Classification, and Land Use

Janet D. Villamor, Ph.D. (Mariano Marcos State University) – Cluster Leader
Christine Mae Atup (Bohol Island State University)
Brian Gabriel J. Buenaobra (Sorsogon State University)
Julian O. Cumad (Cebu Technological University)
Gerry May Espejon (University of Eastern Philippines)
Fernan T. Fiegalan (Central Luzon State University)
Rhea Joy D. Flora (Guimaras State College)
Kenneth Oraiz (Visayas State University)
Maryvic P. Pedrosa (Central Philippines State University)
Mable Kate B. Sawey (Ifugao State University)
Carmenchita M. Tumaca (Aklan State University)

viii
INTRODUCTION

SOIL GENESIS

WEATHERING OF ROCKS AND MINERALS

SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPMENT

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 LESSON 1
SOIL GENESIS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this module, you are expected to:

1. Understand the concepts and principles of soil genesis;
2. Explain weathering processes (physical and chemical);
3. Understand soil development and the factors of soil formation;
4. To integrate the concepts of this module with other subdisciplines of soil science.

There is a suite of activities that comprise a recognized area of specialization within the
discipline of soil science. Pedology, which covers the beginning and development of soils (Soil
Genesis), their morphology and classification is just one. This was the result when the Soil
Science Society of America shortened the name, “Soil Genesis, Morphology, and Classification”
division into Pedology. (Simonson, 1999). “Pedology” which comes (from Gr. Pedos, “ground,”
and logos, “science”; was originally formed as Russian, “pedologiya”, and was used to refer to
the combination of the two phases of soil science: (1) soil genesis and classification and (2)
more inclusively, also soil morphology, survey or mapping, and interpretations. Therefore, soil
genesis is just among the fields of study in soil science and a subdivision of Pedology (Buol, et.
al., 2003).

What is Soil Genesis?

Soil genesis is a science that deals with soil in three conceptual phases: (1) soil as a geologic
entity, (2) soil as a product of factors and processes of soil formation, and (3) soil as an open
system capable of supporting the functions in all ecosystems.

As a field of specialization in Pedology, soil genesis;

1. Includes concepts of biogeochemistry;

2. Conceptualizes the factors and processes responsible for the chemical, physical, and
mineralogical properties of all soils and the spatial distribution of various kinds of soil on the
landscape.
Historical milestones of Soil Genesis Concepts (Buol et al., 2011)

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  Lomonosov (1711–1765) wrote and taught about soil
as an evolutionary (changing) rather than a static body.

 In 1883, V. V. Dokuchaev (1846–1903) published a

report of a field study of Chernozem soils present under
grasslands where he applied the principles of
morphology to soils, described major soil groups and
their genesis, produced the first scientific classification
of soils, developed methods of mapping soils, and laid
the foundation for soil genesis.

 Hans Jenny (1899–1992) wrote a masterful treatise on

the five factors governing the development of soils.
 E. W. Hilgard (1833–1916) who worked as a geologist
and soil scientist wrote about the relationships between
soils and climate.

Concepts of Soil Genesis

1. Soil-forming processes, also referred to as pedogenic processes and biogeochemical

processes. The geologic uniformitarian principle that states “the present is the key to the
past” is also applicable in soils with respect to downward translocation, bio-cycling, and
transformation of materials—back to the time of appearance of organisms on the land
surface.

2. Many soil-forming (and soil-destroying) processes proceed simultaneously in a soil,

and the resulting soil properties reflect the balance of both present and past
processes. Soil-forming processes are combinations of specific reactions that are
characteristic of particular time spans and conditions.

3. Distinctive combinations of geologic materials and processes produce distinctive soils.

Observable morphological features in a soil are produced by certain combinations of
pedogenic processes over time. The degree to which a morphological feature is expressed is
dependent on the intensity and duration of the process.

4. Five external factors provide the reactants and energy to drive the pedogenic
processes within the soil. These factors are climate, organisms, relief, parent material,
and time.

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5. Present day soils may carry the imprint of a combination of pedogenic processes and
geologic processes not presently active at that site. Knowledge of paleoecology, glacial
geology, and paleoclimatology is important for the recognition and understanding of soil
genesis.

6. A succession of different soils may have taken place at a particular spatial location as
soil-forming factors changed. The soil surface is lowered by erosion and dissolution of soil
material and elevated by depositions of soil materials and tectonics. In this respect, the
volume of material examined as soil on the land surface changes in vertical space over time.

7. The time scale for soil formation is much shorter than the geologic time scale and
much longer than the age span of most biological species. The vulnerable position of soil
as the skin of our dynamic earth subjects it to destruction and burial by episodic geologic
events. Few, if any, soils are older than Tertiary and most no older than the Pleistocene epoch.
Succession of vegetative communities and human activities often alter soil properties over
short spans of time.

8. Complexity of soil genesis is more common than simplicity. Some processes that
influence soil composition are discontinuous or episodic and disrupt soil features formed by
other processes that are rather continuous over time.

9. Soils are natural sites for clay mineral formation on land surfaces. Most primary
minerals on earth crystallize from magma at high temperature and pressure, and in the
absence of free oxygen. When exposed to lower temperatures and pressures, free oxygen,
meteoric water, and organic compounds near the land surfaces, the primary minerals
decompose by processes known as weathering. Some of the elements reassemble into new
mineral structures of clay size. It is likely that the clay particles in the shale and other
sedimentary rocks are products of mineral alteration in soil prior to erosion and deposition.

10. Understanding and knowledge of soil genesis is useful in soil classification and
mapping, but scientific classification systems cannot be based entirely on inductive
concepts of soil genesis. Processes operating within a soil can seldom be observed or
measured and are subject to change over time, which renders quantification difficult if not
impossible.

11. Knowledge of processes of soil formation is basic to understanding the impact of

human use and management. Humans alter both the factors and processes of soil
formation in their attempts to improve a soil’s performance for specific purposes. Knowledge
of pedogenic processes helps assure compatibility of human actions and ambient soil
conditions.

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5
 LESSON 2
WEATHERING OF ROCKS AND MINERALS

Soils derived from the weathering of rocks in place of from sediments that originated
from rock. Weathering is the physical and chemical alteration of rocks or minerals at or near
the Earth’s surface (Buol, et al., 2011). Alteration occurs because the rocks and minerals are
not in equilibrium with the temperature, pressure, and moisture condition in their current
environment (Birkeland 1999). Hence, this results in the disintegration of rocks and
decomposition of primary and secondary minerals to more stable forms. Primary minerals are
formed at a high temperature or pressure in igneous and metamorphic rocks, unlike secondary
minerals they are formed from low for low temperature and pressures usually found near the
Earth’s surface (Jackson 1964a). This definition places an emphasis on the processes and
environment of formation, not on composition.

Weathering is important because it:

1. Produces unconsolidated material (parent material) from which soil is formed.
2. Provides plant nutrients
3. Results in the formation of secondary minerals, the most important group
being the clay minerals.

3 Basic Processes in Weathering:

1. Physical weathering - Is the disintegration of rocks without any chemical or mineralogical

changes but simply by breakup of rocks in smaller fragments. Stress is the main causes of
this breakup within the rocks from day to night temperature fluctuations (expansion and
contraction, freezing and thawing of water) and root pressure caused by plant growth
(Birkeland 1999). These processes may have a significant direct effect on soil formation by
increasing the porosity and surface area of rock bodies and making them more accessible
and susceptible to chemical weathering (Birkeland 1999).

Processes of physical weathering:

a. Pressure release fracturing. The pressure is released when the rock is uplifted and
exposed to the surface through landslide or erosisio. The expansion can lead to rupture
along planes of the weakness of the rocks.

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 b. Freeze-thaw weathering. This process occurs when the water expands and increases
in volume by 9 percent during freezing, potentially forcing the rock to break apart and shatter.
This is a significant process in temperate and polar regions but not in the tropics.

c. Salt weathering. This is common in arid regions where low rainfall enhances salt
accumulation. This occurs when the salt crystals grow and the pressure is strong enough to
break them apart.

d. Temperature changes weathering. This occurs as a result of alternate high and low
temperature, which can cause the expansion and contraction of the surface layer of the rock.
This produces exfoliation and it is an essential process in humid tropics.

e. Wetting and drying weathering. Is also an effective agent of physical weathering,

especially in rocks that are weak. Repeated wetting and drying can cause breakdown of the
rocks.

2. Chemical weathering

It is the disintegration/decomposition of rocks and minerals by the presence of water in which

the chemical and/or mineralogical composition of the original rock and mineral is changed. Clay
minerals are the most common product of chemical weathering. The intensity of chemical
weathering is largely governed by climatic conditions which govern temperature and the
movement of water in the soil and rock, water quality and the mineral and chemical composition
of the rocks themselves (Schaetzl, RJ. Et al., 2005).

Common Chemical Weathering

a. Hydration – refers to the addition of water to the crystal lattice of a mineral but the
original material does not change chemical composition. One example is the hydration of
mineral anhydrite to form gypsum:

CaSO4 + 2H2O→ CaSO4 ・ 2H2O

anhydrite gypsum

b. Hydrolysis – (Greek, hydro means “water”, lysis means “split”) it is the most important
chemical weathering. In hydrolysis the water molecule is split into H+ and OH- ions and
it’s the main agent that drives mineral dissolution. The H+ proton reacts with silicate
minerals in a form of cation exchange. The cation that is released from the mineral then
reacts with the OH− anion to form a new substance.

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 KAlSiO3O8 + 8 HOH → HAlSi3O8 + KOH
(Orthoclase) (Acid silt clay)

HAlSi3O8 + 8 HOH → Al2O3 .3H2O + 6 H2SiO3

(Recombination) (Hyd. Alum. oxide) (Silicic acid)

Some substances present in the rocks are directly soluble in water. The soluble
substances are removed by the continuous action of water and the rock no longer
remains solid and forms holes, rills or rough surface and ultimately falls into pieces or
decomposes. The action is considerably increased when the water is acidified by the
dissolution of organic and inorganic acids.

NaCl + H2O → Na+, Cl-

c. Oxidation- is the addition and combination of oxygen to the minerals. Absorption is

usually from O2 dissolved in soil water and that present the atmosphere. it
is more active in the presence of moisture and results in hydrated oxides

4FeO (Ferrous oxide) + O2 → 2Fe2O3 (Ferric oxide)

4Fe3O4 (Magnetite) + O2 → 6Fe2O3 (Hematite)
2Fe2O3 (Hematite) + 3H2O → 2Fe2O3 .3H2O (Limonite)

d. Reduction- it is the process of removal of oxygen and it is the reverse of oxidation and it
is equally important in changing soil color to grey as ferric iron is converted to ferrous
iron compounds. Under the condition of excess water or waterlogged condition,
reduction takes place.

2Fe2O3 (Hematite) - O2 → 4FeO (Ferrous oxide)

e. Dissolution- is the process of dissolving calcium carbonate or of simple

salts such as chloride. The reaction for the carbonate dissolution as
follows:

CaCO3 + 2H+ → H2CO3 + Ca2+

This dissolving of calcium carbonate is very important in areas underlain by
limestone. The dissolution and removal of the calcium carbonate leaves clay, iron,
quartz crystals, and other “impurities” of the limestone as the material from which soils
form. The nature of the soil in areas underlain by limestone may be highly dependent
upon the nature of the residue left from the dissolution of the calcium carbonate,
although in some limestone terrain, eolian-deposited material is an important component
of the soil (Delgado et al. 2003).

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 3. Biological weathering

This type of weathering process centered the role of the biotic factors. Plants, animals, and
microorganisms release acid forming chemicals that cause weathering and also contribute to
the breaking down of rocks and landforms. It is the disintegration of rocks because of the action
by living organisms.

C. Soil Formation and Profile Development

Understanding the soil formation and composition of your soil is important, as the parent
material will dictate how the soil will behave. Understanding soil formation also helps in
understanding which parts of the landscape certain soil types are likely to be found. Having this
understanding can help to guide land-use decisions and management.

Classification of Rocks (based on Origin)

1. Igneous Rocks
– formed from the solidification of and crystallization of molten rocks called “magma”
“Remember that all rocks started out as Igneous Rocks”
- “the mother of all rocks”
• Slow cooling deep on Earth produces large crystals (coarse-textured minerals or rocks)
• Rapid cooling at or near the surface produces small crystals (fine-textured rocks or
minerals)
• Igneous rocks may be the most important of the three types because the other two forms
are alterations or changes of igneous rocks.

• Factors Controlling Viscosity of Magma

1. Composition:
- higher SiO2; higher viscosity
- lower volatiles; higher viscosity

2. Melting Temperature:
- lower temperature; higher viscosity

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Classification of Igneous Rocks
A. Based on mode of formation/occurrence:

1. Extrusive or effusive or volcanic – where magma (lava) is erupted on the earth's surface
and cools quickly to form finer grained minerals
- rocks that reached the Earth’s surface
Ex: Rhyolite, Dacite, Andesite, Basalt

2. Intrusive or plutonic – Where magma is intruded at some depth into the earth's crust and
cools slowly to produce coarser grained minerals.
- rocks that form below the Earth’s surface
Ex. Granite, Diorite, Gabbro

B. Based on Composition- Color-determining property:

Siliceous Crystalline Rocks:

1. Ultramafic – enriched in Mg, Fe and Mn oxides

- <40% SiO2 (quartz)
- ex. Peridotite (plutonic) and Komatite (volcanic)

2. Mafic = Magnesium (Mg) + Iron (Fe)

- enriched in Mg, Fe, Al, Ca minerals
- crystallizes dark minerals- Ca-rich (plagioclase) feldspar, olivine, pyroxene, and iron
oxide
- with 45%-55% SiO2 (quartz)
- ex. Gabbro (plutonic) and Basalt (volcanic)
Remember “(partially) Melting the Mantle Makes Mafic Magma”

3. Intermediate – formed by magma mixing in subduction zones

- enriched in Fe, Ti, P; moderately in Si, Na, and K;
- crystallizes medium-colored minerals: Na-rich (plagioclase) feldspar, pyroxene,
amphibole, biotite, iron-titanium oxide, K feldspar, and some quartz
- >55% but <65% SiO2
- ex. Diorite (plutonic) and Andesite (volcanic)

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4. Felsic = feldspar (Na, K minerals) + quartz (SiO2)
- enriched in Si, Na, K or feldspar minerals;
- crystallizes light colored minerals: Na plagioclase, K-feldspar, quartz, biotite,
muscovite, iron oxide and some amphibole
- intermediate to felsic magmas are commonly created by partially melting crustal
rocks as well as by magma differentiation
- >65% SiO2
- ex. Granite (plutonic) and Rhyolite (volcan

C. Based on texture:

1. Aphanitic – crystals not visible or fine-textured rocks,

- usually extrusive or volcanic; product of rapid cooling of magma
- rapid cooling produces many but small crystals
- ex. Rhyolite and Basalt
2. Phaneritic – mineral crystals are visible or coarse-textured
- usually intrusive or plutonic; product of slow or gradual cooling of magma
- ex. Granite and Gabbro
3. Pegmatitic – exceptionally large crystals,
- e.g., pegmatite

4. Porphyritic – large crystal surrounded by small crystals (indicate slow then abrupt rapid
cooling)
- e.g., Porphyritic Granite
5. Glassy - no minerals observable as result of very rapid cooling
- ex. Pumice (high gaseous silica rich lava) and Obsidian

2. Sedimentary Rocks
- These are rocks that are formed from the deposition and cementation of weathered.
products
- Sedimentary rocks are cemented together by pressure and/or chemicals. Cementing
agents could either be Fe-oxides (rust), carbonates, silica, and even clay particles.
Lithification – the process of sedimentary rock formation or when sediments are becoming
consolidated sedimentary rocks
Sediments - pieces or fragments from existing rock that accumulate on the Earth’s surface

Weathering - physical or chemical breakdown of rocks that creates sediments at or near the
surface of the Earth

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Transportation - the act of moving sediments through:
a. Running water, e.g., rivers
b. Wind
c. Ground water
d. Glaciers
e. Gravity
f. Wave currents

Depositional environment - places where the sediment is deposited

a. Continental - deserts, lakes, riverbeds, swamps, caves
b. Continental and Marine - deltas, sand bars, lagoons, estuaries
c. Marine - the ocean floor

Properties of Sedimentary Rocks

A. TEXTURE

1. Clastic or fragmental - made of transported sediments or fragments deposition which result

from the weathering of any type of rock. The sediments may be clay, silt, sand gravels,
etc.
2. Bioclastic - remains of organic material
3. Crystalline - interlocking crystals of different sizes; considered dense if crystals are less than
1⁄4 (0.25) mm
4. Amorphous - dense, having no crystal structure
5. Oolitic - made of oolites, small round particles made of calcium carbonate

B. COMPOSITION

1. Carbonate, test with HCl; ex. calcite and dolomite

2. Silica; ex. quartz and chert
3. Clay minerals; ex. kaolinite, silicate
4. Organic; ex. plants, shells, bones
5. Evaporites, minerals created from a solution; ex. gypsum
6. Rock Particles; ex. conglomerates
7. Heavy Minerals; ex. garnet
8. Feldspar, known as “arkosic”

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 C. STRUCTURE

1. Stratification - distinct layers (strata or bed) formed from moving and depositing sediments
2. Cross Bedding - stratification at an angle
3. Graded Bedding - each bed is comprised of sediments that increase in size as the depth of
the bed increases (coarsest on bottom); common for deep marine
environments
4. Surface Impressions - impressions preserved in the bed
a. Ripple Marks - marks preserved from flow in one direction (asymmetrical)
b. Oscillation Marks - marks preserved from flow back and forth (symmetrical)
c. Mud Cracks (Desiccation marks) - marks preserved from exposure to air
d. Raindrop Impressions - marks preserved from rain
e. Trace Fossils - marks preserved from the movement of animals

Description of Common Sedimentary Rocks

1. Conglomerate - formed from rounded pebbles and boulders (>2mm in diameter)
- If components are angular in shape, it is called breccia.
- cemented by clay, silica, calcium carbonate
2. Sandstone – consists of sand (0.05 to 2 mm diameter) principally quartz cemented together
by silica, calcium carbonate, etc.
- develops into sandy or coarse-textured soils
3. Shale – composed of fine particles (<0.005 mm) particularly clay
- develops into clayey or fine soils
4. Limestone – composed of more than 50% calcium carbonate
- upon weathering, the carbonate mineral is dissolved and leached away. The
remaining impurities determine the nature of developed soil.

3. Metamorphic Rocks
- results from the change (“meta’) in form (“morphos”) of pre-existing rocks within the Earth
through heat, pressure, and chemical activity, not a result of weathering or sedimentation
- are classified according to their structure and parent rock. Banded (foliated) metamorphic
rocks have more or less parallel layers of different minerals. In some cases, the color is
uniform, in others, there are alternate light- and dark-colored layers. No banded
metamorphic rocks have a random pattern of mineral crystals.
- any pre-existing rock may be the parent or precursor of a metamorphic rocks. Thus, both
igneous and sedimentary rocks are parent rocks.

13
A. Types of Metamorphisms
1. Contact metamorphism – changed caused by proximity to magma or deep, hot rock.
2. Regional metamorphism – changes caused by intense stress and high temperatures
3. Hydrothermal metamorphism – changes caused by hot liquids
4. Fault zone metamorphism – changes caused by fault movement

B. Degrees of Metamorphism
1. Metamorphic grade – degree of metamorphism applied to rock
a. High-grade – very high amounts of heat and pressure; ex. Gneiss
b. Intermediate-grade – medium amounts of heat and pressure; ex. Schist
c. Low-grade – lower amounts of heat and pressure, denser and more compact; ex. Slate
2. Metamorphic faces – minerals present in metamorphic rocks correlate to amount of heat
and pressure
a. Low pressure, high temperature; hornfels faces
b. High pressure, high temperature; granulite, amphibolite and greenschists faces
c. High pressure, low temperature; blueschists and eclogite faces

C. Changes in Mineralogy – changes in texture and composition of the mineral due to heat
and pressure
1. Recrystallization – changed by smaller crystals joining to create larger crystals of the same
mineral; common
2. Neomorphism – new minerals created from existing mineralogical compositions
3. Metamorphism – new minerals created through gaining or losing chemicals.

D. Properties of Metamorphic Rocks

1. Texture
a. Foliated – contains foliations, minerals brought into line or with one another; layers, due
to heat and pressure, common for regional metamorphism; type of foliation
can identify rock
a.1. Slaty – caused by low-grade metamorphism; dense rock containing very fine-grained
mica minerals, separates in sheets, texture of Slate
a.2. Phyllitic – caused by low-grade to intermediate grade metamorphism; rock containing
very fine-grained mica and chlorite minerals that form in a wave-like manner;
glossy luster; looks wrinkled; texture of Phyllite

14
 a.3. Schistose – caused by intermediate-grade metamorphism; medium to coarse-grained
platy minerals such as micas, chlorite, and quartz present; texture of Schists
a.4. Gneissic – caused by intermediate-grade metamorphism; rock containing layers of
varying medium to coarse minerals, light and dark layers alternating; texture of
Gneiss
b. Non-foliated texture – lacks foliations, o layers of minerals; granular, common for contact
metamorphism
b.1. Cataclastic – Made of fragments or angular pieces existing rocks created by grinding,
often near faults, hydrothermal veins
b.2. Granular – rocks containing minerals of similar size crystals that can be seen with the
bare eye, such as quartzite
b.3. Microgranular – rock containing minerals of similar size that cannot be seen with the
bare eye such as hornfels
b.4. Glassy – No crystals can be seen, smooth, has conchoidal fracture; ex. anthracite
coal
b.5. Porphyroblastic – rocks containing large crystals (porphyroblasts) in a matrix of finer
crystals, schist
2. Composition. Assists in identification of non-foliated rocks; some properties of the
metamorphosed rock (sedimentary, igneous, or metamorphic) can remain in the
new rock.
a. Sandstone; can create quartzite
b. Limestone; can create marble
c. Basalt; can create Schist or Amphibolite
d. Shale; can create Slate
e. Granite; can create Gneiss or Schist
f. Rhyolite; can create Schist

Description of Common Metamorphic Rocks

1. Gneiss – banded metamorphic rock derived primarily from acidic igneous rocks (e.g. Granite).
- has alternate light- and dark-colored bands and has abundant feldspars.
2. Schists – banded metamorphic rocks formed from shale, gneiss or other basic igneous rocks.
- generally uniform in color
3. Slate – banded metamorphic rock derived from shale
- more dense and compact than shale cleaves into sheets
4. Quartzite – non-banded metamorphic rock derived from sandstone
- very hard and weathers extremely slow
5. Marble – metamorphic rock derived from limestone

15
 - more dense or compact than limestone

Minerals
- a solid homogeneous crystalline chemical element or compound that results from the
inorganic processes of nature or any of various naturally occurring homogeneous
substances (as stone, coal, salt, sulfur, sand, petroleum, water, or natural gas) obtained
usually from the ground
- can be solid, inorganic, homogeneous, crystalline, element or compound
The physical properties of minerals are used in the identification of minerals. These
properties are luster, cleavage or fracture, hardness, color, and streak. Because of their
structural characteristics, minerals will either cleave or fracture. Cleavage is the property of
breaking along one or more smooth, parallel planes. Some minerals break in directions other
than those along cleavage planes and form irregular patterns. Thus, individual pieces of the
mineral will possess similar patterns. This property is called fracture. Minerals that fracture
weather more slowly than those that cleave. On the other hand, hardness is the resistance
which a mineral offers to scratching or abrasion. Harder minerals will weather more slowly than
softer minerals. The sole hardness of minerals is as follows:

Scale of Hardness of Minerals (developed by Friedrich Mohs, 1818)

Scale (#)
of Mineral Chemical Composition Character
Hardness
1 Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 Can be scratched
by finger nails
Graphite C
1-2 Kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4
2 Gypsum CaSO4.H2O Can be scratched
slightly by finger
nails
Chlorite (Mg,Fe)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2.(Mg,Fe)3(OH)2
2-2.5 Glauconite
Muscovite KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
(Mica)
2.5 Halite NaCl
2.5-3 Biotite (Mica) K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
3 Calcite CaCO3 Can be scratched
by a copper coin
3.5-4 Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
4 Fluorite CaF2 Can be scratched
by soft iron
5 Apatite Ca5F(PO4)3 Can be scratched

16
 by knife blade
5-5.5 Goethite Fe(OH)2
5.5 Chromite FeCr2O4
Hornblende (Ca,Na)2-3(Mg,Fe,Al)5Si6(Si,Al)2O22(OH)2
Augite (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6
6 Feldspars KAlSi3O8 Can be scratched
(Plagioclase- by knife
Na, Ca &
Orthoclase-
K/microcline)
Magnetite Fe3O4
6-6.5 Pyrite FeS2
5-6.5 Hematite Fe2O3
7 Quartz (ex. SiO2 Can be scratched
Agate, Chert, by glass, steel
Chalcedony,
Flint, Jasper)
7-7.5 Tourmaline
Olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
Garnet AsB2(SiO4)3
8 Topaz Al2SiO-F2 Can be scratched
by quartz
9 Corundum Al2O3 Can be scratched
by Topaz
10 Diamond C Can be scratched
by corundum
Source: Goldich, S. S. 1938.

Color is not an ideal or reliable means of distinguishing minerals because it is extremely

variable. However, the streak of a given mineral is relatively constant. Streak is the color of the
finely powdered mineral. This is determined by rubbing or scratching the mineral on a piece of
unglazed porcelain (streak plate).

Two Types of Minerals

1. Primary minerals – minerals that form directly from crystallizing or cooling magma

Important Primary Minerals

Primary Mineral Chemical Formula
Quartz SiO2
Orthoclase (feldspar) KAlSi3O8
Plagioclase (feldspar) (Ca, Na) AlSi3O8
Muscovite (white mica) KAlSi3O10(OH)2
Biotite (black mica) KAl(Mg,Fe)3Si3O10(OH)2
Hornblende (amphibole) Ca2Al2Mg2,Fe3Si6O2(OH)2
Pyroxene (amphibole) Ca2(Al,Fe)4(Mg,Fe)4Si6O24

17
Olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
Carbonate CO3
Apatite (Ca5(PO4)3
Source: Abit, S. M. Jr. (2010-2011).

a. Quartz – most common primary mineral in soils (30-40%)

- very hard and resistant to weathering
- makes up about 13% of the crust

b. Feldspar – alumino-silicate with bases such as K, Na and Ca

- account for 60% in Earth’s crust
- kinds of feldspars; Orthoclase (KAlSi3O8) and Plagioclase (Albite-NaAlSiO8 and
Anorthite – CaAl2Si2O8)

c. Amphibole – hornblende and pyroxenes (silicates of Ca, Mg and Fe with some Al)
- constitute 16% of the Earth’s crust
- weather more rapidly than feldspar
- dark in color

d. Micas – alumino-silicate with K, Mg and Fe as basic components

- weather easily
- kinds of micas; muscovite (white mica), biotite (black mica) and lepidolite (pink
mica)

e. Carbonate (CO3) – major component of limestone and other calcareous rocks

- calcite (CaCO3) is an example and is easily soluble, dolomite – CaMg(CO3)2 is
another example, but way harder or less soluble than calcite

f. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) – forms from evaporating calcium-sulfate bearing waters. Very soft
mineral and weathers rapidly. Accumulates in large quantities in semi-arid regions.
Gypsum may be a primary, as well as a secondary mineral.

g. Apatite (Ca5F(PO4)3) – original source of partially of practically all soil phosphorus

- it exists in minute grains in many rocks
- soluble in acids

2. Secondary minerals – minerals that form or separated or produced during the weathering of
primary minerals
a. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) – forms from evaporating calcium-sulfate bearing waters. Very soft
mineral and weathers fairly rapid. Accumulates in large quantities in semi-
arid regions. Gypsum may be a primary, as well as a secondary mineral.

18
b. Clay minerals
b.1. Non-silicate clay minerals – clay minerals whose composition does not have silicate
components
Examples:
Iron oxides – the most important iron oxides are Hematite- Fe2O3 (imparts reddish-
brown coloration in soil and sediments) and Goethite- Fe (OH)2 (imparts
yellowish-brown coloration in soil and sediments). Other examples are
Magnetite-Fe3O4 (imparts dark or black-red coloration) and Lepidocrocite
(orange-red coloration)
b.2. Silicate clay minerals – alumino-silicate clay minerals whose composition or structure
is made up of silicates (Al and Si)

Types:
1. Amorphous or non-crystalline – having no specified pattern (random) of atomic
arrangement; ex. Allophane and Imogolite
2. Crystalline – having a specified pattern (ordered atomic arrangement) of
particles
a. Non-expanding type- does not shrink (compressed when dry or dehydrated) and
swell (expands when wet or hydrated) because the bond that links
the tetra- (4) and octahedral (8) layers/sheets together is strong
enough to restrict molecules of water from filling the interspace in;
a.1. 1:1 type – ex. Kaolinite (layers are held together by H-bond), Halloysite
and Dickite
- basal spacing is 7˚A (0.7nm) both when de- and -hydrated
a.2. 2:1 type – ex. Illite (layers are held together by K+-ions) and Glauconite
- basal spacing is 10˚A or (1nm) both when de- and -hydrated
b. 2:1 Limited- or less-expanding type – partially shrinks (compressed when dry or
dehydrated) and swell (when wet or hydrated) to a lesser extent
than the expanding types because the bond that links the layers
together is not too strong nor too weak to restrict or allow the
molecules of water from filling the interspace in; ex. Vermiculite
(layers are held together by Mg2+ ions and water molecules- acting
as strong bridge); Saponite and Stevensite
- basal spacing is 10˚A (1nm) when dry and 15˚A (1.5nm) when
wet
c. 2:1 Expanding type – fully shrinks (compressed when dry) and swell (when wet
or hydrated) to a lesser extent than the expanding types because

19
 the bond that links the layers together is not too strong nor too
weak to restrict or allow the molecules of water from filling the
interspace in; ex. Montmorillonite (layers are held together weakly
by an O-O bond allowing water molecules to fill the interspace in),
Beidellite and Nontronite
d. 2:2 or 2:1:1 non-expanding type – ex. Chlorite; 2:2 type is made-up of two
silicon-tetrahedral (Si-Tet) and two aluminum-octahedral (Al-Oct)
sheets in case of, ex. Gibbsite – Al(OH)3 or two silicon-tetrahedral
(Si-Tet) and one aluminum-octahedral and one magnesium-
octahedral sheet in case of, ex. Brucite – Mg(OH)2
- basal spacing is 14˚A (1.4nm)

B. MINERALS IMPORTANT IN SOIL FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOIL

PROPERTIES

Mineral Chemical Formula

1. Albite (Na plagioclase) NaAlSi3O8
2. Anorthtite (Ca Plagiclase) CaAl2Si2O8
3. Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)
4. Aragonite CaCO3
5. Augite (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6
6. Azurite Cu(CO3)2(OH)2
7. Beidellite (Ca,Na)0.3Al2(OH)2(Al,Si)4O10.(H2O)4
8. Biotite K(Mg,Fe)3(Al,Si3O10)(OH)2
9. Boraccite Mg3ClB7O13
10. Borxax Na2B4O5(OH)4.8H2O
11. Brucite Mg(OH)2
12. Calcite CaCO3
13. Canalite KMgCl3.6H2O
14. Chalcopyrite CuFeS2
15. Chert SiO2
16. Chlorite (Mg,Fe)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2.(Mg,Fe)3(OH)6
17. Chromite (Mg,Fe)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2.(Mg,Fe)3(OH)6
18. Chrisotile Mg3si2(OH)4
19. Corundum Al2O3
20. Cuprite Cu2O
21. Diamond C
22. Deckite Al2Si2O5(OH)4
23. Diopside CaMgSi2O6
24. Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
25. Epidotite Ca2(Al,Fe)Al2O(SiO4)(SiO7)(OH)
26. Epsomite MgSO4.7H2O
27. Fluorapatite Ca5(PO4)3F
28. Fluorite CaF2
29. Galena PbS

20
30. Garnet AsB2(SiO4)3
31. Gibbsite Al(OH)3
32. Goethite FeO.OH
33. Graphite C
34. Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
35. Halite NaCl
36. Halloysite Al2Si2O5
37. Hematite Fe2O3
38. Hornblende (Ca,Na)2-3(Mg,Fe,Al)5Si6(Si,Al)2O22(OH)2
39. Hydroxylapatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH)
40. Ilmenite FeTiO3
41. Kainite K,Mg(Cl,SO4).2 ¾ H2O
42. Kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4
43. Kieserite MgSO4.H2O
44. Magnesite MgCO3
45. Magnetite Fe3O4
46. Manganite MnO(OH)
47. Microcline (K feldspar) KAlSi3O8
48. Montmorillonite (clay mineral) (Al,Mg)8(Si4O10)3(OH)10.12H2O
49. Muscovite KAl2(AlSi3O1o)(OH)2
50. Niter KNO3
51. Olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
52. Orthoclase (K feldspar) KAlSi3O8
53. Pyrite FeS2
54. Pyrolusite MnO2
55. Quartz siO2
56. Serpentine Mg3SiO5(OH)4
57. Sederite FeCO3
58. Sphalerite ZnS
59. Sylvite KCl
60. Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
61. Variscite Al(PO4).(2H2O)
62. Vermiculite (clay mineral) (Mg,Ca)0.3(Mg,Fe,Al)3(Al,Si)4O10(OH)4.8H2O
63. Zincite ZnO

Source: Cosico, W. 2005.

21
 LESSON 3
SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPMENT

Soils are variable from one place to another. They have different physical, chemical and
biological properties. Soil formed and developed through different processes involving
weathering, fracturing and breakdown of rocks into mineral soil particles. Soil forming
processes (also called pedogenic processes) happen to produce soil profiles with different
layers. These processes are addition, losses, transformation, and translocation. Soil forming
processes that dominate determine the soil that is being formed. Soil forming process includes
the five factors of soil formation such as climate, living organisms, relief or topography, parent
material, and time.

The Factors of Soil Formation and Soil Sequences in the Landscape

The relationships of the soil-forming factors can be expressed by the formula: Soil = f (cl, o, r,
p,) t,…
Where, f- presents properties of a soil result from a function of the soil-forming factors like:
cl – Climate; o – organisms; r – relief or topography; p – parent material; and t-
time.

The above equation of soil stated the present property of soil is a result from a function
of climate, organisms, relief and parent material through time during which the soil is formed.

1. Climate - Climate is an average of extremes, means, and frequency of weather events

at a given location. As a factor in soil genesis, climate provides two of the most
significant components affecting the processes of soil formation: water and temperature
(energy). Although average climatic conditions have long been known to be related to
soil properties, extreme weather conditions in many cases may play critical roles in
shaping soil properties.

Precipitation–Soil Property Relationships. The role of water in the erosion and deposition of
soil material at the soil surface is easily observed. Examples;

1. As precipitation increases vegetative biomass usually increases, with varying effect on soil
properties.

2. Water dissolves and transports materials, facilitates growth of plants and other organisms
that contribute organic matter to surface horizons.

22
 Temperature–Soil Property Relationships. Temperature as a component of the climate
influences many reactions involved in the processes of forming soil. Example;
1. With increasing temperature, soil colors tend to become less gray and more reddish.
Nitrogen and organic carbon contents decrease as the temperature increases.

Climosequence. The various soil properties discussed in relation to moisture and

temperature regimes form a continuous pattern over the landscape.

- The variation in soil properties differed by the differences in the rate of precipitation and
temperature range under which the soil develops or forms.

2. Living Organisms

Flora and fauna, including the human species, constitute both an internal and external
biotic factor (ø), in soil formation. The current vegetation and animal life at a site are often the
survivors of a succession of organisms that occupied the site and influence soil formation.
Multitudes of microorganisms inhabit the soil. Distribution of species and communities of
organisms are related to climatic environments, and thus direct comparisons are confined
geographically and are not possible among all soils. Of all the soil-forming factors, organisms
are the least susceptible to numerical expression.

Biosequence. The dominant soil properties that caused the description of a particular soil that
developed are related to or governed by the different degrees of influence by living organisms,
such as vegetation, while all other forming factors (parent material, climate relief and time) are
constant.

- The degree of differences in soil properties marked by the type of land use and
anthropogenic activities.

3. Relief

Relief is the physical configuration of the land surface with respect to relative elevation
and slope. Attributes of relief include elevation above a datum (usually meters above sea level),
slope and natural soil drainage condition, aspect, and slope configurations of convexity and
concavity.

Toposequence. The various soil properties that caused the description of a particular soil that
developed are related to or governed by the different positions in the landscape, while all other

23
forming factors (parent material, climate, living organism and time) are constant.
- The degree of soil property differences is distinguished by the variations in the
physiographic positions of soil in the landscape.
.

Figure 5. Slope configuration and positions affecting topography-water movement relationship

aten ultimately determining soil development (Buol, 2011)
a-a
topo
sequence formed on a single parent material; different soils formed within different topographic
positions in a landscape, but developed from a common parent material

4. Parent material

The chemical, mineralogical, and physical composition of the parent material into which
soil formation takes place is fundamental to understanding soil genesis. The geologic (parent)
material has some value in expressing properties and conveys an early recognition or prediction
of the type of soil that will develop. For example, Soils formed from mafic rocks are usually more
fertile, with higher contents of calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus than soils formed from
felsic rocks. They also usually contain more smectite clay and have a more reddish-brown color.
Soils formed in ultramafic rocks, particularly serpentinite, often give rise to “barrens,” with plant
communities characterized by endemic plant species that have survived, despite the nutrient
imbalance of excess Mg and inadequate Ca.

General categories of parent materials:

a. Residual/Sedentary

Rocks and minerals that are original to a location that gave rise to a soil (via
physical and chemical processes)

b. Transported

24
 a. Alluvial - transported by rivers
b. Colluvial - transported by gravitational action
c. Eolian –wind deposits
d. Lacustrine –lake deposits
e. Marine -sea or ocean bottom deposits

Lithosequence - parent material sequences on a landscape. The dependency of soil

characteristics on the properties of the initial materials in which they formed is studied by
comparing soils formed from different parent materials, under similar conditions of the other soil
forming factors of climate, relief, vegetation, and time.

5. Time – the length of time that the soil is being formed as influenced by the different soil
forming factors.

Chronosequence

- The degree of the variability of soil properties is distinguished by the time factor of soil
formation.

References:

Abit, S. M. Jr. (2010-2011). Fundamentals of Soil Science. Compiled Lecture Notes.

Department of Agronomy and Soil Science. VSU, Visca, Baybay City Leyte. Pp 1-63.
Birkeland, P. W. 1999. Soils and Geomorphology. 3d ed. Oxford Univ. Press,
New York.
Brady, N. C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soil: 15th Edition. Pearson
Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England

Buol, S.W. Southard, R.J, Graham, R.C, and McDaniel, P.A. 2011. Soil Genesis and
Classification Sixth Edition. Willey-Blackwell John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium,
Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

Cosico, W. 2005. Primer on Soil Science. Agricultural Systems Cluster, College of Agriculture,
University of the Philippines, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines: ISBN: 971-547-238-9 ©
2005 UPLB

Goldich, S. S. 1938. A study in rock-weathering. J. Geol. 46:17–58.

Jackson, M. L. 1964a. Chemical composition of soils. In F. E. Bear, ed. Chemistry of the Soil.
Reinhold, New York, pp. 71–141

Schaetzl, R, and Anderson S. 2005. Soil Genesis and Geomorphology. Cambridge Univ. Press
UK

25
26
 SOIL COLOR
Lesson 1

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:

● Define the term soil color;

● Learn how to gather soil color data;
● Identify the different elements of Munsell Color System; and
● Learn how to use soil color chart

I. Introduction

Color is usually the first property that attracts attention when observing the soil. Color
can provide valuable clues about processes that are or have been operating in the soil.

Soil color is measured using the Munsell Soil Color Charts, which allow fairly precise
observation of the three-color attributes. The soil color book, which is made up of these charts,
only contains those commonly found in soils, representing only part of the entire visible
spectrum.

II. Munsell Color System

The Munsell color system is a means to visually identify and match color using a
scientific approach that was developed by Albert Munsell. Each page of the color book
(representing each hue) is set up as a matrix or grid filled with color chips, with value on the y-
axis (dark to light from bottom to top), and chroma on the x-axis (dull to bright from left to right).

The nomenclature for soil color consists of two complementary systems: (1) color names;
and (2) the Munsell notation of color. The Munsell notation is composed of hue, value, and
chroma. The hue notation of color indicates its relation to Red, Yellow, Green, Blue, and Purple;
the value notation indicates its lightness, and the chroma notation indicates its strength
(saturation of color).

In writing the Munsell notation, the order is hue, value, chroma with a space between the
hue letter and the succeeding value number, and a diagonal between the two numbers for value
and chroma. For example:

Yellowish Brown 10YR 5/4

2.1 Hue

Hue is a measure of the chromatic composition of light that reaches the eye. The
Munsell system is based on five principal hues: red (R), yellow (Y), green (G), blue (B), and

27
purple (P). Five intermediate hues representing midpoints between each pair of principal hues
complete the 10 major hue names used to describe the notation. The intermediate hues are
yellow-red (YR), green-yellow (GY), blue-green (BG), purple-blue (PB), and red-purple (RP).

Figure 1. Hues of Munsell Color System (diagram courtesy of J. Catague)

Each of the 10 major hues is divided into 4 segments (2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10) of equal visual
steps, which are designated by numerical values applied as prefixes to the symbol for the hue
name.

28
 Figure 2. Segments of hues (diagram courtesy of J. Catague)

2.2 Value

The value indicates the degree of lightness or darkness of color to a neutral grayscale.
The value extends from pure black (0) to pure white (10). The value notation is a measure of the
amount of light that reaches the eye under standard lighting conditions. Lighter colors are
indicated by numbers between 5 and 10; darker colors are indicated by numbers from 5 to 0.
Gray is perceived as about halfway between black and white and has a value notation of 5.

Figure 3. Changes of color on different values (diagram courtesy of J. Catague)

29
 2.3 Chroma

Chroma is the relative purity or strength of the spectral color. It indicates the degree of
saturation of neutral gray by the spectral color. The scales of chroma for soils extend from 0 (for
neutral colors) to 8 (for colors with the strongest expression). The color chips are arranged
horizontally by increasing chroma from left to right on the soil-color chart.

Colors with zero-chroma are achromatic (neutral). They have no hue and no chroma but
range in value from black (N 2.5/) to white (N 8/). An example of a notation for a neutral
(achromatic) color is N 5/ (gray). The color 10YR 5/1 is also called gray because the hue is
hardly perceptible at such low chroma.

Figure 4. Changes of color on different chromas (diagram courtesy of J. Catague)

2.4 Color Name

The names for soil colors are common terms now so defined as to obtain uniformity.
Names like 'rusty brown,' mouse gray,' lemon yellow,' and 'chocolate brown' should never be
used.

Soil color is usually due to 3 main pigments: black, red, and white. Black pigments are
mostly from organic matter, reds are from iron and aluminum oxides and whites are from
silicates and salt.

30
31
32
 Figure 5. Sample color chart (diagram courtesy of J. Catague based on USDA, 1994)

2.4.1 Black

Organic matter gives off a lower color value to the soil that results in the melanization of
soil. Melanization is a process of soil darkening due to the addition of soil organic matter. Hence,
black soil is often high in organic matter which is mostly present in organic soils. It often has
slow drainage, moderate water-logging potential with low leaching of nutrients, and medium
nitrogen loss. This color is mostly found in the O horizon. Soil with swelling and cracking
minerals often also has a blackish color.

2.4.2 Brown

Brown soils are mineral soil that often has moderate to high levels of organic matter.
This color is mostly found in the A horizon with illuviated humus (Ah). These soils have well-
drained to moderate drainage and low water-logging potential. Also, this soil color is often a
product of braunification, a form of pedogenesis where iron and aluminum released from
minerals produce reddish-brown to brownish soil.

2.4.3 Red

33
 Iron gives off a reddish hue in soil, resulting from the pedogenesis called ferrugation (soil
becoming red) and rubification (dark red). Hence, red soils are often seen in soils with high iron
and aluminum oxide. This soil color is mostly developed in a warm, temperate, moist climate
under deciduous or mixed forests and has thin organic and organic-mineral layers overlying a
yellowish-brown leached layer resting on an illuvial red layer. They are usually poor growing
soils, low in nutrients and humus, highly acidic, and difficult to cultivate.

2.4.4 Yellow

Yellow soils are influenced by the presence of iron in the soil. It often has poorer
drainage than red soils. It also has iron compounds in these soils but a hydrated form (ferric
hydroxide) and therefore does not produce the 'rusty' color. This soil is well-drained, low to
medium in water-logging potential, and has medium to low organic matter.

2.4.5 White

The presence and absence of salts and other cations in the soil can influence the color.
White soil is influenced by calcium and magnesium carbonates, gypsum, or other more soluble
salts. Also, this soil color is often a product of calcification, a soil process in which the surface
soil is supplied with calcium. The higher color value can also be brought by the increase of
dissolved salts in the soil solution (also called salinization). Salts in the soil have an important
effect on the functions and management.

In similar color values, white soil can also be found in the E horizon. But instead of an
increase of cation, this horizon is white due to the soil process called leucinization, the paling of
soil horizons by the disappearance of dark organic materials through transformation to light-
colored ones. These soils are often referred to as bleached or washed out. The iron and
manganese particles have been leached out due to high amounts of rainfall or drainage.

2.4.6 Blue and Other Color

Bluish grey soils can be found in the subsurface horizon mainly with high gleying (Btg).
These soils are associated with very poor drainage or waterlogging. The lack of air in these soils
provides conditions for iron and manganese to form compounds that give these soils their color.

Pure blue soils are rare. These soils are developed from high copper minerals called
azurite or due to the increase of blue-green algae. A purple or purplish-black soil color has
probably been affected by manganese oxides and glauconite for green.

III. Mottling

Mottling (mottles, mottled) refers to secondary soil colors not associated with
compositional properties. Redoximorphic features are a type of mottle associated with wetness.
Lithochromic mottles are a type of mottling associated with variations of color due to weathering
of parent materials.

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IV. Terminology

Here are some basic terms that are used on describing color:

1. Achromatic. Absence of color.

2. Chromatic. Presence of color.
3. Contrast. The degree of difference between tones.
4. Gradient. An increase or decrease in the magnitude of colors observed in passing
from one point or moment to another.
5. Lightness. The quality of being pale in color.
6. Saturation. The intensity of the color is expressed as the degree to which it differs
from white.

V. Importance

Here is the importance of soil color:

1. Soil color can indicate the depth of the existing water table based on the color
patterns of different mineral types that form in variable wet conditions.
2. Soil color can predict the composition of the soil and give clues to the conditions of
the soil.
3. Soil color can identify the specific soil horizons which are based on horizontal bands
of color in the soil.
4. Soil color can indicate the development and distribution of color in soil results from
chemical and biological weathering, especially redox reactions. As the primary
minerals in soil parent material weather.
5. Soil color can allow us to know some of its most important characteristics, such as
mineral composition, age, and soil processes (chemical alteration, carbonate
accumulation, the presence of humified organic matter, etc.).
6. Soil color provides a hint as to how the soil was formed.

VI. Guidelines for Recording Color

Here are the guidelines for recording soil color:

1. The quality and intensity of the light source affect the amount and quality of the light
reflected. The visual impression of color from the standard color chips is accurate
only under standard conditions of light intensity and quality. Hence, a color
determination may be inaccurate early in the morning or late in the evening. When
the sun is low in the sky or the atmosphere is smoky, the light reaching the sample
and the light reflected is redder. Colors also appear different in the subdued light of a
cloudy day than in bright sunlight. If artificial light is used, as for color determinations
in an office, the light source must be as near the white light of midday as possible.
With practice, compensation can be made for the differences. The intensity of
incidental light is especially critical when matching soil to chips of low chroma and
low value.

2. The roughness of its surface affects the light reflected. The roughness of the
reflecting surface affects the amount of reflected light, especially if the incidental light

35
 falls at an acute angle. The incidental light should be as near as possible at a right
angle. For crushed samples, the surface is smoothed, and the state is recorded as
“dry, crushed and smoothed.

3. The moisture content of the sample affects the color. Wet samples become darker
colors and too dry samples become light colors. Hence, it is recommended to
measure the color during in-field dry and moist conditions.

VII. Determining Soil Color

1. Select the soil sample to be described.

2. The color of the soil should be recorded in the moist condition (or both dry and moist
conditions where possible) using the notations for hue, value, and chroma as given
in the Munsell Soil Color Charts. No free water is present nor is it glistening in the
light.
3. Determine the hue of the sample by comparison with pages in the Munsell color
book. Begin with the 10YR hue.
4. Soil colors should be determined out of direct sunlight and by matching a broken ped
with the color chip of the Munsell Soil Color Charts. With good light coming over your
shoulder, compare the soil's color with the color chips until you find the best match
possible. You may have to select another hue (page) if you have difficulty finding a
match.
5. Where possible, soil color should be determined under uniform conditions. Early
morning and late evening readings are not accurate. Moreover, the determination of
color by the same or different individuals has often proved to be inconsistent.
Because soil color is significant concerning various soil properties, including organic
matter contents, coatings, and state of oxidation or reduction, and for soil
classification, cross-checks are recommended and should be established on a
routine basis.
6. Record the Munsell color notation (hue value/chroma) and the soil color name. In
addition to the color notations, the standard Munsell color names may be given.

36
 SOIL TEXTURE
Lesson 2

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:

● Define the term soil texture;
● Learn how to gather soil texture data;
● Differentiate the characteristics of three soil separates;
● Differentiate the soil quality of sandy, loamy and clayey soil;
● Learn how to conduct soil texture analysis; and
● Discuss the significance of texture on soil fertility.

I. Introduction

The most evident component of soils is the solid particles that characteristically vary
greatly in size. Bypassing a soil through a series of sieves with different-sized holes, the
proportions by weight of the different components, size classes of particles, i.e., the soil texture
can be determined.

Soil texture refers to the relative percentage of the different soil separates such as the
sand, silt, and clay. It also refers to the size range of particles in the soil, i.e. whether the
particles of which a particular soil is composed are mainly large, small, or of some intermediate
size or range of sizes. The term carries both qualitative and quantitative connotations.
Qualitatively, it represents the “feel” of the soil material whether coarse, gritty, or fine and
smooth. In a quantitative sense, however, the term soil texture denotes the measured
distribution of particle sizes or the proportions of the various size ranges of particles that occur
in a given soil. As such soil texture is a permanent, natural attribute of the soil and the one most
often used to characterize its physical make-up.

II. Soil Separates

The solid phase of soils consists of discrete units, called primary soil particles. These
particles vary widely in size, shape, and composition. Thus, soils are classified according to the
"particle-size distribution" or "texture" of the mineral solids since these distributions change little
by little over time.

Diameters of individual soil particles range over six orders of magnitude, from boulders
(1 m) to submicroscopic clays (<10−6 μm). Scientists group these particles into soil separates
according to several classification systems (ISSS & USDA).

The size ranges for these separates can be grouped into two main classes, namely
coarse fragments and fine earth fractions. Coarse fragments consist of gravels, cobbles,
boulders, and others greater than 2 mm in diameter which may affect the behavior of soil, but
fine earth fractions like sand, silt, and clay are the major player of soil texture.

37
 Figure 6. Classification of soil particles according to their size (Weil & Brady, 2017)

2.1 Sand

Particles smaller than 2 mm but larger than 0.05 mm are termed sand. Sand feels gritty
between the fingers. The particles are generally visible to the naked eye and may be rounded or
angular, depending on the degree of weathering and abrasion undergone. Sand grains consist
of a single mineral, usually quartz (SiO2) or other primary silicate minerals. Because of the
dominance of quartz, the sand separately generally contains few plant nutrients.

Figure 7. Electron micrographs of sand grains (Weil & Brady, 2017; Rabenhorst & Sholt, 2012)

38
 Most sands are relatively in large particle size, low nutrient released for plant uptake,
have large pores in-between, low water-holding capacity (water retention), drain rapidly and
promote entry of air (aeration) into the soil, low specific surface areas, single grained or do not
stick together into a coherent mass, and loose.

2.2 Silt

Particles smaller than 0.05 mm but larger than 0.002 mm in diameter are classified as
silt. Although similar to sand in shape and mineral composition, individual silt particles are so
small as to be invisible to the unaided eye. Rather than feeling gritty when rubbed between the
fingers, silt feels smooth or silky, like flour. Where silt is composed of weatherable minerals, the
relatively small size (and large surface area) of the particles allows weathering rapid enough to
release significant amounts of plant nutrients.

Figure 8. Electron micrographs of silt sediments (Ferrel, 1997)

In comparison to sand, they have much smaller and much more numerous pore, can
retain water, and at the same time lets less drain through. Unlike clay, silt does not exhibit much
stickiness or plasticity (malleability). Hence, soils high in silt can be highly susceptible to erosion
by both wind and water. Silty soil is easily washed away by flowing water in a process called
piping.

2.3 Clay

Clay particles are tiny flakes or flat platelets that are smaller than 0.002 mm. They,
therefore, have very large specific surface areas, giving them a tremendous capacity to absorb
water and other substances. This large adsorptive surface causes clay particles to cohere in a
hard mass after drying. When wet, clay is sticky and can be easily molded (exhibits high
plasticity).

39
 Figure 9. Electron micrographs of dickite (Rohstoffe, 2021)

Most clay soils have very small and convoluted pores that can retain water. The shrink-
swell behavior, plasticity, soil strength, and chemical adsorption depend on the kind of clay
present as well as the amount.

III. Soil Texture Triangle

The soil texture triangle gives names associated with various combinations of sand, silt,
and clay. It also shows the different texture classes.

Figure 10. Soil textural triangle (diagram courtesy of USDA)

40
IV. Groupings of Soil Texture Classes

The need for fine distinctions in the texture of the soil layers results in a large number of
classes and subclasses of soil texture. It commonly is convenient to speak generally of broad
groups or classes of texture.

Table 1. General soil texture groups

Soil Material Texture Group Texture Classes

Sandy soil materials Coarse textured Sands (coarse sand, sand, fine sand, very fine
sand); loamy sands
Moderately Coarse sandy loam, sandy loam, fine sandy
coarse textured loam
Loamy soil materials Medium textured Very fine sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt
Moderately fine- Clay loam, sandy clay loam, silty clay loam
textured
Clayey soil materials Fine-textured Sandy clay, silty clay, clay

V. Soil Texture Classes and Subclasses

5.1 Coarse Textured Soil

Coarse-textured soils are loose and single-grained. The individual grains can be seen readily or
felt. Squeezed, when dry in the hand, it will fall apart when the pressure is released. Squeezed,
when moist, it will form a cast but will crumble when touched.

● Sand (S). Sandy soil has more than 85 percent sand.

○ Coarse sand. Sand that consists of more very coarse and coarse sand.
○ Sand (common). Sand that has more very coarse, coarse, and medium
sand.
○ Fine sand. Sand that has more fine sand, and fine sand.
○ Very fine sand. Sand that has more very fine sand.

● Loamy sands (LS). Loamy sand soils are sands that have similar characteristics
to loam.
○ Loamy coarse sand. It is loamy sand that has more very coarse and
coarse sand.
○ Loamy sand (common). It is loamy sand that has more very coarse,
coarse, and medium sand.
○ Loamy fine sand. It is loamy sand that has more fine sand.
○ Loamy very fine sand. It is loamy sand that has more very fine sand.

5.2 Medium-Textured (Loamy) Soils

Medium-textured (loamy) soils have a relatively even mixture of sand, silt, and clay.
However, the clay content is less than 20% (The characteristic properties of clay are more
pronounced than those of sand.) A loam is mellow with a somewhat gritty feel, yet fairly smooth

41
and highly plastic. Squeezed when moist, it will form a cast that can be handled quite freely
without breaking.

● Loam (L). Loam soil has a moderate rate of sand, silt, and clay. It often has 7 to less
than 27 percent clay, 28 to less than 50 percent silt, and 52 percent or less sand.

○ Sandy loam (SL). Sandy loams are gritty loam due to the presence of more sand.

■ Coarse sandy loam. It is a sandy loam that has very coarse and coarse sand.
■ Sandy loam (common). It is a sandy loam that has more very coarse, coarse,
and medium sand.
■ Fine sandy loam. It is a sandy loam that has more fine sand.
■ Very fine sandy loam. It is a sandy loam that has very fine sand.

○ Silt loam (SiL). Silt loam is smooth loam due to the presence of more silt.

● Silt (Si). Silt soil is smooth in texture and consists of 80 percent or more silt and less
than 12 percent clay.

● Clay loam (CL). Clay loam material has a loamy texture with 27 to 40 percent clay
and more than 20 to 45 percent sand.

○ Sandy clay loam (SCL). It is gritty clay loam/has more sand.

○ Silty clay loam (SiCL). It is smooth clay loam/has more silt.

5.3 Fine-Textured (Clay) Soils

Fine-textured (clay) soils usually form very hard lumps or clods when dry and are quite
plastic. It is usually very sticky when wet. When the moist soil is pinched between the thumb
and fingers it will form a long, flexible “ribbon.” A clay soil leaves a “slick” surface on the thumb
and fingers when rubbed together with a long stroke and a firm pressure. The clay tends to hold
the thumb and fingers together with its stickiness.
● Clay (C). Clay soil has 40 percent or more clay, 45 percent or less sand, and less
than 40 percent silt.
○ Sandy Clay (SC). Clay that has more snd.
○ Silty Clay (SiC). Clay that has more silt.

V. Importance

Here is the importance of soil texture:

1. Soil texture can indicate the amount of water that is drained and retained in the soil.
Water is retained in soils as thin films on the surfaces of soil particles. These tiny
pools of water are held in the smaller soil pores, the greater the surface area, the
greater the soil’s capacity for holding water films.
2. Soil texture can indicate the number of nutrients that are leached and retrained. Both
gases and dissolved chemicals are attracted to and absorbed by mineral particle
surfaces. The greater the surface area, the greater the soil’s capacity to retain
nutrients and other chemicals.
3. Soil texture can determine the rate of plant nutrients that can be released in soil from
weathered minerals. Weathering takes place at the surface of mineral particles,

42
 releasing constituent elements into the soil solution. The greater the surface area,
the greater the rate of release of plant nutrients from weatherable minerals.
4. Soil texture can indicate the plasticity and stickiness of the soil. The surfaces of
mineral particles often carry both negative and some positive electromagnetic
charges so that particle surfaces and the water films between them tend to attract
each other. The greater the surface area, the greater the propensity for soil particles
to stick together in a coherent mass, or as discrete aggregates.
5. Soil texture can determine the microbial population of the soil. Microorganisms tend
to grow on and colonize particle surfaces. For this and other reasons, microbial
reactions in soils are greatly affected by the specific surface area.

VI. Guidelines for Recording Texture

Here are the guidelines for recording soil texture:

1. Before taking records for soil texture, soil requires to undergo chemical treatment
which depends on the kind of cementing agent responsible for aggregation. For
example, hydrogen peroxide is needed to dissolve the organic matter in the soil.
Dilute HCl is needed for CaCO3, Sodium dithionite in iron and aluminum oxides, and
if the suspension is flocculated, it needs Calgon or Na hexametaphosphate.
2. Separate the fine earth fraction from rock fragments by sieving the soil sample in
2mm mesh.
3. The hydrometer measures the number of particles in suspension. The principle of
Stokes law, which states that particles will fall out of suspension at different rates
over time, based on particle size, is used to determine the amount of each particle
size present in a soil.

VII. Feel and Roll

Field textural class determination is done by the feel and roll method. Accuracy depends
largely on experience, beginning with soils of known texture to “calibrate” your fingers.

1. Place approximately 25g of soil in the palm. Add water

dropwise and knead the soil to break down all
aggregates. Soil is at the proper consistency when
plastic and moldable, like moist putty. Does soil remain
in the ball when squeezed? Sand, if no.
2. Place a ball of soil between your thumb and forefinger
gently pushing the soil with the thumb; squeezing it up
into a ribbon. Form a ribbon of uniform and extend over
the forefinger, breaking from its weight. Does the soil
form a ribbon? If no, follow the following: Does soil feel
very gritty? If yes, loamy sand. Does soil feel very
smooth? If Yes, silt.
3. Does soil make a weak ribbon less than 2.5 cm long
before breaking? If Yes, follow the following: Does soil
feel very gritty? If yes, sandy loam. Does soil feel very
smooth? If yes, silt loam. Does neither grittiness nor
smoothness predominate? If yes, loam.

43
 4. Does soil make a medium ribbon 2.5 – 5 cm long before breaking? If yes, follow the
following: Does soil feel very gritty? If yes, sandy clay loam. Does soil feel very
smooth? If yes, silty clay loam. Does neither grittiness nor smoothness predominate?
If yes, clay loam
5. Does soil make a strong ribbon 5 cm or longer before breaking? If yes, follow the
following: Does soil feel very gritty? If yes, sandy clay. Does soil feel very smooth? If
yes, silty clay. Does neither grittiness nor smoothness predominate? If yes, clay.

Figure 11. The “feel“ method (Weil & Brady, 2017)

VII. Hydrometer Method

In the laboratory, there are several different methods used for determining soil texture.
The most common method for determining soil texture is the hydrometer method which follows
principles of Stoke’s Law that states that: “settling velocity (v) for spherical particles, in a viscous
medium is equal to the square of the diameter (D) of the particles multiplied by a constant (K)”.

V =KD2
Size limit between sand and silt – 0.02 mm
V (0.02) = 6900 x (0.02)2 = 2.76 mm/min
Size limit between silt and clay – 0.002 mm
V (0.002) = 6900 x (0.002)2 = 0.028 mm/min

In this method, the soil particles are dispersed with a sodium metaphosphate Calgon)
and then agitated. After dispersion, the amount of each particle group (sand, silt, clay) is
determined by using a hydrometer (Cohen, 2012).

1. Place 50 g of air-dry soil into a clean, dry, sealed container.

2. Add 200 mL of distilled water and 20 mL of 25% sodium hexametaphosphate
solution.
3. Shake well then let soak for 1 hour, occasionally agitating to disperse particles.
4. Place prepared clay suspension in a clean graduated cylinder and top up distilled
water to the 1-liter mark.
5. Stir with a plunger for 20–30 seconds ensuring that all material at the bottom is
brought into suspension.
6. At the end of stirring, remove the plunger and immediately start the interval timer.
Immerse the hydrometer to a depth slightly below its floating position and allow it to
float freely.
7. Take a hydrometer and place it into the "Clay Suspension" in advance of scheduled
readings allowing time for it to settle before taking your readings. At about the same
time as each clay suspension hydrometer reading, take a hydrometer and
temperature reading.
8. Read 3 times at the top of the meniscus and record average readings.
9. After each reading from the "Clay Suspension" remove the hydrometer slowly, rinse
clean and place in the "Blank Solution". The water temperature in the blank cylinder
must be the same as that of the clay suspension.

44
10. Repeat the hydrometer reading after 7 hours.

Figure 12. Particle distribution analysis (diagram courtesy of Catague)

45
 SOIL STRUCTURE
Lesson 3

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:

● Define the term soil structure;
● Learn how to gather soil structure data;
● Distinguish the different soil aggregates;
● Differentiate the soil quality of unaggregated and aggregate soil; and
● Discuss the significance of aggregates on soil fertility.

I. Introduction

Soil structure describes the spatial arrangement of particles to complex aggregations,

pores, and channels. Sand, silt, clay, and organic particles become aggregated together due to
various forces and at different scales to form distinct structural units called peds or aggregates.

Although aggregate and ped can be used synonymously, the term ped is most
commonly used to describe the large-scale structure evident when observing soil profiles.
Structural peds should not be confused with clods—the compressed, cohesive chunks of soil
that can form artificially when wet soil is plowed or excavated.

II. Aggregates

Many types or shapes of peds occur in soils, often within different horizons of a
particular soil profile. Some soils may exhibit a single-grained structural condition while some
soils occur as large, cohesive masses of material and are described as exhibiting a massive
structural condition. However, most soils exhibit some type of aggregation and are composed of
peds that can be characterized by their shape (or type), size, and distinctness (or grade).

2.1 Unstructured

Unstructured soil has no formal organization or structure. This includes single-grained

structural conditions and massive structural conditions.

46
 Figure 12. Comparison between single-grained and massive (Weil & Brady, 2017)

2.1.1 Massive

Massive structural conditions are united as or forming a whole. There is no arrangement

of soil particles into "real" structural units. This soil condition usually has topsoil structures that
have been destroyed by excessive tillage and compaction and are often found deep in the soil
that are cemented together. Another type of massive structure is called massive-rock-controlled
fabric.

2.1.2 Single Grained

Single-grained structural condition is non-coherent/unaggregated. This condition occurs

in soils with a high percentage of sands or gravels consisting of loose, individual particles that
lack cohesion where the individual soil particles show no tendency to cling together.

2.2 Structured

Soil peds are classified based on shape. The four basic structural types are spheroid,
platelike, blocklike, and prism-like. These shapes give rise to granular, platy, blocky, and
prismatic types of structure. The columnar structure is prismatic-shaped peds with rounded caps.
A soil aggregate is a group of primary soil particles that adhere to one another more strongly
than to surrounding soil particles.

2.2.1 Spheroidal

The spheroidal structure is formed where there is abundant organic matter and biological
activity, so it is commonly found on the surface horizon. A stable granular structure with plenty
of organic matter is usually favorable for plant growth because of macropores between and
within peds providing for a good seedbed, and easy passage of water, air, and roots. Such a
condition is associated with good "tilth."

There are two types of spheroidal structures: granular and crumb.

47
 ● Granular is commonly the size and look of "grape nuts." They are bounded by curved
or very irregular faces that are not casts of adjoining peds.
● Crumb is a very porous spheroidal structure.

Figure 13. Granular and crumb (Weil & Brady, 2017)

2.2.2 Block-Like

Block-like peds are polyhedral in shape and approximately the same size in all
dimensions (equidimensional). Ped faces accommodate each other, fitting together like puzzle
pieces with intervening planar pores. The blocky structure forms mainly by repeated shrinking
and swelling of clay as it dries and wets. Blocky structure occurs in several kinds of horizons but
is most prevalent in subsurface horizons.

Typically, blocky structural units can be grouped into two: subangular blocky and angular
blocky.
● The angular blocky structure is a polyhedral aggregate with faces intersect at
relatively sharp angles
● The subangular blocky structure is a polyhedral aggregate with faces that are a
mixture of rounded and plane faces, and the corners are mostly rounded.

48
 Figure 14. Angular and subangular blocky (Weil & Brady, 2017)

2.2.4 Prism-Like

Prism-like are bounded by flat or rounded vertical faces that vary in size. They are also
often associated with swelling types of clay. There are two types of prism-like aggregate:
columnar and prismatic

In prismatic, peds are vertically oriented, pillar-shaped, with accommodation between

adjoining faces. Most common in clayey soils with strong shrinking and swelling, and older soils
with well-developed horizons of clay accumulation. This structure commonly occurs in
subsurface horizons in arid and semiarid regions and, when well developed, provides a very
striking feature of the profile.

While in columnar, peds are also long in the vertical dimension but with a rounded, cap-
like top. Most common in clayey horizons which are high in exchangeable sodium (Btn). The
rounded top may be produced by upward swelling of the peds and/or by dispersion of clay as
the sodic soil is wetted from above.

49
 Figure 15. Columnar and prismatic (Weil & Brady, 2017)

2.2.5 Plate-Like

Platy or plate-like peds are thin, flat, and horizontally layered. It commonly occurs in E
horizons, light-colored eluviated horizons that underlie some A horizons. It may also be inherited
from soil parent materials, especially those laid down by water or ice. In some cases, the
compaction of clayey soils by heavy machinery can create a platy structure.

Figure 15. Platy and wedge (Weil & Brady, 2017)

50
 2.2.6 Others

2.2.6.1 Wedge

Wedge soil structure has a shape similar to block-like that of a football. It is elliptical
interlocking lenses that terminate in acute angles, bounded by slickensides. Similar to
block-like aggregates, these are horizontal-oriented, found in subsurface horizons, and
occurs in soils that have a high amount of shrink-swell clays.

2.2.6.2 Lenticular

Lenticulars are similar to the platy structure. It is a horizontally layered structure that is
recognized for plates that are thickest in the middle and thin toward the edges. The units
are overlapping lenses parallel to the soil surface. The lenticular structure is commonly
associated with moist soils, texture classes high in silt or very fine sand (e.g., silt loam),
and a high potential for frost action.

2.2.6.3 Worm Cast

Earthworms move soil particles about, often ingesting them and forming them into
pellets or casts which become aggregates.

Figure 16. Lenticular and worm cast (FAO, 2006)

III. Hierarchical Organization

Most large peds can be broken into smaller aggregates. The networks of pores within
and between the aggregates constitute a key aspect of soil structure.

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 Figure 17. Hierarchical Organization of Soil Aggregates (Weil & Brady, 2017)

3.1 Macroaggregates

Surface horizons are usually characterized by a roundish granular structure that exhibits
a hierarchy in which relatively large macroaggregates are 0.25 to 5 mm in diameter.
Macroaggregates are composed of many micro-aggregates bound together mainly by a kind of
sticky network formed from fungal hyphae and fine roots.

3.2 Microaggregates

Macroaggregates are composed of smaller aggregates called micro-aggregates (2–250

μm). A micro-aggregate consists mainly of fine sand grains and smaller clumps of silt grains,
clay, and organic debris bound together by root hairs, fungal hyphae, and microbial gums.

3.3 Submicroaggregate

A very small submicro-aggregate consisting of fine silt particles encrusted with organic
debris and tiny bits of plant and microbial debris (called particulate organic matter) encrusted
with even smaller packets of clay, humus, and Fe or Al oxides.

3.4 Primary Particles

Clusters of parallel and random clay platelets interacting with Fe or Al oxides and
organic polymers at the smallest scale. These organoclay clusters or domains bind to the
surfaces of humus particles and the smallest of mineral grains.

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 IV. Flocculation and Dispersion

Aggregation begins with the flocculation of clay particles into microscopic clumps or
floccules. If two clay platelets come close enough to each other, cations compressed in a layer
between them will attract the negative charges on both platelets, thus serving as bridges to hold
the platelets together. These processes lead to the formation of a small “stack” of parallel clay
platelets, termed a clay domain. Other types of clay domains are more random in orientation,
resembling a house of cards. These form when the positive charges on the edges of the clay
platelets attract the negative charges on the planar surfaces. Multivalent cations (especially
Ca2+, Fe2+, and Al3+) also complex with hydrophobic organic molecules, allowing them to bind to
clay surfaces.

When certain cations (especially Na+, but to a lesser degree K+ and even Mg2+) with less
flocculating ability than Ca2+ or Al3+ are prominent, the attractive forces are not able to overcome
the natural repulsion of one negatively charged clay platelet by another. This is called dispersion
where the clay platelets cannot approach closely enough to flocculate, so remain dispersed and
cause the soil to become gel-like, impervious to water and air, and very undesirable from the
standpoint of plant growth. This dispersed condition is most dramatically stimulated by Na+ ions
and is most common in soils of arid and semiarid areas.

53
 SOIL DENSITY
Lesson 4

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:

● Learn how to compute for soil mass volume parameters;
● Learn how to compute for particle and bulk density;
● Determine the implication of bulk density on compaction, fertility, and porosity.

I. Introduction

Density is defined in physics as mass per unit volume. Soil is a three-phase system that
consists of solid, liquid, and gas have different mass volume parameters. These parameters
may dictate the use of soil and its productivity for agricultural crop production. Using SI units,
the unit for mass in grams (g) and cubic centimeter (cm3) for volume. There are five ways to
define the mass-volume relationship of soil these are particle density, dry bulk density, total or
wet bulk density, and dry specific volume. With regards to the air composition of the soil, it is
measured as porosity and void ratio.

The density (D) of the given material is mass (M) per unit volume (V): D=M/V in g/cm3 or
kg/L or t/m3, where D is the density, M is mass or weight, and V is the volume.

II. Soil Mass Volume Parameters

Soil is an interface of four earth systems: hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, and

atmosphere. The interactions of these systems contribute to the four major components of soil:
soil water or solution, mineral matter, organic matter, and air. Soil is a three-phase system; it is
composed of solid materials, liquid, and gas that are scattered within the soil system. Measuring
the mass of each phase over the volume of other phases or its total arises to its physical
property: density.

Ideally, the soil is composed of 50% solid materials: 45% mineral matter and 5% organic
matter, and 50% pore spaces: 25% soil solution or water and 25% air. Figure 18 shows the
mass-volume relationship of soil.

54
 Figure 18. Soil Mass Volume Parameters (diagram courtesy of Catague)

To calculate the percentage of each soil component here is the basic formula that you
need to memorize:
● Mt = Ms + Mw + Ma (0). Mass total is equal to the mass of solids, the mass of water.
● Mw = Mt - Ms. Mass of water is equal to the mass total subtracted by mass of solids.
● Vt = Vs + Vw + Va. The volume total is equal to the volume of solids, the volume of
water, and the volume of gas.
● Vp = Vw + Va. The volume of pores is equal to the volume of water and the volume of
gas.
● Vt = Vs + Vp. Volume total is equal to the volume of solids and volume of pores.

III. Particle Density

Soil particle density (ρs) is defined as the mass per unit volume of soil solids (in contrast
to the volume of the soil, which would also include spaces between particles). Thus, if 1 cubic
meter (m3) of soil solids weighs 2.6 megagrams (Mg), the particle density is 2.6 Mg/m3 (which
can also be expressed as 2.6 grams per cubic centimeter).

Particle density is essentially the same as the specific gravity of a solid substance and is
also called the density of solid. It is not affected by pore space and therefore is not related to
particle size or the arrangement of particles (soil structure).

Particle densities for most mineral soils vary between the narrow limits of 2.60 and 2.75
g/cm3 because quartz, feldspar, micas, and the colloidal silicates that usually make up the major
portion of mineral soils all have densities within this range. For general calculations concerning
arable mineral surface soils (1%–5% organic matter), a particle density of about 2.65 g/cm3 may
be assumed if the actual particle density is not known. This number would be adjusted upward
to 3.0 g/cm3 or higher when large amounts of high-density minerals such as magnetite, garnet,
epidote, zircon, tourmaline, or hornblende are present. Likewise, it would be reduced for soils
known to be high in organic matter, which has a particle density of only 0.9–1.4 g/cm3.

3.1 Computation
Consider four blocks of solid rock (with no pore space)
Volume = 4 x (2 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm) = 8 cm3

55
Weight = 21.6 g
Particle density = 21.6/8 = 2.7 g/cm3

Particle density: ρs = Ms/Vs

Figure 19. The particle density of soil (Weil & Brady, 2017)

If all the solids could be compressed to the bottom, the cube would look like…

To calculate solid particle density:

Volume of solid = 0.5 m3
Weight = 1.33 Mg

Solid particle density = Weight of solids/Volume of solids

Therefore
Solid particle density, ρs = 1.33/0.5 = 2.66 g/cm3

Example:
Ms= 30g
Vt= 24cm3
Vs= 18cm3
ρs= ?

ρs= Ms/Vs
ρs= 30g/18cm3
ρs= 1.67g/cm3

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IV. Bulk Density

Bulk density (ρb) is defined as the mass of a unit volume of dry soil. This volume
includes both solids and pores. Both expressions of bulk and particle density using only the
mass of the solids in soil; therefore, any water present is excluded from consideration. It is the
ratio between the mass of solid and the total soil volume.

ρb = Ms/Vt ; g/cm3
ρb = Ms/(Va+Vw+Vs)

ρb could have a low value of less than 1 g/cc like in organic soils, or a very loose, well-
aggregated soil. On the other hand, ρb could have a very high value of 1.6 to 1.9 g/cc for highly
compacted sandy clay loam soil. A soil that has about 50% of its total volume occupied by pore
space has about 1.3 g/cm3.

ρb changes with soil disturbance or perturbation. ρb increases with soil compaction, but
the degree of soil compatibility depends on soil texture. For clay soils, a ρb of 1.5 g/cm3 or
greater (about 1.7 g/cc for sandy soils) indicates a high degree of soil compaction. At this ρb,
problems of root impedance, poor aeration, and poor drainage usually occur. Seedling
emergence, infiltration, and water permeability are impaired.

Soils with a high proportion of pore space to solids have lower bulk densities than those
that are more compact and have less pore space. Consequently, any factor that influences soil
pore space will affect bulk density.

4.1. Laboratory Procedure

Soil Density, porosity, and void ratio can be determined using different field and
laboratory procedures. Examples of laboratory procedures range increased done are Core
Method and Paraffin Clod Method for bulk density identification, and Pycnometer method for
particle density identification. The data collected from laboratory and field analysis can also be
used to determine other mass volume parameters of soil.

4.2 Computation

4.2.1 Bulk Density (Dry Bulk Density)

Consider the same four blocks of solid rock arranged loosely to form a cylinder of “soil”
that includes the space between the mineral blocks.

Volume = πr2h = 3.14*(1.5 cm)2*2.5 cm = 17.7 cm3

Weight = 21.6 g
Bulk density = 21.6 g/17.7 cm3 = 1.22 g cm3

57
 Figure 20. Bulk density of soil (Weil & Brady, 2017)

In the field, one cubic meter of a certain soil appears as…

To calculate bulk density of the soil:

Volume Total (solids + pores) = 1 m3
Weight = 1.33 Mg

Bulk density = Weight of oven-dry soil/Volume of soil (solids + pores)

Therefore
Bulk density, ρb = 1.33/1= 1.33 Mg/m3

Example:
Ms = 30g
Vt = 24cm3
Vs = 18cm3
ρb = ?

ρb = Ms/Vt
ρb = 30g/24cm3
ρb = 1.25g/cm3

5.2.2 Wet Bulk Density

Wet bulk density is defined as the mass of the solid plus mass of water per unit total
volume. It is also called total bulk density as it includes the moisture of the soil.

ρt = Mt/Vt
ρt = (Ms+Mw)/(Vs+Vw+Va)

5.2.3 Dry Specific Volume

Dry specific volume is the volume of soil per unit mass of dry soil. It is the reciprocal of

58
dry bulk density, with a unit cm3/g.

Vb = 1/ ρb
Vb = Vt/Ms
Vb = (Vs+Vw+Va)/Ms

59
 SOIL POROSITY
Lesson 5

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:

● Discuss the different soil pores;
● Discuss the significance to soil fertility and water holding capacity; and
● Compute the percent pore space, void ratio, and air-filled porosity

I. Introduction
One of the main reasons for measuring soil bulk density is that this value can be used to
calculate pore space. For soils with the same particle density, the lower the bulk density, the
higher the percent pore space (total porosity).

II. Size of Pores

Bulk density values help us predict only total porosity. However, soil pores occur in a
wide variety of sizes and shapes that largely determine what role the pore can play in the soil.
Pores can be grouped by size into macropores, mesopores, micropores, and so on.

2.1 Macropores

Macropores range from 0.08 to 5mm and above. Generally, it can be found between soil
peds (inter-ped); it drains water by gravity; effectively transmit air; large enough to
accommodate plant roots, habitat for certain soil animals.

Macropores can occur as the spaces between individual sand grains in coarse-textured
soils. Thus, even though sandy soil has relatively low total porosity, the movement of air and
water through such soil is surprisingly rapid because of the dominance of the macropores.

2.2 Mesopores

Mesopores ranges from 0.03 to 0.08mm. It retains water after drainage; transmits water
by capillary action; and accommodates fungi and root hairs. These larger micropores
accommodate plant root hairs and microorganisms.

2.3 Micropores

In contrast to macropores, micropores are usually filled with water in field soils. Even
when not water-filled, they are too small to permit much air movement. Water movement in
micropores is slow, and much of the water retained in these pores is not available to plants.
Fine-textured soils, especially those without a stable granular structure, may have a
preponderance of micropores, thus allowing relatively slow gas and water movement, despite
the relatively large volume of total pore space. Aeration, especially in the subsoil, may be
inadequate for satisfactory root development and desirable microbial activity.

60
 Mesopores ranges from 0.03 to 0.08mm. It retains water after drainage; transmits water
by capillary action; and accommodates fungi and root hairs. These larger micropores
accommodate plant root hairs and microorganisms.

2.4 Nanopores

These are very finer micropores that are so tiny that their radii are measured in
nanometers (10–9 m). Such pores are too small to permit the entrance of even the smallest
bacteria or some decay-stimulating enzymes produced by the bacteria. Thus, these pores can
act as hiding places for some adsorbed organic compounds (both naturally occurring and
pollutants), thereby protecting them from breakdown for long periods, perhaps for centuries.

2.4.1 Ultramicropores

These finer micropores range from 0.0001 to 0.005 mm and can be found largely within
clay groupings; retain water that plants cannot use; excludes most microorganisms.

2.4.2 Cryptopores

Cryptopores have a size of less than 0.0001mm. It excludes all microorganisms, too
small for large molecules to enter.

III. Kinds of Pores

3.1 Matrix Pores

Matrix pores (also called interstitial pores) are formed by the agencies that control the
packing of the primary soil particles. In fine and medium-textured soils these pores are typically
smaller than non-matrix pores. Additionally, their aggregate volume and size change markedly
with water state for soil horizons or layers with high extensibility. In coarse-textured soils, the
interstitial pore size is controlled dominantly by the primary particle packing and remains fairly
stable, although pores may become filled with finer material over time.

Controlled by the fabric, or arrangement, of the soil particles, also known as textural
voids. Subdivision possible into simple packing voids, which relate to the packing of sand
particles, and compound packing voids, which result from the packing of non-accommodating
peds. Predominantly irregular in shape and interconnected, and hard to quantify in the field.

3.2 Non-matrix Pores

Non-matrix pores are relatively large voids that occur not only when the soil is dry but
also when it is moderately moist or wetter. It may be formed by roots, animals, compressed air,
and other agents. The size distribution of these pores typically is not associated with the
particle-size distribution and the related matrix pore-size distribution. For water movement at low
suction and conditions of satiation, the non-matrix and infrastructural porosity have particular
importance.

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 Common non-matrix pore shapes include:

3.2.1 Vesicular

Small, approximately spherical, or elliptical. These cavities are caused by entrapped air
bubbles, most commonly occurring in or below mineral or biological crusts or desert pavement,
especially in arid soils. As the size and/or several near-surface vesicular pores increase,
infiltration is drastically reduced, and surface runoff increases. A horizon dominated by vesicular
pores is identified as a vesicular master horizon (V).

3.2.1 Vughs

Mostly irregular, equidimensional voids of the faunal origin or resulting from tillage or
disturbance of other voids. Discontinuous or interconnected. Maybe quantified in specific cases.

3.2.3 Channels

Elongated voids of faunal or floral origin, mostly tubular in shape and continuous, varying
strongly in diameter. When wider than a few centimeters (burrow holes), they are more
adequately described under biological activity.

3.2.3.1 Tubular
Approximately cylindrical and elongated, as in worm channels.

3.2.3.2 Dendritic Tubular

Like tubular but branching as in root channels.

3.2.4 Planes

Most planes are extra-pedal voids, related to accommodating ped surfaces or cracking
patterns. They are often not persistent and vary in size, shape, and quantity depending on the
moisture condition of the soil. Planar voids may be recorded, describing width and frequency.

IV. Extra-Structural Cracks

Cracks are macroscopic vertical planar voids that are much smaller in width than in
length and depth. A crack represents the release of strain because of drying. Cracks are
characterized as either crust-related or trans-horizon.

4.1 Crust-Related Crack

Crust-related cracks are shallow cracks that initiate at the surface and are restricted to a
surface crust layer. They form primarily from raindrop impact and soil puddling followed by
drying and consolidation. Two kinds of crust-related cracks are recognized: reversible and
irreversible.

4.1.1 Surface-Initiated Reversible Crust-Related Cracks

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 Surface-initiated reversible crust-related cracks form as a result of drying from the
surface downward. They close after relatively slight surficial wetting and have little influence on
ponded infiltration rates. These cracks tend to be very shallow (less than about 0.5 cm) and are
transient (i.e., close upon wetting).

4.1.2 Surface-Initiated Irreversible Crust-Related Cracks

Surface-initiated irreversible crust-related cracks form as a result of the near-surface

water reduction in material with exceptionally high-water content, commonly from frost action.
These cracks tend to be shallow (between about 0.5 and 2 cm) and seasonally transient. The
cracks may not close completely when rewet and extend through the crust. They increase
ponded infiltration rates, but only to a small degree.

4.2 Trans-Horizon Crack

Trans-horizon cracks commonly extend across more than one horizon. They may extend
upward to the soil surface and downward to a significant depth. These cracks are commonly
associated with soils that have a high content of smectitic clay minerals. They open as the soil
dries out and close upon rewetting. Less commonly, some trans-horizon cracks form upon
dewatering and subsequent consolidation of poorly drained sediments with high n-value (fluid
materials). Two kinds of trans-horizon cracks are recognized: reversible and irreversible.

4.2.1 Subsurface-Initiated Reversible Trans-Horizon Cracks

Subsurface-initiated reversible trans-horizon cracks form as a result of an appreciable

reduction in water content from field capacity in horizons or layers with considerable extensibility.
They close in days if the horizon is brought to a moderately moist or wetter state. They extend
upward to the soil surface unless there is a relatively thick overlying horizon that is very weakly
compacted (loose or very friable) and does not permit the propagation of cracks. These cracks
greatly influence ponded infiltration rates, hydraulic conductivity, and evaporation.

4.2.2 Subsurface-Initiated Irreversible Trans-Horizon Cracks

Subsurface-initiated irreversible trans-horizon cracks are permanent cracks. They have

a similar origin to surface-initiated irreversible cracks, although quite different agencies of
formation are involved. Rather than forming due to shrinkage of the surface layer upon air
drying, these cracks form due to subsoil drainage and subsequent consolidation of some very
fluid soils.

V. Computation

5.1 Percent Pore Space

The bulk density of soil can be easily measured, and particle density can usually be
assumed to be 2.65 g/cm3 for most silicate-dominated mineral soils. Direct measurement of the
pore space in soil requires the use of much more tedious and expensive techniques. Therefore,
when information on the percent pore space is needed, it is often desirable to calculate the pore
space from data on bulk and particle densities.

63
 The derivation of the formula used to calculate the percentage of total pore space in soil
follows:

Let ρb = bulk density, g/cm3

ρs = particle density g/cm3
Ws = Weight of soil (solids), g
Vs = volume of solids, m3
Vp = volume of pores, m3
Vs + Vp = total soil volume Vt

By definition,
ρs = Ws/Vs and ρb = Ws/Vs + Vp

Solving for Ws gives

Ws = ρs x Vs and Ws = ρb (Vs + Vp)

Therefore
ρs x Vs = ρb (Vs + Vp) and Vs/Vs + Vp = ρb / ρs

Since
(Vs/Vs + Vp) x 100 = % solid space then
% solid space = (ρb / ρs) x 100

Since % pore space + % solid space = 100%, and % pore space,

% then pore space = 100% - ((ρb /ρs) x 100)

Example:
Consider a cultivated clay soil with a bulk density determined to be 1.28 g/cm3. If we have no
information on the particle density, we assume that the particle density is approximately that of
the common silicate minerals (i.e., 2.65 g/cm3). We calculate the percent pore space using the
formula derived above:

% pore space = 100% - (1.28 Mg/m3/2.65 Mg/m3 x 100)

= 100% - 48.3
= 51.7%

This value of pore space, 51.7%, is quite close to the typical percentage of air and water
space described for a well-granulated, medium- to fine-textured soil in good condition for plant
growth. This simple calculation tells us nothing about the relative amounts of large and small
pores, however, and so must be interpreted with caution.
Using this value and the bulk density value, we calculate the pore space as follows:

f = Vp/Vt
f = (Vt-Vs)/Vt
f = 1-(Vs/Vt )

4.2 Void Ratio

Void ratio is the relative proportion of the voids to that of soil solid. It is generally
preferred in soil engineering and mechanics. It is measured by dividing the sum of the volume of
air and water by the volume of soil solid.

64
 The advantage of the void ratio over percent pore space is that a change in pore volume
changes the numerator alone, whereas a change of the volume in terms of the porosity will
change both the numerator and denominator of the equation.

e = (Va+Vw)/Vs
e = Vp/(Vt-Vf)

4.3 Air Filled Porosity

Air-filled porosity is measured by computing the relative air content of the soil using the
formula:

fa = Va/Vt
fa = Va/(Vs+Va+Vw)
fa = f - θv
fa = f - (Vw/Vt)

65
 SOIL WATER
Lesson 6

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:

● Determine the importance of soil moisture and aeration;
● Describe a part of the soil water characteristic curves; and
● Able to calculate soil water content in four different ways

I. Introduction

Soil water constitutes the primary source of water for terrestrial plants. It carries the ions
and the solutes to plant roots where they can be absorbed; it moves further in fine-textured soils
than in coarse-textured soils, and soil moisture that surrounds soil particles is held at varying
degrees of tenacity. The farther away from the moisture film from the surface of the soil particle,
the weaker is the attraction between soil and moisture.

II. Energy Status of Soil Water

The retention and movement of water in soils, its uptake, and translocation in plants, and
its loss to the atmosphere are all energy-related phenomena. Different kinds of energy are
involved including potential, kinetic and electrical. However, to characterize the energy status of
water, the term “free energy” is used.

Free energy is a summation of all other forms of energy. Also, its level in a substance is
a general measurement of the tendency of that substance to attract soil water to move or to
otherwise change its status that is related primarily to differences in energy levels from one soil
zone to another. The movement is from a zone where the free energy of water is high to one
where the free energy is low. Knowledge of the energy levels at various points in the soil makes
possible predictions of the direction of water movement and gives some idea as to the forces to
which the water is subjected.

Forces that affect the free energy of soil water

● Matric force refers to the attraction of the soil solids (matrix) for water. This would
markedly reduce the free energy of adsorbed molecules and even those held by
cohesion.
● Osmotic force refers to the attraction of ions and other solutes for water. This force
also tends to reduce the free energy of soil solution.
● Gravitational force refers to the force acting on soil water, which tends to pull the
water downward. The free energy of soil water at some lower elevation. It is this
difference in free energy level, which causes water to flow.

66
III. Soil Water Characteristics

The soil-water characteristic curves have two (2) wide-ranging categories of soil water
measurements: the amount of water present (water content) and the energy status of the water
(soil water potential). The previous specifies the quantity of water in the soil but does not
completely indicate the availability of this water to plants. The latter on the other hand embodies
the proportional availability of the amount of water held in the soil profile for plant uptake/use but
rather, measures the energy state of water and thus explains certainties of water movement.
Nevertheless, information on both manners of measurements is important to completely value
or manage water supply and movement in soils.

The behavior of soil water is largely associated with the energy status of the water but
the amount of water in the soil is not. For instance, the fine and coarse-textured soil. They will
both feel moist and provide water to plants at equal water potentials, however, fine-textured soil
is remotely superior in terms of its capacity to sustain water and the period it could supply the
plants. This is because the particles and pores are farther numerous and smaller in fine-textured
than in the coarse-textured soil, therefore, water films thickness cause pore-space in the fine-
textured soil to be completely occupied with water, not air.

IV. Soil Water Potential (Ψ)

This is the term given or used in scientific soil words to refer to forces holding water in
soils. It expresses the specific potential energy of soil water relative to that of water in a
standard reference state.

Technically, the total soil water potential is defined as the amount of work that must be
done per unit quantity of pure water to transport reversibly and isothermally an infinitesimal
quantity of water from a pool of pure water at a specific elevation at atmospheric pressure to the
soil water (at the point under consideration). This definition stresses that soil water potential is
the difference between the energy state of soil water and that of pure free water.

Total soil water potential is in effect the sum of the contribution of the various forces
acting on soil water. Mathematically, it is given as:

Ψt = Ψg + Ψp + Ψm + Ψo

Ψt = total soil water potential; Ψg = gravitational potential; Ψp = pressure potential; Ψm

= matric potential and Ψo = osmotic potential.

Suction or the force that retain water in the soil can be expressed in a number of ways:
1. Height in centimeter of a unit column whose weight is balanced by the suction under
consideration. The greater the height, the greater the suction in the water, the lesser
is the amount of water present.
2. pF value refers to the logarithm of the centimeter height of a unit water column.
3. Bars or atmosphere unit of the pressure of water equivalent to ist suction. The
standard atmosphere is the average air pressure at sea level, 14.7 pounds per
square inch; one atmosphere is approximately equal to one bar. It is also equal to
1,000 cm.

67
 4.1 Water Potential

4.1.1 Gravitational Potential

The effect of gravity is to increase the free energy if the standard reference point
assigned to the free water is a lower elevation than the sodding water in the profile. Gravity
plays an important role in removing excess water from the upper rooting zone due to the
precipitation of irrigation.

4.1.2 Pressure Potential

Pressure potential is a potential that is due either to the weight of water at a point under
consideration or to gas pressure which is different from that which exists at a reference point.

4.1.3 Matric Potential

Matric potential is the result of two kinds of forces, adsorption, and capillarity. The net
effect of these two forces is to reduce the free energy of sod water as compared to that of
unabsorbed or pure water. Consequently, matric potentials are always negative.

4.1.4 Osmotic Potential

The osmotic pressure is attributable to the presence of solutes in the soil or other words,
to the soil solution. The solutes may be tonic or nonionic, but the net effect is to reduce the free
energy of water. This is due primarily to the attraction of solute ions or molecules for the water
molecules.

4.2 Methods for Determining Soil Water Potential

4.2.1 Field Tensiometer

It measures the tension with which water is held in soils. Its effectiveness is based on
the principle that water in the tensiometer is in equilibrium through a porous cap with adjacent
soil water and the suction in the soil is the same as the suction in the tensiometer. The
maximum suction where the tensiometer remained useful is about 1 bar.

4.2.2 Resistance Block

The electrical resistance in the blocks is determined by their moisture content and in turn
by tension or suction of water in the nearby soil.

4.2.3 Suction Method

This makes use of a tension plate and pressure membrane apparatus. Tension plate
apparatus is a form of tensiometer used under laboratory conditions. A core of soil is placed on
a porous plate to which suction is applied. The sample is weighted and the relationship between
suction and the soil content is determined. The range of suitability of this apparatus is from 0 to
1 bar only.

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4.2.4 Thermocouple Psychrometer

A thermocouple psychrometer consists of a double junction of two dissimilar metals

which when subjected to different temperatures would generate voltage differences. One
junction of which is equilibrated with the soil atmosphere and the other is kept in an insulating
medium to provide temperature lag. The temperature difference is indicative of soil moisture
potential.

4.2.5 Filter Paper Method

In the technique, pf of the soil will be determined from the known water characteristics of
the Whatman no. 42 filter paper which had been soaked in 0.005% hgc12 and dried to protect
from fungal attack.

4.3 Relationship Between Soil Moisture Content and Suction

Soil moisture characteristic curve is the relationship between soil moisture content and
soil water suction or tension. The relationship is usually obtained by slowly drying completely
saturated soils. The soil moisture characteristic curves of three soils of different textures are
shown in the figure below:

The general relationship between soil moisture content and suction is inverse, which
indicates that as the water content of the soil decreases, the suction of water increases, and
conversely, as the water content of the soil increases, the suction of water decreases.

For all soils, the ease or difficulty with which water is released from the soil can be
characterized by the slope of the soil moisture characteristic curve and is known as the water
capacity. When the slope is some large, a very small increase in suction releases a large
amount of water. The inverse holds when the slope approaches zero.

The figure shows that fine-textured soils (clay soils) hold more water at a given suction
than coarse-textured soil such as sand. At a given moisture content, water is held with greater
energy in clay or fine-textured soil than in coarse-textured soil. From the moisture characteristic
curves, the volume of water available to plants may be determined while the shape of the
curves can indicate the ease or difficulty with which water may be used by plants.

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V. Soil Moisture

Soil moisture release curve is a graph showing the relationship between moisture
content and moisture tension of the soil, and the characteristic of the soil itself.

Soil water content affects the moisture and amount of nutrients available to plants and
soil aeration status. Soil water content can be measured on a mass or volume basis.

5.1 Soil Moisture Content

5.1.1 Gravimetric Moisture Content (θm)

Gravimetric soil water content is the mass of water in the soil, measured as the
difference between the moist soil and the soil dried at 105°C, known as the oven-dry weight.
Note that gravimetric soil water content is expressed per unit mass of oven-dried soil. It is also
called the moisture content by mass (θm)

Measurements of soil gravimetric water content are considered destructive (oven-drying),

so the soil sample should not be used for further chemical analysis. Gravimetric soil water
content (%) = [mass of moist soil (g) − mass of oven-dried soil (g)/mass of oven-dried soil (g)] ×
100

θm = Mw/Ms

This is a direct measurement of soil water content and the standard method by which all
indirect methods are calibrated. The water associated with a given mass (and, if the bulk density
of the soil is known, a given volume) of dry soil solids is determined.

5.1.2 Volumetric Moisture Content (θv)

Volumetric soil water content is the volume of water per unit of bulk volume including soil
solids plus pore spaces of the soil the conversion from Gravimetric to Volumetric using the Bulk
density of the soil (g/cm3) is

θv = θm x ρb
θv = [volume of water (cm3)/volume of soil (cm3)] × 100
θv = Vw/Vt

This equation can be rewritten to calculate the depth equivalent of water in a soil, which
makes it easy to relate volumetric soil water content to units commonly used to describe
amounts of water added to soils from rainfall or irrigation, which are expressed in inches or cm.

In sandy soils, the value of θv at saturation is 40-50 % and for medium-textured soil is
more or less 50%. Clayey soils can approach 60% and can exceed the porosity of the dry soil
since clayey soils swell upon wetting.

5.1. 3 Height of Water (hw)

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 Volumetric moisture content can also represent the depth ratio of soil water i.e., the
depth of water per unit depth of soil. Volumetric soil water content (%) = [depth of water in
inches (cm)/depth of soil in inches (cm)] × 100

hw = θv x Ht, where Ht = total depth of soil

This is the volumetric water concentration multiplied by cm of water in a given depth

zone of the soil. Volumetric water content can be expressed as a ratio, percentage, or depth of
water per depth of soil (assuming a unit surface area), such as inches of water per foot of soil.

The volumetric water content is a useful measurement. First, it more realistically

describes the moisture environment of growing plant root systems as they explore a given
volume of soil. Secondly, volumetric water values can be converted to represent water content
at a particular equivalent soil depth or thickness. Representing water at a specific depth
changes the expression from a volume (cm3) to a linear (cm) expression of soil water:

For example, a 25 cm layer of soil with a volumetric water content of 20% (or 0.20 when
expressed as a decimal fraction) would contain 5 cm of water in the 25 cm layer of soil:

25 cm soil x 0.20 = 5 cm of water

5.1.4 Degree of Saturation (S)

Degree of saturation (S) is the ratio, often expressed as a percentage, of the volume of
water to the volume of voids:

S = Vw/Vp

If S = 1 or 100%, the soil is saturated. If S = 0, the soil is bone dry. It is practically

impossible to obtain a soil with S = 0.

This index expresses the water volume present in the soil relative to the pore volume or
it is the ratio of the volume of water in the soil to the volume of voids. Index s ranges from zero
in completely dry soil to unity (100%) in saturated soil. Complete saturation, however, is hardly
ever attainable in field conditions since some air is nearly always present. In relatively dry soil,
the air phase occupies a continuous space, whereas in a very wet soil air may be occluded or
encapsulated in the form of discontinuous bubbles.

5.2 Measurement of Soil Moisture

5.2.1 Gravimetric Method

This is the most commonly used method to measure soil water content by mass. A
sample of moisture with known weight, usually taken in cores from the field, is dried in an oven
at a temperature of 105-110°C for at least 24 hours or until it has attained constant weight. The
moisture content can be calculated using the formula:

= (FW-ODW)/ODW

Where: FW – is the fresh weight of the soil or the weight of the soil before oven drying

71
and ODW – the weight of the soil after oven drying or the weight of the moisture-free soil or dry
soil.

5.2.2 Resistance Method

This method takes advantage of the fact that the electrical resistance of certain porous
materials such as gypsum, nylon, and fiberglass is related to their water content. When these
blocks with suitably embedded electrodes are planted in moist soil, they absorb soil moisture
until an equilibrium is reached. The electrical resistance in the blocks is determined by their
moisture content and in turn by the tension or suction of water in the nearby soil. The
relationship between the resistance reading the soil moisture percentage can be determined by
calibration.

5.2.3 Neutron Scattering

It is a method of determining soil moisture in the field. The neutron moisture is based on
the principle that hydrogen is relatively unique in its ability to drastically reduce the speed of
fast-moving neutrons and to scatter them. The number of slowed-down neutrons is equal to the
number of water molecules with which they collide.

5.2.4 Y- Attenuation/Scattering

It makes use of the same principle as that of the neutron scattering, only that here
gamma rays are used in place of neutrons.

5.2.5 Heat Pulse Method

A heat pulse instrument equipped with a thermistor or transistor embedded in a ceramic

block is used. The temperature is then recorded versus time and the rate of the decrease
temperature is a function of water content.

5.3 Computation

1. A 100-cm3 moist soil weighed 160 g. After oven drying, its weight was reduced to
130 g. Considering that the Vs/Vt = 0.50, calculate the following: Bulk density (ρb),
particle density (ρp), % solid, porosity (f), moisture content by mass (θm), moisture
content by volume (θv), height of water (hw) if soil depth is 20 cm, and Degree of
saturation (% s).

Given:
Vt = 100 cm3
Ms + Mw = 160 g
Ms = 130 g
Vs/Vt = 0.50

Solution:

72
73
2. Consider an organic layer of soil with 50% spaces or voids between the soil particles
with half of these spaces filled with water. A 100 cm3 sample would contain 50 cm3 of
soil, 25 cm3 of water, and 25 cm3 of air. Typical densities of two different soils and
the density of water can be used to illustrate the value of the soil particle density. The
mass of the air is negligible, and the air will be present in both the wet and dry
samples.

50 cm3 of soil x 1.0 g/cm3 soil particle density = 50 g soil

25 cm3 of water x 1.0 g/cm3 water density = 25 g water

Wet Mass = 100 g;

Dry Mass = 75 g;

74
 Container mass = 25 g

= 0.5 g/g or 50%

3. A soil sample has a total mass of 30.2 g. Drying the soil in the oven at 105°C for 24
hours obtained a dry mass of 23.3 g. Determine water content within a soil sample.
Known values:

The total mass of the soil sample, Mt=30.2 g,

Dry mass of the soil sample, Ms=23.3 g

Solution:
Water mass calculation, Mw:
Mt = Ms + Mw ↔ Mw = Mt – Ms
= 30.2g – 23.3g = 6.9g

Water content w is a mass ratio that is used to quantify the amount of water present
within the soil and is defined as:

W = (Mw/Ms) x 100
= (6.99/23.3g) x 100 = 29.6%

4. The volume of water present in a 395cm3 soil core is 75ml. The oven-dry weight of
the soil core is 625g. Calculate the soil water content on a weight basis. Know values:

Volume of soil, Vt = 395cm3

Volume of water, Vw = 75ml = 75cm3
Oven dry weight of soil core = 625g

Required:
% Moisture content = Soil water content on a weight basis, percent

Solution:
Dry bulk Density = Oven dry weight of soil core, g/ Volume of soil core, cm3
= 625g / 395cm3
= 158g/cm3

Apparent Specific gravity of dry soil = Dry bulk Density /1g/cm3

75
 = 158g/cm3/ 1g/cm3 = 158

Volume wetness = (Volume of water / volume of soil core) x 100

= (75cm3 / 395cm3) x 100 = 19.0%

Mass wetness = Volume wetness / Apparent Specific gravity of dry soil

= 19.0%/158 = 12.03%

5. If a wet soil sample weighs (Mws) 120 grams before being disturbed, and the dry
weight (Mds) after 24 hours of drying at 220ºF is 100 grams, and the bulk density (ρb)
is 1.25 grams/cm3, calculate for the mass and volumetric water content.

Solutions:
θm = Mw/Ms
= (Mws - Mds)/ Mds
= (120 – 100)/ 100
= 0.20 gram of water per gram of dry soil

θv = (Ƥb/ Ƥw) x θm (Ƥw = density of water, 1 gram per cm3)

= (125/1) x 0.20
= 0.25 cm3 of water per cm3 of soil

VI. Qualitative Description of Soil Moisture

As an initially water-saturated soil dries down, both the soil and the soil water undergo a
series of gradual changes in physical behavior and their relationships with plants. These
changes are due mainly to the fact that the water remaining in the drying soil is found in smaller
pores, in thinner films, or in smaller pore corners where the water potential is lowered principally
by the action of matric forces.

To study these changes and introduce the terms commonly used to describe varying
degrees of soil wetness. The terms to be introduced describe various stages along a continuum
of soil wetness and should not be interpreted to imply that soil water exists in different “forms.”

76
 Figure 21. Volumes of water and air associated with 100 g of soil solids (Weil & Brady, 2017)

6.1 Soil Moisture Tension

Soil moisture tension (SMT) is the force by which water is held in the soil. It is also the
force that must be overcome by plant roots to draw water from the soil It is expressed in
atmospheres (atm) or bars, where 1 atm = 1.01325 bar; 1 bar = 0.9869 atm Tension becomes
larger when the amount of water stored or retained is smaller.

SMT is low in wet soils and increases as the soil dries up. Soil moisture moves from a
zone of low SMT to a zone of high SMT, from wetter to a drier portion of the soil.

6.1.1 Maximum Water Holding Capacity

As water enters the surface of the soil due to the heavy rain or application of irrigation
water, the air is displaced from the dry soil and pores large or small start to fill up. Continued
addition of water to the surface results in decreased downward movement of water. When all
pores are filled with water the soil is its maximum water holding capacity. At this point, suction is
expected to be zero or near zero.

Gravitational water also called drainage water; the water which soon drains out of the
macropores. It is also the difference between the water at maximum water holding capacity and
the water at field capacity.

77
 It is mathematically given as DW= MW-FC.

6.1.2 Field Capacity

Field capacity may be defined as the maximum amount of moisture the soil can hold
after drainage in a given period. The water has moved away from the big pores (macropores)
and only the medium and small pores (micropores) contain water. Water movement does not
stop, but such movement will be very slow to be perceptible. Generally, this moisture equivalent
is attained at 1/3 bar.

6.1.3 Permanent Wilting Point

Wilting coefficient (WC) or Permanent wilting point (PWP) – Wilting coefficient

represents the moisture content of the soil below which plants growing will wilt because the sod
can no longer supply at a sufficient rate to maintain turgor. For most soils, the suction, the
suction of 15 bars, the amount of available water (AW) may readily be estimated by subtracting
the amount of water the sod retains at 15 bars (WC) from the amount of water the soil retains at
1/3 bar (FC).

It is mathematically given as AW= FC-WC.

6.1.4 Hygroscopic Coefficient (HC)

Hygroscopic coefficient (HC) is the soil moisture constant representing the condition
wherein water is held so tightly and appearing as a very thin film of water around a soil particle
and may move only through vapor transfer. The suction of water at this condition is about 31
bars.

VII. Classification of Soil Water

7.1 Biological Classification of Soil Water

1. Superfluous water. The water that occupies the large pore space and would readily
drain downward due to gravity.
2. Available water. It is the portion of water in a sod that can be readily absorbed and
assimilated by plant roots.
3. Unavailable water. The water that is used by the fine pore spaces with the high
energy of retention.

7.2 Physical Classification of Soil Water

1. Free or gravitational water. Water that moves into, though, or out of the soil due to
the influence of gravity. This corresponds to the superfluous water under the
biological classification.
2. Capillary water. Water is held in the capillary or fine pores in the soil. This form of
water corresponds to the available water under the biological classification.
3. Hygroscopic water. This also corresponds to the unavailable water under the
biological classification.

78
VIII. Movement of Water in Soils

Water moves as a result of the difference in potential or suction. The direction of flow is
toward the lower potentials or higher suctions. Most of the water in the soil moves in the liquid
state but in dry conditions, vapor movement becomes a more significant form of water transport.
Movement in the liquid phase takes place under either saturated or unsaturated conditions.

Saturated flow occurs when all the pores in the medium are filled with water so that all
spaces become available for the movement of water. Darcy’s law as applied to soil water
movement describes the flow of water through a column of soil being proportional to the
potential gradient. The law is mathematically expressed as:

q = -k (ΔΨ/ Δx)

Where q is the flux density of water, k is the hydraulic conductivity of the soil, ΔΨ is the
difference in potentials of the two zones and Δx is the distance traveled by water. Movement in
saturated soil is the movement of water in the large pores primarily through the action of gravity.

In saturated conditions, water movement occurs in pores not filled with water. Where the
macropores are occupied by air and the micropores are filled with water and some air, there are
discontinuities in the flow path and these increase as moisture content is further reduced.
Movement follows the same law, that is flow velocity is proportional to the suction gradient. The
direction of flow is from lower suction to higher suction.

Downward movement of water through infiltration and percolation takes place through
different soil horizons whose porosity and conductivity vary. The downward movement in larger
pores is also affected by trapped air when water is suddenly added, and soil air pressures build
up which would reduce the percolation rate.

As the soil dries out further and becomes more unsaturated and conductivity reduces to
near zero, the only way water can move from one place to another is through the vapor phase.
Water vapor moves as a result of vapor pressure differences. The greater the difference
between any two points the greater the movement (diffusion) during that period.

79
 SOIL CONSISTENCY
Chapter 7

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:

● Discuss the relationship of moisture in soil consistency;
● Discuss the use of soil strength in agriculture and engineering.
● Discuss the concept of soil consistency and its relationship with soil moisture; and
● Explain the relevance of soil consistency and soil thermal properties in crop
production.

I. Introduction

Soil consistency or soil consistence is the manifestation of the physical forces of

cohesion and adhesion acting within the soil at various moisture contents including behavior
towards gravity and pressure. The consistency of the soil material is expressed in the degree of
cohesion and adhesion or in its property to resist deformation, rupture, or any physical alteration
(USDA Soil Survey Division Staff, 1993). This term is used to describe the ease at which the soil
can be reshaped or ruptured or in layman’s terms how soil resists penetration by an object.

To be able to fully grasp the concept of soil consistency, one must first understand
cohesion and adhesion and how these forces operate in the soil. Adhesion (adhere/stick)) is the
attraction of dissimilar objects, in the soil, it refers to the attraction of water to soil solids.
Cohesion is a result of attractive forces between similar objects (cohere/bond/unity).

II. Soil Consistence

Soil consistence is a term used by soil scientists to describe the ease with which a soil
can be reshaped or ruptured. As a clod of soil is squeezed between the thumb and forefinger (or
crushed underfoot, if necessary), observations are made on the amount of force needed to
crush the clod and on how the soil responds to the force.

While Engineers use the term consistency to describe how soil resists penetration by an
object, while soil scientist’s consistence describes resistance to rupture. Instead of crushing a
clod of soil, the engineer attempts to penetrate it with either the blunt end of a pencil (some use
their thumbs) or a thumbnail. For example, if the blunt end of a pencil makes only a slight
indentation, but the thumbnail penetrates easily, the soil is rated as very firm. Consistency, then,
is a kind of simple field estimation of soil strength or penetration resistance.

Table 2. Some Field Tests and Terms Used to Describe the Consistence and Consistency of
Soils (Weil & Brady, 2017)

Soil Consistence Soil Consistency

Dry Moist to Soil Dried Field Rupture The soil at Field
Wet Then (Crushing) Test in situ Penetration
Submerged Moisture Test

80
 in Water
Loose Loose Not Specimen not Soft The blunt end
applicable obtainable of a pencil
penetrates
deeply with
ease
Soft Very friable Non- Crumbles under Medium- The blunt end
cemented very slight force firm of the pencil
between thumb can
and forefinger penetrate
about
1.25 cm with
moderate
effort
Slightly Friable Extremely Crumbles under Firm The blunt end
hard weakly slight force of the pencil
cemented between thumb can
and forefinger penetrate
about
0.5 cm
Hard Firm Weakly Crushes with Very firm The blunt end
cemented difficulty between of a pencil
thumb and makes slight
forefinger indentation;
thumbnail
easily
penetrates
Very hard Extremely Moderately Cannot be crushed Hard The blunt end
firm cemented between thumb of a pencil
and forefinger, but makes no
can be crushed indentation;
slowly underfoot thumbnail
barely
penetrates
Extremely Slightly Strongly Cannot be crushed
hard rigid cemented by full body
weight underfoot

III. Atterberg’s Limits

Albert Atterberg, a Swedish chemist, proposed five different forms of soil consistency
that depend on soil moisture (Atterbrg’s consistency). The figure below shows the influence of
soil moisture on soil consistency.

Harsh Friable Soft Plastic Sticky Viscous

Dry Moist Wet Saturated

Table 3. Summarizes the properties of each consistency level (FAO, 2006)

81
Harsh Observed in dry soil
Soil is hard (depends on texture and SOM content)
Highly cohesive (clay-clay cementation)
High energy requirement when plowed
Produces cloddy and rough surface when plowed.
Friable Easily crumbles into granules or crumbs
Optimum soil consistency from plowing and tillage operations because it yields
desirable soil tilth.
Soft Soil is wet
Non-trafficable and prone to ruts formation
Plastic Wet enough to be molded
Soil particles are oriented in a laminar way due to the presence of water in
between them
Sticky Soil adheres to other objects
MC is sufficient to satisfy the attractive power of the soil for water.
Liquid Soil MC is near saturation
Soil behaves like a viscous liquid (soup-like)

Atterberg further proposes the concept of dividing the cohesive range into five divisions
of soil wetness. These are the boundary between soil consistency levels, known as soil
moisture consistency limits. Atterberg limits are very useful in that they can be used to
distinguish between silt and clay, and they can distinguish between different types of silts and
clays. Atterberg’s work is further refined by Arthur Casagrande, an American Civil Engineer.

IV. Consistency Limits

4.1 Flocculation Limit

It is defined as the mass wetness at which the soil suspension is transformed from a
liquid to a semi-liquid state.

4.2 Liquid Limit

It is defined as the mass wetness at which the soil water system changes from a viscous
state to a plastic body and it is the minimum soil moisture content when the soil eases to act like
a liquid or a maximum moisture content when the soil assumes to be plastic.

4.3 Plastic Limit

It is defined as the mass wetness at which the sol stiffens from a plastic to a semi-rigid
and friable state, and it is the moisture content at which the soil crumbles when rolled into
threads of 1/8inch diameter.

4.4 Shrinkage Limit

It is defined as the mass wetness at which the soil changes from a semi-rigid to a rigid
solid with no additional change in specific volume as drying proceed.

82
 4.5 Sticky Limit

It is defined as the minimum mass wetness value at which the soil paste will adhere to a
sheet spatula drawn over its surface.

V. Consistency Index

Some important indices derived from Atterberg’s Limits;

5.1 Plasticity Index (Plastic Range)

It is the measure of the plasticity of a soil which is technically described as the size
range of moisture contents where the soil exhibits plastic properties. Mathematically it is
expressed as the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit (PI= LL-PL). Generally,
soils with high PI tend to be clayey, soils with lower PI tend to be silty, soils with a PI of 0 tend to
have little or no silt or clay

5.2 Liquidity Index

It is used for scaling the natural water content of a soil sample to the limits. Technically it is the
ratio of the difference between the natural water content, plastic limit, and the liquid limit and it
describes the moisture condition of soil concerning its index limits. Generally, soft clays have an
LI of approximately 100%, while stiff clays have LI which approximates 0 and may even be
negative. Mathematically, it can be calculated using the formula LI= (W-PL)/(LL-PL), where w is
the natural water content which corresponds to the water content of a field moist soil and was
measured using undisturbed core samples

5.3 Coefficient of Linear Extensibility

It is the percent reduction in the length of a soil bar upon shrinking. It is used to measure
the expansiveness of soils. It can be calculated using the formula COLE= [(LM-LO)/LM] *100,
where LM is the length at the plastic limit, and LO is the length after air drying.

VI. Field Rating of Soil Consistence and Consistency

Field observations of both consistence and consistency provide valuable information to

guide decisions about loading and manipulating soils. For construction purposes, however,
more precise measurements are needed for related soil properties that help predict how soil will
respond to applied stress.

1. Place approximately 25 g of soil in the palm. The consistence when dry is determined
by breaking an air-dried mass of soil between thumb and forefinger or in the hand.
Evaluate and use the following table to describe its consistency.

Table 4. Soil consistency when dry (FAO, 2006)

83
 Class Description
Loose Non-coherent.
Soft Soil mass is very weakly coherent and fragile; breaks to powder or
individual grains under very slight pressure
Slightly hard Weakly resistant to pressure; easily broken between thumb and
forefinger.
Hard Moderately resistant to pressure; can be broken in the hands; not
breakable between thumb and forefinger.
Very hard Very resistant to pressure; can be broken in the hands only with
difficulty.
Extremely hard Extremely resistant to pressure; cannot be broken in the hands.

2. Consistence when moist is determined by attempting to crush a mass of moist or slightly

moist soil material.

Table 5. Soil consistency when moist (FAO, 2006)

Class Description
Loose Non-coherent.
Very friable Soil material crushes under very gentle pressure but coheres when
pressed together.
Friable Soil material crushes easily under gentle to moderate pressure
between thumb and forefinger and coheres when pressed
together.
Firm Soil material crushes under moderate pressure between thumb
and forefinger, but resistance is distinctly noticeable.
Very firm Soil material crushes under strong pressures; barely crushable
between thumb and forefinger.
Extremely firm Soil material crushes only under very strong pressure; cannot be
crushed between thumb and forefinger.

3. Consistence when wet is determined by stickiness and plasticity.

4. Stickiness is the quality of adhesion of the soil material to other objects determined by
noting the adherence of soil material when it is pressed between thumb and finger.

Table 6. Stickiness (FAO, 2006)

Class Description
Non-sticky After the release of pressure, practically no soil material adheres to
the thumb and finger.
Slightly sticky After pressure, soil material adheres to both thumb and finger but
comes off one or the other rather cleanly. It is not appreciably
stretched when the digits are separated.
Sticky After pressure, soil material adheres to both thumb and finger and
tends to stretch somewhat and pull apart rather than pulling free

84
 from either digit.
Very sticky After pressure, soil material adheres strongly to both thumb and
finger and is decidedly stretched when they are separated.

5. Plasticity is the ability of soil material to change shape continuously under the influence
of applied stress and to retain the compressed shape on removal of stress.

Table 7. Plasticity (FAO, 2006)

Class Description
Non-plastic No wire is formable.
Slightly plastic Wire formable but breaks immediately if bent into a ring; soil mass
deformed by very slight force.
Plastic Wire formable but breaks if bent into a ring; slight to the moderate
force required for deformation of the soil mass.
Very plastic Wire formable and can be bent into a ring; moderately strong to the
very strong force required for deformation of the soil mass.

85
 SOIL TEMPERATURE
Chapter 8

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:

● Determine the soil temperature and its influence on soil biodiversity;
● Explain the difference between the four soil water content expressions; and
● Explain the principles governing soil temperature

I. Introduction

Soil temperature is the measure of the thermal state of the soil body concerning its
ability to transfer heat. Soil temperature is the measure of the soil intensity or potential energy,
or heat. If we are to compare soil temperature with soil water movement, the temperature is the
driving force for heat flow, as the pressure head is the driving force for water flow.

Soil temperature is a very important soil physical property as it affects plant growth and
development, soil moisture, aeration, structure, microbial and enzyme activity, decomposition of
residues, and plant nutrient availability.

Heat is the kinetic energy of the random motion of the ultimate particles on which
material bodies are composed. The temperature on the other hand refers to a particular level or
degree of molecular activity or in simpler terms it is the intensity of heat or the level of heat.

II. Terminology

Some other terminologies include a thermal capacity which is the amount of heat
existing in the body (heat capacity) or the amount of heat required to change the temperature of
a given mass of a particular substance by a certain amount. Generally, the quantity of heat
required to produce a given temperature change depends upon the mass and the nature of the
object being heated (H=SM∆T). Thermal conductivity on the other hand is the ability of the
substance to transfer heat from molecule to molecule (molecular conductivity). It is the quantity
of heat transmitted through a unit length of a substance per unit cross-section, per unit of
temperature, per unit time. While thermal diffusivity is the expression of the rate at which a
substance heats up as a result of a thermal gradient. Thermal conductivity is expressed as TD=
thermal conductivity/ (specific heat*density). The thermal conductivity of soil is approximately
0.005 thermal units, and generally dry, loosely packed soil has a very low thermal conductivity

III. Factors Affecting Soil Temperature

1. Solar radiation. It is the amount of heat from the sun that reaches the earth is 2 g-
cal/cm2-min. The amount received by the soil is much less.

86
 2. Radiation from the sky. Much of the sun’s energy is absorbed by the atmosphere and
is radiated in all directions. In the tropics, sun rays pass through the atmosphere
more nearly vertical and lose little energy.
3. Conduction of heat from the atmosphere. Conduction of heat through the air can
have a substantial effect upon soil temperature only by contact.
4. Condensation. Being an exothermic process, whenever water vapor condenses, the
soil is heated up by 5 degrees centigrade
5. Evaporation. Being an endothermic process, the greater the evaporation, the greater
is the cooling rate in the soil
6. Rainfall. Depending on the temperature, rainfall can cool or warm the soil
7. Insulation. During summer, insulated soil is cooler than the soil that is directly
exposed to the elements, while during winter the situation is reversed
8. Vegetation. Transpiration of water, a reflection of incident radiation, and energy used
for photosynthesis by plants tend to decrease the temperature of the microclimate
and indirectly the soil
9. Biological activity. Biological activity evolves heat, and the greater the activity in the
soil, the more it is heated up
10. Radiation. Soil color has a considerable effect on the reflection of the incoming
radiation, generally darker soils, the smaller fraction of the incoming radiation is
reflected. The ratio of the reflected energy with the incident radiation is called albedo.
Generally, the larger the albedo, the cooler the soil is, and the rough surface absorbs
more solar radiation than smooth surface also dark and moist soils absorb more
radiation than dry and light-colored soils.
11. Structure, texture, and moisture. Usually, compacted soils have greater thermal
activity than loose soils and organic soils have lesser thermal conductivity than
mineral soils
12. Soluble salts. The relative concentration of soluble salts in the soil is affected by
evaporation and indirectly by soil temperature. The higher the salt concentration, the
higher is the temperature needed for evaporation. Salt concentration affects
biological activities and indirectly soil temperature

IV. Properties Affected by Soil Temperature

Below are the soil properties affected by soil temperature.

● Soil moisture. Any change in temperature affects vapor pressure and viscosity of
water
● Microbial activity. The optimal temperature for microbes is 18-30oc, beyond and
below this range microbial activity decreases
● Soil development. Generally, higher temperature increases chemical reaction, and
therefore soil development
● Plant growth. Generally, increasing temperature increases shoot/root ratio
● Availability of plant nutrients. Soil water becomes more available to plants to
warms up, and as the water is being absorbed so are the readily available plant
nutrients

87
 REFERENCES

Books:

Brady, N. C., and Weil, R.R. (2017). The Nature and Properties of Soils, 14th Edition. Pearson
Press, Upper Saddle River NJ. 1086 p. ISBN-10: 0-13-325448-8; ISBN-13: 978-0-13-
325448-8 (PDF)

Buladaco, M.S. et al (2014). Licensure Examination in Agriculture Reviewer (Lecture Manual

and Review Questions). Soil Science. GreenEmpire Knowledge Bank.

Charman, P. & B. Murphy (2000). Soils: Their Properties and Management.

Cohen, B (2012). Standard test method for particle distribution analysis. Potters Without
Borders. British Colombia, Canada

Department of Soil Science. (2005). Lecture Handbook in Soil Science 21 (Principles of Soil
Science). Department of Soil Science. College of Agriculture. Central Mindanao
University. CMU, Musuan, Bukidnon.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2006). Guidelines for soil description,
4th edition. Rome, Italy

Ghildyal, B.P. And Tripathi, R.P. (1987). Soil Physics. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Goldberg, S.R., Lebron, I., Seaman, J.C., Suarez, D.L. (2012). Soil colloidal behavior. In: P.M.
Huang, Y. Li and M.E. Sumner (eds.) Handbook of Soil Sciences Properties and
Processes (2nd Edition). CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group. Boca Raton, FL. 13:
978-1-4398-0306-6 (PDF)

Hillel, D. (2004). Fundamentals of Soil Physics. Academic Press, New York. 413pp.

Hillel, D. (2004). Introduction to Environmental soil physics. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
ISBN. 0-12-348655-6 (PDF)

Lal, Rattan and Shukla, Manoj K. (2004). Principles of Soil Physics. Marcek Dekker, Inc. New
York.

USDA (1994). Munsell Color Charts. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook.

Singer, M. & D.N. Munns. (2002). Soils: An Introduction. Prentice Hall, Inc., New Jersey.

Weil, Ray R., and Brady, Nyle C. (2017). The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th Ed. Pearson
Education Limited, England.

88
Websites:

USDA (2021). Examination and Description of Soil Profiles.

https://www.nrcs.usda .gov/wps/portal/nrcs/site/national/home/

https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_051845.pdf.

http://wyoextension.org/publications/html/B1331/

https://kstatelibraries.pressbooks.pub/soilslabmanual/chapter/soil-and-water-relationships/

https://www.d.umn.edu/~pfarrell/SOILWATERCONTENTLAB.htm

https://nrcca.cals.cornell.edu/soil/CA2/CA0211.5.php

89
https://www.d.umn.edu/~pfarrell/SOILWATERCONTENTLAB.htm
https://nrcca.cals.cornell.edu/soil/CA2/CA0211.5.php

90
 LESSON 1
INORGANIC AND ORGANIC COLLOIDS

Overview

Different soils are endowed with different types of colloids that elicit very diverse
physical and chemical behaviors. Colloids consist of clay minerals and organic matter and
play critical roles in soil chemical, physical, and biological properties. Colloids are very
small in size. The majority of charges in soil come from colloids, making them essential for
cation exchange capacity, buffering capacity, and retention of nutrients like Ca2+, K+, Mg2+,
etc. In addition, the small size of colloids leads to very high surface areas, which facilitate
chemical reactions and provide a habitat for microbes. This topic will provide information
about types of soil colloids, their nature, and properties important to the soil.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish inorganic soil colloid from organic colloid;

2. Describe the different properties of colloids; and
3. Discuss the sources of charges in soil colloids.

Content Proper

DEFINITION, TYPES, AND PROPERTIES OF SOIL COLLOIDS

A. Definition of Soil Colloids

Soil colloids are the fine-size fractions of the soil (clay and organic matter). They
are also considered the most chemically active portion of the soil because of their large
surface area and the chemical structure of the materials involved. In addition, clays and
organic matter impart to soils some colloidal properties, including retention of ions and
molecules, water and gas adsorption, and shrinking and swelling, since colloidal particles
react strongly with fluids due to their surface area.

91
B. Types of Soil Colloids

The soil colloids are generally categorized into two types: the organic and
inorganic colloids. The organic colloid is represented by humus. Organic colloids are
important in nearly all soils, especially in the upper parts of the soil profile. Humus colloids
are not minerals, nor are they crystalline. Instead, they consist of convoluted chains and
rings of carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Humus particles are
often among the smallest of soil colloids and exhibit very high capacities to adsorb water,
but almost no plasticity or stickiness. Because humus is noncohesive, soils composed
mainly of humus (Histosols) have very little bearing strength and are unsuitable for
making building or road foundations. Humus has high amounts of both negative and
positive charge per unit mass, but the net charge is always negative and varies with soil
pH. The negative charge on humus is extremely high in neutral to alkaline soils.

The important inorganic colloids in soils can be grouped into three major types:

1. Crystalline Silicate Clays

These clays are the dominant type in most soils (except in Andisols, Oxisols, and
Histosol). Their crystalline structure is layered much like pages in a book. Each
layer (page) consists of two to four sheets of closely packed and tightly bonded
oxygen, silicon, and aluminum atoms (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. The basic molecular and structural components of silicate clays: (a) a single
tetrahedron and octahedron (b) different combinations of tetrahedral and
octahedral sheets (Source: Brady and Weil 2008)

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2. Non Crystalline Silicate Clays
These clays consist mainly of tightly bonded silicon, aluminum, and oxygen atoms,
but they do not exhibit ordered crystalline sheets. The two principal clays of this
type, allophane and imogolite, usually form from volcanic ash and are
characteristic of Andisols. They have high amounts of both positive and negative
charge and high water- holding capacities. Although malleable (plastic) when wet,
they exhibit a very low degree of stickiness. Allophane and imogolite are also
known for their extremely high capacities to strongly adsorb phosphate and other
anions, especially under acid conditions (Fig 2.)

Fig 2. Sponge-like glass particle. (a) Optical micrograph, (b) SEM image of the
dashed area of the sponge-like glass particle, (c) EDX spectrum of the dashed
area in (b). The sponge- like glass particles were collected from the sample
shown in (the 2–0.5 mm fraction of Mt. Pinatubo 1991 volcanic ash)

3. Iron and Aluminum Oxides

These are found in many soils but are especially important in the more highly
weathered soils of warm, humid regions (e.g., Ultisols and Oxisols). They consist
mainly of either iron or aluminum atoms coordinated with oxygen atoms (the latter
are often associated with hydrogen ions to make hydroxyl groups). Some, like
gibbsite (an Al-oxide) and goethite (a Fe-oxide), consist of crystalline sheets.
Other oxide minerals are noncrystalline, often occurring as amorphous coatings on
soil particles. The oxide colloids are relatively low in plasticity and stickiness. Their
net charge ranges from slightly negative to moderately positive.

93
C. Properties of Soil Colloids

1. Size
• Colloidal particles are generally smaller than 1 micrometer (um) in diameter. Since
the clay fraction of soil is 2um and smaller, not all clay is strictly colloidal, but even
the larger clay particles have colloid-like properties.
• Colloidal particles can be seen only by using an electron microscope

2. Surface area
• Soil colloids are minute and, therefore, have a large surface area per unit mass.
The external surface area of 1 g of colloidal clay is 1000 times that of 1 g of
coarse sand.

Certain silicate clays have extensive internal surfaces occurring between plate-like
crystal units that make up each particle and often greatly exceed the external surface
area.
• The total surface area of soil colloids ranges from 10 m2/g for clays with only
external surfaces to more than 800 m2/g for clays with extensive internal surfaces.
The colloid surface area in the upper 15 cm of a hectare of a clay soil could be as
high as 700,000 km2 g-1

3. Surface charges
• Soil colloids also carry electrostatic charges (- and +). Most of the organic
and inorganic soil colloids carry a negative charge.
• When an electric current is passed through a suspension of soil colloidal particles
they migrate to anode, the positive electrode indicating that they carry a negative
charge.

4. Adsorption of cations
• The minute silicate clay colloidal particles are called micelles (microcells),
which ordinarily carry negative charges, consequently attracting and attaching
the ions of positive charge on the colloidal surfaces. This gives rise to an ionic
double layer.
• The colloidal particles constitute the inner ionic layer, being essentially a huge
anion, the external and internal surfaces of which are highly negative in charge.
• The outer ionic layer comprises a swarm of loosely held (adsorbed) cations
attracted to the negatively charged surfaces.

94
 5. Adsorption of water
• A large number of water molecules are associated with colloidal soil particles.
Some water molecules are carried by adsorbed cations and the cation is said to
be in a hydrated state.
• Some silicate clays hold numerous water molecules as well as cations
packed between the plates that make up the clay micelle.

6. Cohesion
• Attractive forces between similar molecules or materials are called
cohesion. Cohesion indicates the tendency of clay particles to stick
together.
• This tendency is due to the attraction of clay particles for water molecules
held between them.
• When colloidal substances are wetted, water first adheres to individual clay
particles and then brings about cohesion between two or more adjacent
colloidal particles.

7. Adhesion
• Attractive forces between different molecules or materials are called adhesion.
Adhesion refers to the attraction of colloidal materials to the surface of any
other body or substance with which it comes in contact.

8. Swelling and shrinkage

• Some soil clay colloids belonging to smectite groups like montmorillonite swell
when wet and shrink when dry.
• After a prolonged dry spell, soils high in smectite clay (e.g. Black soil -
Vertisols) often show criss-cross wide and deep cracks.
• These cracks first allow rain to penetrate rapidly. Later, because of swelling,
the cracks will close and become impervious.
• But soils dominated by kaolinite, chlorite, or fine-grained micas do not swell
or shrink. Vermiculite is intermediate in its swelling and shrinking
characteristics.

9. Dispersion and flocculation

• As long as the colloidal particles remain negatively charged, they repel each
other, and the suspension remains stable.
• If on any account they lose their charge, or if the magnitude of the charge is
reduced, the particles coalesce, form flock or loose aggregates, and settle

95
 down.
• This phenomenon of coalescence and formation of flocks is known as
flocculation. The reverse process of the breaking up of flocks into individual
particles is known as deflocculation or dispersion.

10. Brownian movement

• When a suspension of colloidal particles is examined under a
microscope the particles seem to oscillate.
• The oscillation is due to the collision of colloidal particles or molecules with those
of the liquid in which they are suspended.
• Soil colloidal particles with those of water in which they are suspended are
always in a constant state of motion called Brownian movement. The smaller the
particle, the more rapid its movement is.

11. Non-permeability
• Colloids, as opposed to crystalloids, are unable to pass through a semi-
permeable membrane.
• Even though the colloidal particles are extremely small, they are bigger
than molecules of crystalloid dissolved in water.
• The membrane allows the passage of water and of the dissolved substance
through its pores but retains the colloidal particles.

D. Sources of Negative Charge:

1. Ionizable hydrogen ions (pH-dependent charge)

• Hydrogen ions dissociate from the hydroxyl group on the broken edges of
clay minerals (Kaolinite).

The extent of ionized hydrogen depends on solution pH and hence these

negative charges are also known as pH dependent charge. The ionization of
hydrogen increases in alkaline (basic) solutions

2. Isomorphous substitution (Permanent negative charge)

• This is due to the substitution of a cation of higher valence with another

cation of lower valence but similar size in the clay crystal structure.
• In clay crystals some ions fit exactly into mineral lattice sites because of
their convenient size and charge.

96
 • Si4+ are substituted from the tetrahedral positions of illite, vermiculite and
smectite groups of clay minerals by Al3+. Similarly, Al3+ are substituted from the
octahedral positions of smectite groups, illite and vermiculite by Fe3+, Fe2+, Mg2+
or Zn2+.

Summary of Learning Points

✔ Soil colloids, the extremely small particles (smaller than 0.001 mm) of clay
and humus control many important chemical and physical properties of the
soil. This portion of the soil is often called the “active fraction”.
✔ Soils colloids can be generally categorized into organic (humus) and
inorganic (crystalline silicate clays, noncrystalline silicate clays, and
Hydroxide of Iron and Aluminum)
✔ The important colloidal properties and characteristics of soil include size,
surface area, surface charges, adsorption of cations and anions,
adsorption of water, adhesion and cohesion, swelling and shrinking,
dispersion and flocculation, Brownian movement, and permeability.
✔ Sources of charge in soil colloids are pH-dependent charge and
isomorphous substitution.

References

https://agrimoon.com/wp-content/uploads/Fundamentals-of-Soil-Science-with-
Practicals.pdf

Gavrilescu, M. (2014). Colloid-Mediated Transport and the Fate of Contaminants in

Soils in The Role of Colloidal Systems in Environmental Protection. Fanun, M. Ed.
Elsiever
https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780444632838/the-role-of-colloidal-systems-
in- environmental-protection#book-info

Weil, Raymond & Brady, Nyle. (2017). The Nature and Properties of Soils.
15th
Edition.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301200878_The_Nature_a
nd_Properties_of_Soils_15th_edition

Sposito, Garrison (2016). The Chemistry of Soils. 3rd Edition. Oxford

University Press

97
 LESSON 2
SILICATE CLAYS

Overview

This module will give an overview of the basic characteristics and properties of silicate
clays.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Describe the basic building blocks of silicate clays;

2 Classify the different types of silicate clays;
3. Explain the properties of silicate clays based on their structure; and
4. Discuss the sources of negative charges of silicate clays

Introduction

The soil is a heterogenous, polydispersed system of solid, liquid, and gaseous components of
various proportions in this heterogenous system, the soil solution acts as the medium by which
chemical reactions between the members of the different phases and of the same phase are
made possible even when the reactants are not in direct contact

The colloidal fraction of the soil

Soil colloid – it is defined as the state of substitution of particles such that the surface
properties predominate. The range of the diameters of colloid particles is arbitrarily set
between 10-7 and 10-4 cm It is the most reactive component of the soil due to their
tremendous surface area and the presence of electric charge which is predominantly negative

2 types of Colloids

1. Organic colloids – comes from the biological decomposition of organic residues in the soil
which yields simple products such as CO2, H2CO3, simple organic acids, mineral nutrients, and
complex high molecular weight of organic products such as humus (stable to further biological
action). This colloid has 5-7 times higher adsorptive property. This is an amorphous type of
colloidal material with high Cation exchange capacity (CEC) and good buffering capacities due
to the presence of functional group.

98
 2. Inorganic colloids – are the soil clay fraction with very fine particles having a size limit of
0.001 micron (0.001 µ) to 1.0 micron (1.0 µ) or < 2.0 µ. The tremendous surface they expose
affects the behavior of the clay.

2 types of inorganic colloids

1. Non- crystalline minerals – soils formed from volcanic ash commonly contain allophane,
a non- crystalline hydrous aluminosilicate, also found in soils of the tropics formed by
intense weathering of basic igneous rocks. The non-crystalline oxide, like ferrihydrite,
are common in soils because the presence of soluble silica and organic matter tends to
inhibit crystallization into more stable, better ordered oxides of Fe.

2. Crystalline silicate minerals are the most stable and persistent silicates which occur as
weathering products (secondary minerals) in the clay fraction of the soil.

2 Basic Building blocks of Silicate Clays

1. Silica-Tetrahedra = forms a 4-sided polygon

Oxygen – bears a charge of negative 2

4 oxygens x -2 = -8
Silicon – bears a charge of positive 4
1 silicon x +4 = +4
Therefore: a tetrahedron has a net charge of -4

Tetrahedral Sheet

99
2. Alumina-octahedron = forms an 8-sided polygon

Octahedral Sheet

Different types of layer silicate clays and their characteristics

1:1 Type (kaolinite, nontronite, halloysite)

 the hydroxyls of the Al-octahedron sheet are adjacent to Si-tetrahedron
 this results in H-bonding that firmly holds successive layers together

Kaolinite; Mineral Structure

2:1 Expanding type (montmorillonite)

 there is a side-by-side arrangement of O2 atoms from adjacent tetra sheets so that H+
bonding does not exist.
 the layers readily expand and contract with wetting and drying
 the external and internal surface of the particles are available for adsorption of water and
nutrients

100
 Montmorillonite; Mineral Structure

2:1 non-expanding type (Illite)

 replacement of Si by Al resulting in a negatively charged lattice, which is neutralized by
K+ ions, occupying hexagonal holes.
 This K+ ions form a bridge holding adjacent layers together and producing a non-
expanding type

2:1 limited-expansion (vermiculite)

 All or most of the K+ ions in the inter lattice space is removed
 None of the lattice charge is neutralized by the K bridge

101
 Muscovite/Illite and Vermiculite

Origin of negative charge

1.Ionization of phenolic and carboxylic radical in OM
2. Isomorphous substitution (Al for Si or Mg for Al)
 Isomorphous substitution is the substitution of one ion for another of similar size
but with lower positive valence. Common substitutions are the Si4+ replaced by
Al3+, and even more extensive replacement of Al3+ by one or more of these: Fe3+,
Fe2+, Mg2+ or Zn2+
3.Broken edges of a crystal

Kinds of negative charge

 Permanent negative charge – arise from clay
 pH-dependent negative charge – from OM
o as pH increases, negative charge increases

Displacement strength of different cations

 Valence- divalent holds tighter than monovalent
 Size of cation- the smaller the cation, the stronger is the attachment
 Hydrated size- the more hydrated, it is loosely held
o Al>H>Ca>Mg>K>Na=NH4 (lyotropic series)

102
 References

Brady, N.C. & Weil, R.R. (2002). The Nature and Properties of Soils. 13th Edition. New Jersey:
Pearson’s Education, Inc.

Foth, H.D. (1990). Fundamentals of Soil Science. Eighth Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

103
 LESSON 3
CATION EXCHANGE

Overview

Cations are constantly adsorbed on the colloids and are exchanged for those in the
surrounding soil solution and roots. This cation exchange reaction results from excess
negative charge on soil colloids. The ability of soil to adsorb and exchange cations is
referred to as cation exchange capacity (CEC). It is the sum of all the adsorbed cations.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to

1. Describe the cation exchange capacity of soil;

2. Identify the different factors affecting the cation exchange capacity of soil;
3. Determine the cation exchange capacity of soil; and
4. Explain the importance of cation exchange capacity in plant nutrition.

Content Proper

Cation Exchange Capacity

Exchangeable cations, such as NH4+, K+, Na+, H+, Ca2+, Mg2+, and Al3+, are adsorbed in
colloidal particles and can be replaced by, or exchanged for, other cations from the
surrounding solution. The exchange complex is the mineral and organic colloids that adsorb
and exchange cations.

Colloids are negatively charged hence attract and adsorb cations on the surface. These
adsorbed cations can undergo exchange reactions with cations in the soil solution or in the
medium that comes in contact with the colloids. In the cation exchange reaction between
calcium and hydrogen. 1 mole of Ca2+ adsorbed in the clay particle will be exchanged for 2
moles of H+ present in the soil solution (Fig. 1).

104
 H+

Colloid Ca + 2H
2+ +
Colloid + Ca2+
(soil solution) H+ (soil solution)

Fig. 1. An example of cation exchange reaction.

The ability of the soil to hold or store cations refers to the cation exchange capacity (CEC). It
is a chemical property that roughly indicates soil fertility. The ideal range is around 10-18
cmol(+) kg-1 soil. Negatively charged soil particles attract and hold on to cations preventing
them from being leached. Cations concentrate next to the clay surface, and less
concentration at region/zone away (Fig. 2). On the other hand, anions are repelled hence
nitrates, sulphate and chlorides are vulnerable to leaching loss.

Fig. 2. Impact of a soil colloid on distribution of cations and anions.

Cation exchange is rapid and occurs instantaneously. Reactions are reversible unless some
special reactions, such as preferential bonding by organic matter to trace metals, fixation, and
large molecule hindrance, also occur. Finally, the reaction is stoichiometric, that is, one
equivalent of cation exchanges with one equivalent of another cation. The exchange reaction
takes place on a charge-for-charge basis. Two Na+ ions exchange for one Ca2+ ion.

Factors Affecting CEC

The CEC of a given soil is determined by the relative amounts and mineralogy of clay
colloids and by the CEC of each of these colloids. Hence, the higher the clay content or the
finer the soil texture, the higher the CEC. Soils high in organic matter content likewise have
higher CEC.

105
CEC is affected by soil pH depending on the nature of colloids. Most of the CEC of 2:1 clays
is permanent or non-pH dependent, hence CEC does not change with pH. In contrast, the
CEC of soil organic matter is pH-dependent. Soils high in organic matter content, 1:1 clay,
and oxide clays have relatively large changes in CEC with changes in pH.

Calculation of CEC

CEC is measured from the cations exchanged during extraction in the laboratory. In
calculating soil CEC, the amount of cations is expressed in milliequivalent per 100 grams
(me 100 g-1) of soil or centimole of positive charge adsorbed per kilogram (cmol(+) kg-1) soil.
CEC is estimated by the sum total of adsorbed cations.

Activity 1.

Calculate the CEC of a soil with the following analysis:

Exchangeable cations cmol(+) kg-1 soil

Ca2+ 8.0
Mg2+ 4.0
K+ 0.5
Na+ 1.2
H+ 4.0

CEC and Plant Nutrition

CEC indicates the amount of nutrients available for plant consumption. High CEC suggests
high soil fertility. In managing soil fertility, the exchange complex is loaded with a desirable
distribution of plant nutrients by fertilizer addition, hence increasing the available nutrients.
Liming an acid soil results in calcium ions displacing H+ and Al+++ from the exchange
complex and subsequently neutralizing. Calcium ions from gypsum replace sodium in sodic
soil by the cation exchange process. These processes change the kind and proportion of
adsorbed cations, modify soil properties, and improve plant nutrition. Addition of organic
matter

Cation exchange process feeds the plants that remove the available nutrients. This
exhausts soil fertility and makes soil acidic. The nutrients should be replenished by fertilizer
management and pH be raised by liming. CEC then is used to refine soil management
practices.

Activity:

106
Explain why CEC is a rough indicator of soil fertility.

Summary of Learning Points

1. Cations are adsorbed on the surface of negatively charged colloids and exchanged
with those in the surrounding soil solution and roots.
2. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is the total amount of adsorbed cations and an
indicator of soil fertility.
3. Cation exchange is instantaneous, reversible, and stoichiometric.
4. CEC increases with clay content and organic matter.
5. CEC varies with pH depending on the clay mineralogy.
6. To improve soil fertility and plant nutrition, CEC is enhanced by appropriate soil
management practices.

References

Brady, N.C. & Weil, R.R. (2002). The Nature and Properties of Soils. 13th Edition. New
Jersey: Pearson’s Education, Inc.
Foth, H.D. (1990). Fundamentals of Soil Science. Eighth Edition. New York: John Wiley &
Sons.
Hamza, M.A. (2008). Understanding soil analysis data. Resource Management Technical
Report 327. Western Australian Agriculture Authority, Department of Agriculture and
Food, West Australia.
Hazelton, P. & Murphy, B. (2007). Interpreting Soil Test Results: What Do All the Numbers
Mean? Victoria: CSIRO Publishing.
Moore, G. (2001). Soil Guide: A handbook for understanding and managing agricultural soils.
Bulletin 4343. A Joint National Landcare and Agriculture Western Australia Project.
Natural Resource Management Services, West Australia.
Thien, S.J. & Graveel, J.G. (1997). Laboratory Manual for Soil Science: Agricultural and
Environmental Principles. Seventh Edition. USA: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

107
 LESSON 4
PERCENTAGE BASE SATURATION (%BS) AND
EXCHANGEABLE SODIUM PERCENTAGE (ESP)

Overview

Percent base saturation and exchangeable sodium percentage are properties that
indicate base status of soil – the former concerns all basic cations while the latter
concerns specifically sodium ions.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

a. Define percentage base saturation and exchangeable sodium percentage;

b. Calculate percentage base saturation and exchangeable sodium
percentage based on the cation exchange capacity and proportions of
cations present in the soil; and
c. Discuss the implications of percentage base saturation and
exchangeable sodium percentage in the management of soils.

Content Proper

Percent Base Saturation (%BS)

Cations in the exchange complex in soil colloidal fraction include ions of many
elements that are present in the soil. These cations are classified based on their
tendency to affect soil pH. Cations may be acidic or basic.

Basic cations: Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+, NH4+

Acidic Cations: Al3+, H+

Basic cations generally make the soil pH higher and acidic cations make the soil pH lower.

When adsorbed in the exchange sites of soil colloids, these cations serve as a
reserve supply of solution cations which are either removed by plant uptake, lost
through leaching, or rendered unreactive through different processes. These cations
occupy exchange sites in soil colloids in varying proportions, depending on their
concentration in the exchange complex.

The proportion of the exchange sites (cation exchange capacity) which basic cations
occupy is termed percent base saturation and is calculated using the formula:

108
 % ���� ���������� = ��� �� ����� ������� � 100
����� ���

The percent base saturation implicates soil fertility in several ways:

1. Basic cations are essential elements which Relationship of percent base

are needed by plants. Soils with high %BS saturation and pH
are generally more fertile; As the number of Ca2+ and Mg2+
ions decreases and the number of
2. With more basic cations in the soil, there is
H+ and Al3+ ions increase, the pH
less amount of Al3+ ions present in the soil, decreases, leading to an acidic soil.
lessening its toxic effects for plants;
3. Base saturation influences buffering the
effects of acid cations released from
acidifying soil processes.
4. Base saturation affects the ease with which adsorbed cations are released to plants.

Hence, percentage base saturation is considered a primary indicator of soil fertility. A soil with
%BS value of ≥80% is generally considered very fertile, and soils that have ≤50%
are considered non-fertile. In soils that have ≥80% base saturation, have a higher
chance of obtaining essential cations compared to acidic cations. Conversely, in soil
having lower base saturation, the chances for plant roots to obtain basic cation
decreases.

Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP)

Among the cations in the soil cation exchange complex is the sodium ion (Na+). The
amount of Na+ influences the degree of dispersion of particles in soils, causing
problems in physical and chemical aspects of the soil.

The dispersive effects of Na+ in the soil is measured in terms of the proportion of the
exchange sites occupied by Na+, a chemical property called exchangeable sodium
percentage (ESP).

ESP is calculated by the formula:

���ℎ�������� ��!
��� =
∑���ℎ�������� ������� � 100

109
ESP is used as an indicator for sodic soils that have high Na+ and low soluble salts,
in addition to dispersed state. Sodicity in soils causes toxicity to sodium-sensitive
plants, high pH and nutrient imbalances, and poor physical conditions of the soil.
Dispersed soils tend to have poor structure and develop poor drainage, causing it to
form hard clods and crusts when dry.

Table 1. Relationship between the degree of dispersion and exchangeable sodium

percentage

Rating ESP Soil dispersion test

Non-sodic <6 No dispersion evident after 24 hours. Aggregates slaked but
not
dispersed (milky) clay.
Dispersion (milky halo) evident after 24 hours. Soil aggregates
Slightly sodic 6–10
slightly disperse.
Dispersion (milky halo) evident after several hours. Soil
Moderately 6–10
aggregates partially disperse.
sodic
Dispersion (milky halo) evident in less than 30 minutes. Soil
Highly sodic >15
aggregates completely disperse.

Adapted from: Overheu et al. (2021) https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/dispersive-and-sodic-

soils/identifying-dispersive-sodic-soils

Summary of Learning Points

● Percentage base saturation (%BS) and exchangeable sodium percentage

(ESP) are soil chemical properties that indicate the proportions of exchange
sites occupied by bases and sodium, respectively.
● Base saturation is a basic indicator of soil fertility and ESP is used to
characterize sodicity and dispersion of soils high in sodium.
● Soils with %BS of ≥80% are generally considered very fertile and soils with
≤50% are considered non-fertile.
● Sodium in soils causes dispersion of soil particles. Soils with high ESP
(>15%) are considered highly sodic. This leads to poor physical conditions
and nutrient imbalances.

110
References

Tan, Kim H. (2011). Principles of Soil Chemistry 4th edition. CRC Press, Taylor and
Francis Group.

Cation Exchange and Cation Exchange Capacity. University of Georgia Extension.

Date accessed: May 13, 2021. https://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail..

Davis, J. G. Waskom, R. M. & Bauder, T. A. (2012). Managing sodic soils. Colorado

State University Extension.
https://extension.colostate.edu/docs/pubs/crops/00504.pdf

Overheu, T., Lemon, J. and Hall, D. (2021). Identifying dispersive (sodic) soils.
Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, Government of
Western Australia. https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/dispersive-and-sodic-
soils/identifying-dispersive-sodic-soils

111
 LESSON 5
SOIL pH

Overview

Soil acidity affects the solubility and precipitation of chemical compounds of all essential
plant nutrients and is therefore a deciding factor on their availability. Soil acidity has a far-
reaching influence on soil fertility and plant growth. Thus, understanding the nature of soil
acidity and its management forms an integral part of soil fertility.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Define soil pH;
2. Discuss the causes of soil acidity; and
3. Explain the influence of soil pH on nutrient availability and plant growth.

Content Proper

Soil reaction or soil pH is a soil chemical property which is determined by the free H+ ions in
the soil solution and by the adsorbed H+ in the exchange sites of soil colloids. It is classified as
acidic, neutral and alkaline.

Total acidity = active acidity + potential acidity

Active acidity = the concentration of H+ in the soil solution

Potential acidity = the concentration of H+ and exchangeable Al in the exchange sites

Soil reaction or pH refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the soil, that is, the H+ ion
concentration of its solution. Acidity is commonly expressed as pH. Mathematically, pH is – log
[H +]. A pH of 7 is neutral. The lower the pH (below 7) the more acidic the soil is. On the other
hand, the higher the pH (above 7) the soil becomes more alkaline / basic.

Soil pH is normally measured in a mixture of soil and water using a pH meter. Soil pH
measurement is greatly affected by soil-solution ratio and the equilibrium salt concentration.
Increasing either factor decreases the measured pH. The international standard soil: solute ratio

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is 1:2.5. The use of 0.01 M CaCl2 is widespread which results in a lower pH value compared to
that in distilled water.

It is important to know the pH of a soil because the availability of most nutrient elements
for plant growth and occurrence of toxicities of elements is related to soil pH. Most plant
nutrients are in readily available form at soil pH ranging from 5.5 to 7.0, hence, most plants
prefer to grow within this range. However, nutritional disorders usually appear when pH values
become higher or lower. The following shows the nutritional disorders observed in relation to
soil pH:

Soil pH Disorder

Lower than 5.0 Deficiencies of P, Ca, Mg, K and Mo

Toxicities of Al, Fe and Mn

Higher than 7.5 Deficiencies of P, K, Fe and Zn

Toxicity of boron

Causes of Acidity

Soils become acid because excess hydrogen ions replace basic cations such as calcium,
magnesium, potassium, and sodium. The replaced basic ions are then leached below the root
zone (rhizosphere). The process is reversed when lime (calcium and magnesium) is added. By
mass action, lime replaces hydrogen ions and makes the soil less acidic (toward neutrality).

Soils used for modern crop production become more acidic due to the following reasons.

● Acid parent materials

Acid parent materials include unconsolidated glacial materials and acid consolidated
rocks low in bases such as granites, sandstones, and many shales.

● Plant root exudation of hydrogen

In the vicinity of actively growing plant roots (rhizosphere); exudations and excretions
of carbon dioxide during respiration, plant sap exosmosis, and sloughing of dead
cells provide an ideal environment for reproduction of bacteria and fungi. In
addition, most root hairs excrete hydrogen ions that are exchanged for nutrient
cations in the surface of colloids and in soil solution. Hydrogen also arises from
root secretions of carbon dioxide as it reacts with water to produce carbonic acid
(H2CO3). Some of this carbon dioxide is used again by plants in photosynthesis to
make the soil more acidic by as much as one pH unit. If all crops are perennial,
the influence on the soil acidification by root exudation of hydrogen from carbonic

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 acid can be estimated. However, for most crops occupying the soil for only a few
months, no year-round estimates of the acidifying action on soils can be made.

● Crop removal
Soils become more acidic as hydrogen replaces the calcium and magnesium
removed with harvested crops. Each crop species varies in calcium and
magnesium percentage with specified limits. Because crop yields also vary with
soil, management, and year the total amount of calcium and magnesium
fluctuates.

● Leaching
Rainwater or irrigation water that moves downward through the soil dissolves
nutrients that move with the water. These include calcium and magnesium, the
“lime” nutrients. The more acidic the water, the more effective the leaching, water
combines with carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (0.03% CO2) and from
decaying organic matter to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). The acid reacts with the
carbonates of calcium and magnesium, changing them to bicarbonates that are
much more soluble. Rainwater leaches lime from soils and makes them more
acidic. This occurs when precipitation is greater than evapotranspiration.

● Erosion
When rainfall is high, rainwater generally carries away the surface soil containing
large amounts of organic matter and humus and leaves behind more acidic silt
and clay.

● Acid precipitation
This is due to the use of nuclear energy and more coal which accelerate the
acidification of precipitation, surface waters, and soil. Sulfur in coal is the principal
producer of acid sulfur gases such as sulfur dioxide (SO2). Other acidifying agents
are nitrogen oxides (NO2) gases from gasoline combustion in automobiles and
trucks and from the burning of coal. Sulfur in the atmosphere occurs primarily in
these acid-producing forms: sulfates (H2S) (gas). Atmospheric nitrogen
compounds that contribute to acid rainwater are the gases nitrous oxide (N2O),
nitric acid (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), especially the latter. Nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) reacts with water vapor to form nitric acid (HNO3).

● Acid-forming fertilizers
Among fertilizers, the nitrogen carriers have considerable effect on both the soil pH
and cation concentrations. Most popular nitrogen sources acidify soil and
accelerate loss of cations by leaching. The development of acidity is illustrated by
the nitrification equation.

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Computing pH or H+ Concentration

The most common laboratory problems associated with discussions on pH are

computing the pH of a certain solution when the hydrogen ion concentration (H+) is known or
calculating the hydrogen ion concentration when the pH is given. Sample problems and the
steps involved in the computation of these values are demonstrated below.

A. Calculating the pH:

1. [H+] = 5 x 10-8 moles/liter
pH = ?
pH = - log [H+]
= - log (5 x 10-8)
= - log 5 – log 10-8
= - 0.699 – (-8)
pH = 7.301

2. [H+] = 2 x 10-3
pH = - log [H+]
= - log (2 x 10-3)
= - log 2 – log 10-3
= - 0.301 – (-3)
pH = 2.699

B. Calculating the Hydrogen Ion Concentration:

1. pH = 7.301
[H ] = antilog (-pH)
+

= antilog (-7.301)
= antilog (-8 + 0.699)
= 10-8 x 5.0
= 5.0 x 10-8 moles/liter

2. pH = 2.699
[H ] = antilog (-pH)
+

= antilog (-2.699)
= antilog (-3 + 0.301)
= 10-3 x 2.0
= 2.0 x 10-3 moles/liter

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Relationship between Soil pH, Nutrient Availability and Plant Growth

Different elements which are important in the nutrition of higher plants have varying
solubilities at different pH values. On their available forms, essential elements exist in the soil
solution or adsorbed on clay or humus particles. For example, in strongly acidic soils, plants
may suffer from aluminum, iron or manganese toxicities since the solubility of these ions
increases with increasing acidity. As the soil pH increases, however, these ions become
precipitated and their amounts in solution become less and less until at neutrality or at pH
values above it, plants may suffer from manganese or iron deficiency.

The effects of pH on the growth and development of economic plants are highly
nutritional in nature. The availability of elements considered essential to the nutrition of crop
plants is profoundly affected by soil reaction. Nutrient availability in this case should be related
to plant nutrition. When the pH of the soil is highly favorable to effect maximum solubility of soil
nutrients, absorption and consequently consumption of plants is increased. This could be
related to the subsequent effect on both the growth and yield performance of the crops.

Soil pH strongly influences the availability of essential nutrients in the soil. At pH 6.0 to

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6.8, the availability of the essential nutrients is generally optimum which explains why this pH
range is favored by most agricultural crops.

Summary of Learning Points

▪ Soil reaction or pH refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the soil.

▪ pH is mathematically expressed as the – log [H +].

▪ Soil acidification is caused by the production of H+ ions and the loss of exchangeable
basic cations.

▪ Most plant nutrients are in readily available form at the soil pH range of 5.5 to 7.0, thus
most crops prefer to grow within this soil pH range.

▪ Under acidic soil condition, iron, manganese, boron, copper, and zinc become more
soluble or available; while under alkaline soil condition, molybdenum becomes more
soluble or available.

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References

Asio, V. B. 2002. Lecture Guide in Fundamentals of Soil Science. Leyte State University, Visca,
Baybay, Leyte.

Brady, N. C. and Weil, R. 2008. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 14th Edition Revised.

Gregorio, G. L. 2019. Basic Soil Science and Soil Fertility Management (Principles, Practices,
Technologies). Seguiban Printing & Publishing Enterprises, Inc., Iloilo City.

Serohijos, R. Lecture Notes in Soil Fertility and Fertilizers. Leyte State University, Visca, Baybay,
Leyte.

https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/management/soil/soil-properties/ph-levels

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 LESSON 6
LIMING

Soil pH is an excellent chemical indicator of soil quality. Farmers can improve the soil quality of
acid soils by adjusting pH to the levels needed by the crop to be grown. Benefits of liming
include increased nutrient availability, improved soil structure, and increased rates of infiltration.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1) Recall the principles of liming;

2) Describe how different liming materials can neutralize soil acidity;
3.) Discuss the benefits of liming; and
4.) Determine the lime requirement

Definition of Terms

1) Liming - the application of mineral calcium and magnesium compounds, mainly carbonates,
oxides, hydroxides, or a mixture of them and, more rarely, silicates into acidic soils to
decrease the concentration of protons (McLean, 1971; Miller et al., 1995). To be
effective, a liming material must displace hydrogen, aluminum, and manganese ions
from exchange sites of soil colloids and then neutralize H+ and precipitate Al3+ and
Mn2+ in soil solution (Smallidge et al., 1993; Filipek, 1994; Barak et al., 1997).

Principles of Liming:

1. Neutralization of soil acidity. Lime is a material that can neutralize the acidity of the
soil, and its application would increase the availability of nutrients in the soil.

2. Inactivate toxic metals. The application of lime can reduce the solubility of metals.

Liming materials

Agricultural lime is any material that will reduce the concentration of hydrogen ions when
added to the soil.

Lime can be any oxides, hydroxides, or carbonates of calcium and magnesium

a. Agricultural limestone – CaCO3, CaMg(CO3)2, MgCO3

b. Oxides of lime – CaO, MgO
c. Hydroxides of lime – Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2

Relative neutralizing power refers to the ability of a given lime material to neutralize soil
acidity in relation to 100% calcium carbonate. So, this is also referred to as calcium
carbonate equivalent.

RNP of lime = Molecular weight of CaCO3 x 100

Molecular weight of any liming material

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Table 1. The neutralizing power of some liming material in their pure form

LIMING MATERIAL FORMULA NEUTRALIZING POWER

Calcium carbonate CaCO3 100
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 135
Calcium oxide CaO 179
Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 119
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 172
Magnesium oxide MgO 250
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 109

Chemical reaction of lime:

1.Neutralization of soil acidity. The mechanism involved in the reaction of liming materials with
acid soils is complex. In water and with carbonic acid, CaCO3 dissolves as:

CaCO3 + H2O ↔ Ca2+ HCO3- + OH-

CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca (HCO3)2 Ca2+ +2HCO3-

The Ca ions displace exchangeable aluminum, which undergoes hydrolysis in the soil
solution to produce H+ ions, OH then neutralizes the 4 H+ ions -. The Al (OH)2+ reacts with OH-
ions converting it to non-phytotoxic form, Al(OH)3

Effects of lime on soil properties

a) Chemical effects of lime

1. Neutralize hydrogen ions and increase soil pH

2. Inactivate toxic monomeric aluminum
3. Increase availability of P from Al and Fe-P compounds
4. Increase concentration of soil solution and exchangeable Ca and Mg
5. Increase availability of Mo.
6. Decrease availability of micronutrient cations (Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn)
7. Decrease phosphate fixation
8. Increases the CEC of the soil
9. Increase the buffering capacity of the soil

b. Physical effects of lime

1. Enhance granulation of soil particles

2. Enhance soil aeration
3. Increase water holding capacity of the soil

c) Biological effects of lime

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 1. Enhance mineralization of organic nitrogen, phosphorus and other nutrients
2. Enhance biological nitrogen fixation by Rhizobia sp.
3. Enhance decomposition of organic matter.

Factors that determine the amount of lime to apply

1. Amount of exchangeable aluminum

2. Organic matter content
3. Purity of lime
4. Fineness of lime/ particle size
5. Crop to be grown

Crops Favorable pH Al saturation Lime req’t, tons/ha

range tolerance, %
Upland rice, cassava, mango, cashew, 4.5—4.7 68-75 0.25- 0.5
citrus, pineapple, stylosanthes,
kudzu, centro
Cowpea, pigeon pea 4.7-5.0 45-48 0.5-1.0
Corn 5.0-5.3 31-45 1.0-2.0

6. Soil texture

Initial soil pH Amount of CaCO3, tons/ha, 100% pure

Sandy Loam Silt & clay loam Clay
4.0 2.0 4.5 6.0 7.5
4.5 1.5 3.2 4.2 5.2
5.0 1.0 2.0 2.5 3.0

Source: PCARRD, 1999

Average organic matter content:
Cultivated soils = 2.5% to 3.0%, Uncultivated soils = 5% up

Methods of determining the lime requirement of soils

1. Veitch method
2. Calcium carbonate incubation in the laboratory
3. Field or pot lime trials
4. Exchangeable Al Index method

L.R. = m.e. Al/100g x 1.5

= m.e. CaCO3/100g

Proceed to compute the amount of CaCO3 needed for a hectare furrow slice

5. Al saturation method
# m.e CaCO3/100g = 1.5 ( Al - RAS ( Al + Ca + Mg)/100g)
where: Al, Ca and Mg are in m.e/100g
RAS = required aluminum saturation

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 In 1991, this formula was used in Indonesia by a group of scientists from the US and
their collaborators in Indonesia (Caudle, 1991).

# m.e Ca/100g = 1.5 [Al - (TAS ( ECEC)/100]

where: Al = me/100g
ECEC = me Al, Ca and Mg
TAS = target aluminum saturation

Lime Requirement Sample Calculation

A soil has a pH of 5.5 and a CEC of 20 me/100g. The grower needs to lime the soil to 6.5. If
the %BS at pH 5.5 is 50% and 75% at pH 6.5, calculate the amount of CaCO3 required to raise
the pH of 1 hectare soil.

Given: CEC = 20 me/100 g

Initial pH = 5.5; 50% BS
Desired pH = 6.5; 75% BS

Req’d: Amt. of CaCO3 needed

a) total base needed to raise the pH to 6.5

20 me/100 g x 0.50 = 10 me/100 g
20 me/100 g x 0.75 = 15 me/100 g
*Need 5 me base/100 g soil
b) amount of CaCO3
wt of 1 me CaCO3 = 0.05g

5 me x 0.05 CaCO3 = 0.25 g CaCO3

100 g soil me 100 g soil

0.25 g CaCO3 x (2 x 106 kg soil)

0.1 kg soil ha
= 5 x 106 g CaCO3
ha
= 5 tons CaCO3/ha

Methods of Applying lime

Lime, especially the calcium carbonate form, has a very low solubility. It reacts readily with
the soil only if the hydrogen ion activity is still high as in acid soils. Once the soil surrounding the
particles hardly reacts anymore, the lime must be mixed thoroughly with the soil so that the
reaction may be maximized. Lime that is applied broadcast and is not mixed with the results of
the soil in the caking on the soil surface. Lime is best applied by broadcasting it on the soil
before plowing and harrowing. These operations accomplish thorough mixing of the lime with
the soil.

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Frequency of liming

Liming should be done as often as necessary. The role is that soil should not be allowed to
have pH below 5.0. The capacity of soils to produce is significantly reduced if the pH falls below
this value.

Processes and conditions affected by liming:

1. Volatilization of ammonia from ammonium-containing fertilizers. The reaction of NH4 ion

in alkaline soils worthy of note, where it reacts with OH- ions to form NH3 gas. In the
reaction, the nitrogen fertilizer is lost without being used by the crop. Where both liming
and fertilizer applications are made, the two operations should be given enough time to
allow the lime to react with the soil before nitrogen fertilizer is applied. The reaction of
lime with nitrogen fertilizer is shown as follows:

Ca (OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 CaSO4 +2H20 + 2NH3

2. Phosphorus Fixation. Phosphorus from fertilizer may be fixed to the apatite from
(Ca3PO4) if phosphorus application follows liming immediately. At least 2 to 4 weeks
should be allowed between P fertilization and liming.

2Al (OH)2+ 2H2 PO4 2 Al(OH)2PO4 (variscite)

3. Nitrification. The conversion of ammonium to nitrate is slow in acid soil sand is

increased and favored at pH value near neutrality.

4. Nitrogen Fixation. Fixation of nitrogen either by symbiotic or non-symbiotic

microorganisms is favored at pH near neutrality.

5. Solubility of Micronutrients. The solubility of the micronutrient elements is reduced

when lime is needed in acid soils. Their toxicity can therefore be avoided too.

6. Soil Aggregation. Aggregation of the soil is favored when lime is added. This could
influence many of the soil characteristics like water and air movement in soils.

Corresponding terms to use for ranges in pH

pH
Extremely acid Below 4.5
Very strongly acid 4.5-5.0
Strongly acid 5.1-5.5
Moderately acid 5.6-6.0
Slightly acid 6.1-6.5
Neutral 6.6-7.3

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Mildly alkaline 7.4-7.8
Moderately alkaline 7.9-8.4
Strongly alkaline 8.5-9.0
Very strongly alkaline 9.1 and higher

References:

Barak, P., Jobe, B. O., Krueger, A. R., Peterson, L. A., and Laird, D. A., 1997. Effects of
long-term soil acidification due to nitrogen fertilizer inputs in Wisconsin. Plant and
Soil, 197, 61–69.

Brady, N. C., Weil, R. R., & Weil, R. R. (2008). The nature and properties of soils (Vol.
13, pp. 662-710). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Filipek, T., 1994. The content of exchangeable aluminum in soils and plant growth.
Journal of Ecological Chemistry, 4(3), 367–375. Special issue.

McLean, E. O., 1971. Potentially beneficial effects from liming: chemical and
physical. Soil Crop and Science Society of Florida Proceedings, 31, 189–196.

Miller, J. D., Anderson, H. A., Harriman, R., and Collen, P., 1995. The consequences of
liming a highly acidified catchment in central Scotland. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 85,
1015–1020.

Smallidge, P. J., Brach, A. R., and Mackun, I. R., 1993. Effects of watershed liming on
terrestrial ecosystem processes. Environmental Reviews, 1, 157–171.

PCARRD, 1999

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 LESSON 7
SOIL SALINITY AND SODICITY

Overview

Salinity is one of the major soil problems in many rice growing areas of the world.
About 48 million hectares of land in humid regions of South and Southeast Asia are
technically suited to rice production but remain idle or are grown with poor results due to
salinity.

Although saline-prone areas in the Philippines are small compared with other
countries in the South and Southeast Asia, it is still a potential and important resource base
to produce rice and other related staple food. There are 400,000 ha of coastal saline soils in
the Philippines, of which 100,000 ha are in mangroves, 175,000 ha are in fishponds, and
125,000 ha are idle. About 70,000 ha of rice production area in Bicol and Cagayan Valley
are potentially affected by saline water intrusion, thereby needing attention and
management.

Learning Objectives

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

1. Identify the different salt-affected soils;
2. Know the causes for the occurrence of salt-affected soils; and
3. Describe ways to correct salt-affected soils.

Content Proper

In general, salt-affected soils are developed under conditions of poor drainage and
when surface evaporation is greater than precipitation. Under these conditions, soluble salts
and exchangeable sodium may accumulate in sufficient amounts to impair plant growth and
alter soil properties. The ions that contribute to soil salinity include Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-, Na+,
Ca2+, Mg2+ and rarely NO3- and K+. The salts of these ions occur in highly variable
concentrations and proportions. They may be indigenous from geological formations, but
they are more commonly brought into an area through the irrigation water or waters draining
from adjacent areas.

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 Salt-affected soil can be divided into three groups based on the kinds and amounts
of the various salts present: saline, sodic and saline-sodic. The classification depends on
the total soluble salts (as measured by conductivity), soil pH, and the exchangeable sodium
percentage.

Important Terminologies

Electrical Conductivity (EC)

● The ability of a material to transmit electrical current, which in the case of a soil is
the result of salt concentration
● Expressed as deciSiemens/meter (dS/m) or millimhos/centimetre (mmhos/cm)

Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP)

● The degree by which the exchange sites of colloids are occupied by sodium ions
● Computed by taking the ratio of the milliequivalent of Na+ and that of the CEC
● The soil becomes highly dispersed with high ESP values (>15%)
● High ESP is undesirable because it leads to poor aeration and drainage or
permeability of water
● Sample computation: CEC = 40 me/100g soil; Na+ = 5 me/100g soil
ESP = (me Na+ / CEC) x
100 ESP = (5 / 40) x 100
= 12.5%

Saline Soils

These soils contain sufficient water-soluble salts which are harmful to seed
germination and plant nutrition and growth. They are recognized by spotty growth of crops
and by white crusts of salts on the soil surface sometimes called white alkali when dry.

Saline soils are those soils that contain sufficient salinity to give ECe values greater
than 4 dS/m but have an ESP less than 15 (or a SAR less than 13) in the saturation extract.
Thus, the exchange complex of saline soils is dominated by calcium and magnesium, not
sodium. The pH of saline soils is usually below 8.5. Because soluble salts help prevent
dispersion of soil colloids, plant growth on saline soils is not generally constrained by poor
infiltration, aggregate stability, or aeration.

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Table 1. Soil salinity classes and crop growth. (source: http://www.fao.org)

Conductivity of the
Soil Salinity Class Effect on Crops
Saturation Extract (dS/m)
Non saline 0–2 Salinity effects negligible
Yields of sensitive crops may be
Slightly saline 2–4
restricted
Moderately saline 4–8 Yields of many crops are restricted
Strongly saline 8 - 16 Only tolerant crops yield satisfactorily
Only a few very tolerant crops yield
Very strongly saline > 16
satisfactorily

The primary effect of excessive soluble salts on plants is to limit the ability of plant
roots to absorb soil water even under wet soil conditions. Soil water flows from higher
osmotic potential (low salt concentration) to lower osmotic potential (high salt concentration).
A soil solution with low osmotic potential due to the higher concentration of soluble salts
compared to the plant cells, will not allow plant roots to extract water from soil, causing
drought-like symptoms in the plants. That process is called the “osmotic effect”.

Reclamation of these soils simply consists of applying enough high-quality water to

leach the soil thoroughly. The water supplied should be low in sodium but can be fairly
saline (1,500 to 2,000 ppm total salt) because this helps to keep the soil permeable during
the leaching process. Preferably the water should be applied several times with time
allowance for the soil to leach and drain well after each application. The excess salts,
mostly Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-, and CO32-, salts of Na+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ can be leached out, with
no appreciable rise in pH.

Because salts can only be leached downward in the soils with soil water, attention to
drainage is very important. Assessment of where the water comes from those results in the
high water table is particularly important. Management might first be based on intercepting
water coming into the problem area, with mitigation of the actual salinity as a secondary
step. Improved use of in- field and boundary-field ditches can also improve soil drainage
and facilitate leaching of salts.

In the absence of good soil drainage in place combined with a high groundwater
level, late-maturing, deep-rooted and salt tolerant crops can also be excellent choices which
withstand moderate salt levels and take water from deeper depths. To avoid excessive
recharge of groundwater levels through rain along with reducing the soil surface

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evaporation, continuous cropping can also be very effective.

Sodic Soils

These are, perhaps, the most troublesome of the salt-affected soils. While their
levels of neutral soluble salts are low (ECe > 4.0 dS/m), they have relatively high levels of
sodium on the exchange complex (ESP and SAR values are above 15 and 13, respectively).
The pH values of these soils exceed 8.5, rising to 10 or higher in some cases. These
conditions interfere with the growth of most crop plants. Because of extreme alkalinity, the
surface of sodic soils is usually discolored by the dispersed humus, and sometimes called
black alkali.

Poor physical structure of sodic soils then results in soils difficult to till, poor seed
germination and restricted plant root growth. Due to the poor physical structure, sodic soils
are also susceptible to wind and water erosion compared to saline soils. Soil dispersion
effect will be more severe on expanding types of clays as their degree of swelling increases,
causing the clogging of the larger soil pores. In saline and saline-sodic soils though, higher
concentrations of salts provide excess cations like calcium and magnesium which promote
flocculation (opposite of dispersion) by moving in close to the negatively charged particles,
thereby reducing their tendency to disintegrate or disperse from each other.

In order to reclaim sodic soils, it is essential to first replace the excessive sodium
from the cation exchange sites with large amounts of calcium supplements before starting
the salt leaching process. Common examples of amendments are calcium sulfate and
calcium chloride on alkaline soils and calcium carbonate on acidic soils. The purpose of an
amendment is to provide soluble calcium and to replace exchangeable sodium, as
illustrated below:

Na-clay + Ca++ (in solution) > Ca-clay + Na+ (in solution)

The Ca-clay is the most normal and desirable state. Calcium and sodium are leached out.
In all calcium compounds, calcium sulfate (gypsum) is considered the cheapest and most
soluble calcium source for this purpose.

Like saline soils, sodic soils also require good soil drainage and low groundwater
level. The only difference will be the application of calcium supplements and thoroughly
mixing it into the soils. Once sodium is displaced by calcium from the cation exchange sites,
sodium (Na+) converts into a salt (Na2SO4) and leaches out of the rooting zone.

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Saline-Sodic Soils

Soils that have both detrimental levels of neutral soluble salts (ECe > than 4 dS/m
and a high proportion of sodium ions (ESP > than 15 or SAR > than 13) are classified as
saline-sodic soils. Plant growth in these soils can be adversely affected by both excess salts
and excess sodium levels.

Saline-sodic soils exhibit physical conditions intermediate between those of saline

soils and those of sodic soils. The high concentration of neutral salts moderates the
dispersing influence of sodium. The salts provide excess cations that move in close to the
negatively charged colloidal particles (clay and humus), thereby reducing their tendency to
repel each other, or to disperse. Rainwater often stands on these soils for many days until it
evaporates.

In saline-sodic soils, reclamation involves the addition of good-quality water to

remove excess soluble salts and the use of a Ca2+ source (CaSO4.2H2O or CaCl2) to
exchange Na+ from the soil as a soluble salt, Na2SO4. In saline-sodic soils a saltwater-
dilution method is usually effective in reclamation. In this method the soil is rapidly leached
with water that has a high electrolyte concentration with large quantities of Ca2+ and Mg2+.
After leaching, and the removal of Na+ from the exchanger phase of the soil, the soil is
leached with water of lower electrolyte concentration to remove the excess salts.

Possible Causes of Soil Salinity

1. Primary salinization

a. Surface intrusion of saline water from seawater that results in overbank and sheet
flooding of rivers and inlets or streams, brought about by tidal fluctuations and
typhoon surges.

b. Subsurface intrusion of saline water from the river to the groundwater aquifer as
enhanced by increased capillary process during dry periods (high, actual surface
evaporation).

c. Release of sodium from basic primary minerals present in the soil.

2. Secondary salinization (resulting from farmer’s interventions)

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 a. Pumping of saline water from the river for irrigation purposes. This is specifically true
in rainfed lowland rice areas.

b. Pumping of salinized groundwater using deep-well pumps for irrigation purposes.

c. Continued use of basic fertilizers in saline areas that results in enhanced salinity; or in
non- saline areas, salinity can be attributed to the residues of fertilizers that could have
accumulated over time.

For additional information, you may use the following links to watch the video.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UhO7FlalwKY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WfkOq34YYcU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hfdbk5suvo8

Summary of Learning Points

▪ Salt-affected soils are developed under conditions of poor drainage and when
surface evaporation is greater than precipitation.
▪ Salt-affected soils can be classified as saline, sodic, and saline–sodic soils.

▪ Saline soils are plagued by high levels of soluble salts.

▪ Sodic soils have high levels of exchangeable sodium.

▪ Saline-sodic soils have high contents of both soluble salts and exchangeable sodium.

▪ Reclamation of saline soils consists of applying enough high quality water to leach
the soil thoroughly.
▪ Sodic soils may be reclaimed by adding gypsum to reduce the high ESP.

▪ Reclamation of saline-sodic soils involves the addition of good-quality water to

remove excess soluble salts and the use of a Ca2+ source.

130
 Electrical
Conductivit Sodium Soil
Soil Exchangeable
Classification y Adsorption Physical
pH Sodium %
(mmohs/cm Ratio Condition
or dS/m)
Nor
Saline >4.0 <8.5 <15 <13
mal
Sodic <4.0 >8.5 >15 >13 Poor
Nor
Saline-Sodic >4.0 <8.5 >15 >13
mal
> = greater than, < = less than

References

Brady, N. C. and Weil, R. 2008. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 14th Edition.
Pearson Prentice Hall.

Buladaco, M.S. et al (2014). Licensure Examination in Agriculture Reviewer (Lecture

Manual and Review Questions). Soil Science. GreenEmpire Knowledge Bank.

NDSU. Saline and Sodic Soils. North Dakota State University Extension Service.

PhilRice. 2001. Management of Salt-Affected Soils for Rice Production. Rice Technology
Bulletin, Department of Agriculture – Philippine Rice Research Institute, Nueva Ecija.

Sanchez, P. Lecture Notes in Advanced Soil Chemistry. UPLB, College, Los Baños, Laguna.

Serohijos, R. Lecture Notes in Soil Fertility and Fertilizers. Leyte State University, Visca,
Baybay, Leyte.

Sparks, D. L. 2003. The Chemistry of Saline and Sodic Soils. In: Environmental Soil
Chemistry (Second Edition).

http://www.fao.org/3/x5871e/x5871e04.htm.

131
132
Overview

A large number of organisms live in the soil. They perform a variety of functions for their
growth and reproduction. For these functions of soil organisms, soils behave like a living entity.
Soil components photosynthesize, respire, and reproduce. In addition, they produce organic
matter, consume organic matter, and decompose them. Some of them burrow in the soil, make
spaces for their accommodation and movement, and mix surface and subsoil materials together.
Soil becomes a dynamic body for the activity of soil organisms. The changes that are caused by
soil organisms have their impact on soil fertility and productivity (Osman, 2012).

The different soil animals and microorganisms as the soil biological properties, the
organic matter content, nutrient cycles and processes are just some of the important topics to
learn in this module.

Learning objectives:

At the end of the review module, you can:

1. Explain what the soil organisms are, as fauna, soil microorganisms and their activities;
2. Discuss the Soil organic matter, its functions, processes, and factors affecting it; and
3. Discuss the importance of C:N ratio and its role in decomposition

LESSON 1
Soil Organisms and their Activities

The soil is a habitat of numerous organisms, performing diverse functions, important to plants
and soil health.

Soil organisms have great variability in size and complexity.

2 General Groups

Soil Macroorganisms (mainly soil animals)

Mesofauna
Megafauna

Soil Microorganisms (microflora and microfauna)

133
Size classification of organisms by Swift et al, 1979. in Soil Microbiology. Ecology and Biochemistry.

Source: Soil Microbiology, Ecology and Biochemistry, Fourth Edition ( PDFDrive ).pdf

Soil Macroorganisms- Mesofauna

Mesofauna, also called Meiofauna- intermediate-sized animals - nematodes, mites, springtails,

proturans, and pauropods.

- may feed upon microorganisms, other soil animals, decaying plant or animal material, living
plants, or fungi. By removing roots they open drainage and aeration channels in the soil.

Source: Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Mesofauna". Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 Jul.

1998, https://www.britannica.com/science/mesofauna. Accessed 22 March 2021.

134
 Soil Macroorganisms- Megafauna

Megafauna are the principal agents of soil turnover and distribution; this movement loosens soil
structure, improves aeration and drainage, and distributes soil microorganism.

earthworms-ingest both soil and organic matter

small vertebrates - moles, mice, hares, rabbits, gophers, snakes, and lizards. Most of the
vertebrates feed on plant material, invertebrates, and other small vertebrate animals.

Earthworm Mole Rodent Gopher

Sources:
● Megafauna | soil science | Britannica

● Facts About Moles | Live Science

● rodents - Bing images

● Facts About Gophers | Live Science

● earthworm - Bing images

135
Soil Microorganisms

136
Classes of Soil Microorganisms

Based on Energy and Carbon source

Classes of Soil Microorganisms

Based on Temperature Requirement

Psychrophiles -extremophilic bacteria or archaea, cold-loving with optimum temp for growth of
15oC or lower, max for growth is 20oC- (in sea and ice water of arctic and atlantic)

Psychrotrophs-cold-tolerant bacteria or archaea that have ability to grow at low temp but have
optimal and maximal growth temp above 15 and 20oC respectively

Source: Moyer, Craig L. and Richard Y. Morita in Reference Module in Life Sciences, 2017;
Morita, Richard Y., Craig L. Moyer in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (Second Edition), 2001
Classes of Soil Microorganisms

137
Based on temperature requirement

Mesophiles- thrive best at moderate temp between 20oC and 45oC, with optimum growth at 30-
39oC. Isolated in both soil and water environments; species are found in Bacteria, Eukarya and
Archaea; most probiotic microbes are mesophiles

Thermophiles - heat-loving, max growth rates at temp above 45oC, most are prokaryotes, few
are eukaryotes

Source: Schiraldi, Chiara and Mario De Rosa. 2015. Mesophilic Organisms. Encyclopedia of Membranes.
Living Edition. Edited by Enrico Drioli and Lidietta Giorno. ; Berenguer, Jose. 2011. Thermophile. In.:
Gargaud M. et al. (eds) Encyclopedia of Astrobiology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-11274-4_1583

Thermophiles may be divided into:

● Moderate or facultative thermophiles, which can grow below 40oC

● Extreme or obligate thermophiles, which grow at temperatures from 55oC to 80oC

● Hyperthermophiles, with optimum growth temperatures above 80oC

● The first thermophiles were described in isolates from Sena river and on cyanobacteria
in hot springs.

Classes of Soil Microorganisms

Based on Oxygen Requirement

Obligate aerobes or aerobic- requires O2

Facultative - develops either in the absence or presence of O2

Microaerophilic-grow best at very low oxygen levels

Aerotolerant anaerobes-oxygen not required for growth but not harmful if present

Obligate anaerobes or anaerobic- grow only in complete absence of oxygen, if present, it can be
lethal
Source: Basic Microbiology. Microorganisms. Uoguelph.ca/foodscience/book/export/html/1897

138
Groups/Classes of Soil Microorganisms

1. Bacteria

2. Actinomycetes

3. Algae

4. Fungi

5. Protozoa

6. Nematodes

Classes of Soil Microorganisms

Bacteria
• Single-celled

• Lack membrane-bound organelles

• many are heterotrophic

• many are aerobes, some anaerobic, some are facultative aerobes

• they multiply by binary fission or splitting of cells into two parts

• Have three shapes

rod-shaped or bacilli
round-shaped or cocci
spiral-shaped or spirilli – least common

139
 Rod-shaped bacteria Staphylococcus aureus Spirilli

Source: Spirillen.jpg (1000×750) (wikimedia.org); How bacteria adapt to hostile environments - USC
News; Staphylococcus aureus from livesicence.com

Classes of Soil Microorganisms

Bacteria

• the most abundant microorganisms (in population)

• Serve as decomposers

• mutualists (form partnerships with plants e.g. Rhizobium and legumes)

• Some are pathogenic

• Form resting stages (spores) that survive dispersal by wind, sediments, ocean currents
and animal digestive tracts

• Most most diverse group of soil organisms

• Important in bioremediation because they can degrade pollutants

Classes of Soil Microorganisms

Rhizosphere – the volume of soil surrounding and under the influence of plant roots, and the
rhizoplane is the plant root surfaces and strongly adhering soil particles (Kenney, 2005).

Intensive interactions take place between the plant, soil, microorganisms, and soil microfauna.

140
 1.jpg (406×300) (sciencebeingjournal.com)

Classes of Soil Microorganisms

• Rhizobacteria

• These are rhizosphere-competent bacteria that aggressively colonize plant roots. They
are free-living bacteria and some invade the tissues of living plants (endophytes). They
induce plant growth promotion directly and indirectly.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Siva-
Velivelli/publication/271237100/figure/fig1/AS:295040426496015@1447354528012

141
Classes of Soil Microorganisms

Algae
• not important as decomposers but as producers of new photosynthetic growth

• the most abundant photosynthetic microorganism in soil

• Acting as a cementing agent by binding soil particles and thereby reducing and
preventing soil erosion.

• Helping to increase the water retention capacity of soil for longer time periods.

• Liberating large quantities of oxygen in the soil environment through the process of
photosynthesis and, thus, facilitating submerged aeration.

Classes of Soil Microorganisms

Actinomycetes
❑ Source of natural products and antibiotics, ex. streptomycin.

❑ Produce “geosmin”, the compound that

gives the soil its “earthy smell”

❑ Genus Frankia can induce nodule-formation in roots of many dicot angiosperms called
actinorhizal plants most of which are perennial woody shrubs or trees

❑ thrives best at pH 7.0, but some are acidophilic

142
 ❑ -unicellular aerobic microorganisms that form branched mycelia (vegetative part of a
fungus, consisting of a network of fine white filaments called hyphae.)

❑ Mostly aerobic, can be anaerobic

❑ Produce spores

❑ They function in the decomposition of more complex organic molecules

Classes of Soil Microorganisms

Fungi

- most adaptable and versatile soil organisms

- Reproduce sexually and asexually

- Asexual reproduction is by Spores and hyphal fragmentation

- Spores can become dormant for a long time

- some species can thrive in extreme acidity and alkalinity

- They account for the largest part of total microbial biomass in well-aerated soils

143
 • Break down OM, esp. important where bacteria are less active, low pH

• Most are aerobic heterotrophs

• Chemosynthetic: use dissolved nutrients for energy

• Cell walls contain chitin, a hard substance found in exoskeleton of insects and
arthropods

Source: FUNGI+1.jpg (1600×1065) (bp.blogspot.com)

Classes of Soil Microorganisms

Protozoa

- Has three groups: ciliates, amoeba, flagellates

- Flagellates are the smallest, they use whip-like flagella to move

144
 - Ciliates are the largest (10-80 um) and least numerous, they move by means of hair-like
cilia

- Amoeba- move through the pseudopod. They reside in the rhizosphere and at the root
surface where they graze on bacterial populations.

- importance of protozoa- they mineralize nutrients, regulate bacterial populations

- Nematodes also consume bacteria, thus regulating bacterial populations and

mineralizing nutrients

Source: Protozoa - AccessScience

Source: Protozoa - AccessScience from McGraw-Hill Education

Classes of Soil Microorganisms

145
 • Nematodes or roundworms are non-segmented worms small enough to fit into
soil pores and soil aggregates.

• They have head, tail and well-developed central nervous and fertility systems
with a complete digestive system hence considered as the most primitive animal.

• Aquatic organisms, thus require moisture to move in the soil.

Source: James J. Hoorman. 2011. The Role of Soil Protozoa and Nematodes. Fact Sheet Agriculture
and natural Resources, Ohio State University Extension

Groups of Nematodes

1. Bacteria feeders

2. Fungal feeders

3. Predatory nematodes-eat all types of nematodes and protozoa

4. Omnivores-eat a variety of organisms-bacteria, fungus, protozoa, other nematodes,

roots

5. Root-feeders

Activities of Soil Microorganisms

• Organic matter decomposition

• Nutrient Cycling – Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur

• Breakdown of toxic compounds

146
 • Nitrogen fixation and P solubilization

• Plant protection, disease suppression

• Release beneficial soluble substances such as aa, sugars, alcohols, hormones,

other org compounds

Activities of Soil Microorganisms

1. OM decomposition

- complex organic compounds are decomposed into simpler forms resulting to

mineralization of essential elements and production of humus

-Sugars, starches, and proteins are easily decomposed

- Cellulose, fats, waxes, and resins are slowly decomposed

- Lignin decomposition is very slow

2. Nutrient Cycling – N, P, S, C

Nitrogen Cycle

1. Nitrogen Fixation

2. Ammonia volatilization

3. Nitrification

4. Denitrification

5. Immobilization

6. Mineralization

7. Leaching

147
Nitrogen Cycle- Nitrogen Fixation –conversion of atmospheric N2 to ammonia (NH3) by
Nitrogen-fixing microbes. N-fixers have nitrogenase enzyme which carry out the N-fixation
process.

Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria/archaea

N2 + 8 e- + 10 H+ + 16 ATP

2 NH4+ + H2 + 16 ADP + 16 Pi
15-37oC, 0.8 ATM

Azotobacter/Rhizobium/Clostridium
Source: www.colby.edu

Activities of Soil Microorganisms

Biological Nitrogen Fixation-conversion of N2 to NH3

3 kinds of BNF

1. Symbiotic

2. Associative

3. Free-living

148
Symbiotic N-fixers

Organism Genera Host Plant

Plant Group Location

Bacteria Rhizobium Legumes and nodules

parasponiainside
Bradyrhizobium

Azorhizobium

Actinomycetes Frankia Betulaceae and 8 family Inside nodules

(trees)

Cyanobacteria Nostoc Bryophytes leaf cavity

Nostoc (Anabaena ) Pteridophyte (Azolla) – a Cavity

water fernLeaf

Nostoc Angiosperm Gland tissue

Associative symbiosis – bacteria enter the root and develop within the cortical cells without
forming nodules

Paspalum notatum-Azotobacter paspali

Digitaria decumbens- Azospirillum lypoferum

Free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria

Bacillus
Klebsiella (facultative anaerobes)
Clostridium

BNF rates measured under field conditions

149
Source: Data from Hibbs-Cromack (1990), Herridge et al. (2008), Reed et al. (2011) and Nygren et al.
(2012) as cited by Bottomley, Peter J. and David D. Myrold (2015) in Soil Microbiology, Ecology and
Biochemistry, edited by Eldor A. Paul.

Transformation of Nitrogen

2. Ammonia volatilization - Under high pH, NH4+ becomes ammonia hence, volatilization
increases
NH4+ + H2O + OH- NH3 + 2H2O

Increased by higher temperatures, high windspeeds, sandy soils,

low CEC

150
Transformation of Nitrogen

In upland soils, ammonium undergoes nitrification, hence the dominant form of N in upland soils
is nitrate. In flooded soils, ammonium accumulates because nitrification requires oxygen.

The acidifying effect of NH4-containing fertilizer is due to nitrification.

151
4. Denitrification

• Biochemical reduction of NO3-N to N2 under low oxygen levels (anaerobic condition,

waterlogged, flooded)

• Enhanced by abundant OM, higher temperatures, neutral to alkaline pH (7.0-8.2)

5. Mineralization - Conversion of organic N to inorganic or mineral N.

✔ Aminization- hydrolytic decomposition of proteins and release amines and
amino acids.

✔ Ammonification-refers to any chemical reaction in which NH2 groups are

converted to NH4+.

6. Leaching - loss of nitrate through moving water

• greater in coarse-textured soils and under high rainfall

• leaching is reduced if there is vegetation

• leached nitrate N may pollute water resources

152
Phosphate solubilization

Mechanisms of P-solubilization
o secretion of organic acids

o enzyme production

o excretion of siderophores that can chelate the metal ions and form complexes, making
phosphates available for plant uptake.

o These microbes also promote plant growth and crop yield by producing plant-growth-
promoting hormones like auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins, antibiosis against
pathogens

Source: Phosphate-Solubilizing Microorganisms: Mechanism and Their Role in Phosphate

Solubilization and Uptake;Pratibha Rawat; Sudeshna Das; Deepti Shankhdhar & S. C.
Shankhdhar ;Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition volume 21, pages49–68(2021)

P solubilizing bacteria

Pseudomonas
Bacillus
Rhodococcus
Arthrobacter, Serratia, Chryseobacterium Phyllobacterium etc.
Azotobacter
Xanthomonas
Enterobacter, Pantoea, and Klebsiella

Mycorrhiza - an association between fungus and higher plants, fungus obtains CHO and other
growth components such as a.a and B vit. from the plant while the plant, obtains water and
nutrients through the fungus

153
Benefits from Mycorrhiza:

• Increased effective surface area of roots

for absorption of water and nutrients particularly P

• Increased drought and heat resistance

• Reduced infection by disease-causing organisms (protection from plant pathogens)

• Aid in Zn and Cu absorption

Two types of Mycorrhiza

1. Ectomycorrhiza –do not penetrate cells, are of great importance for the growth of trees,
such as beech, oak, and pine, as it increases the uptake of phosphate by a factor of
three to five.

154
 Ectomycorrhizal fungi (Wikimedia.org)

2. Endomycorrhiza-Endomycorrhizas include arbuscular mycorrhiza (AMs), ericoid,

and orchid mycorrhizas. AM fungi are the most common mycorrhizal group associated
with plants and are found in association with angiosperms and gymnosperms.

AM fungi (herbsandapples.com)

Sulfur transformation

1. Mineralization – large organic molecules are broken down to simple inorganic S

compounds

2. Oxidation of sulfide and elemental sulfur (S) and related compounds to sulfate, SO42–

Thiobacillus and Acidithiobacillus

3. Reduction of sulfate to sulfide – Proteus, Campylobacter, Pseudomonas,

Desulfovibrio, Clostridium

4. Microbial immobilization of sulfur compounds

155
Disease suppression

• Bacillus megaterium has been used on some crops to suppress the disease- causing
fungus Rhizoctonia solani.

• Pseudomonas fluorescens may also be useful against this disease.

• Bacillus subtilis has been used to suppress seedling blight of sunflowers, caused by
Alternaria helianthi.

Breakdown of toxic compounds

Pesticide degradation

• Detoxification-conversion of pesticide molecule to nontoxic compound

• Degradation-breaking down of complex substrate to simpler product

• Conjugation-complex formation or addition reaction

• Activation-conversion of non-toxic substrate into toxic molecule

Source: Soil Microorganisms in Biodegradation of Pesticides and Herbicides (imp.center)

156
 LESSON 2
SOIL ORGANIC MATTER

Soil organic matter is any material produced originally by living organisms (plant or animal) that
is returned to the soil and goes through the decomposition process

At any given time, it consists of a range of materials from the intact original tissues of plants and
animals to the substantially decomposed mixture of materials known as humus

157
OM DECOMPOSITION AND SOIL FOOD WEB

Soil organic matter- CARBON CYCLE

THE SOIL FOOD WEB

❑ The soil ecosystem (Box 1) can be defined as an interdependent life-support system

composed of air, water, minerals, organic matter, and macro- and micro-organisms, all
of which function together and interact closely.

❑ Some functions of a healthy soil ecosystem

▪ Decompose organic matter towards humus.

▪ Retain N and other nutrients.

▪ Glue soil particles together for best structure.

▪ Protect roots from diseases and parasites.

▪ Make retained nutrients available to the plant.

▪ Produce hormones that help plants grow.

▪ Retain water.

158
DECOMPOSITION PROCESS

NATURAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE AMOUNT OF OM

• Temperature

• Soil Moisture and

water retention

• Soil texture

• topography

• salinity and acidity

• vegetation and biomass

production

159
PRACTICES THAT INFLUENCE SOM-OPEN CYCLE

o Human intervention that

influence SOM

o Decrease in biomass production

o Decrease in OM supply

o Increase
decomposition rates

OM DETERMINATION (Walkley and Black Method)

1. OM determination is one of the quantitative analyses accomplished by analyzing one of

I constituents.

2. Organic Carbon-OC

3. On average OM contains 58% OC or % OC x 1.724= %OM

4. The method measuring OC is based on the oxidation of the latter by potassium

dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in a strong acid solution (H2SO4)

SUMMARY OF METHOD
1. Transfer (W) grams of soils into a 500 ml Erlenmeyer flask. Also prepare a blank solution
(without soil) in duplicate. Place the Erlenmeyer flask on insulating pad under a fume
hood.

2. Add 10 mL potassium dichromate and 20 mL concentrated sulfuric acid to each

Erlenmeyer flask. Add the acid with caution-the exothermic reaction is vigorous- and
work under a fume hood. Stir carefully.

3. Allow to react for 30 mins while the Erlenmeyer flasks remain on the insulating pad.

160
Titration with a Redox Indicator

• Add successfully 150 ml water, 10 mL concentrated phosphoric acid and 1 ml of

indicator.

• Place on a magnetic stirrer and titrate with the ferrous sulfate solution (1 eq L-1

Potentiometric Titration
• Add successfully 300 mL concentrated phosphoric acid.

• switch the pH/ potentiometer to mV immerse the electrode in the solution and titrate with
the ferrous sulfate solution while stirring magnetically until a drop in potential from 0.8 to
0.5 V.

During titration, the colour changes progressively from orange to olive green to brilliant green

2. Number of meq of OC oxidized by Potassium Dichromate

10 10 (a-b)
10 meq - ( ____ meq mL x b mL) = ______ meq
-1

a a
Where :
b= volume ferrous sulfate solution added to the sample

Calculations
1. Exact normality of the ferrous sulfate solution :

vt (10 mL) (1 eq L-1) 10

t’ = _________________________= eq L-1
v a ml
a
Where :
v= Volume K2Cr2O7
t= titer or normality of K2Cr2O7
v’= a= volume of FeSO4 added to the blank solution
t’=titer or normality ferrous sulfate solution
a= v’
3. Number of mg of OC oxidized
10 (a-b) 3 mg OC 30 (a-b)
_________ meq X ____________ ________ mg OC
a meq a

4. Concentration of OC (mg g-1)

161
30 (a-b) 4 1 40 (a-b)
______ mg OC X ______ X _________ =______
3 W g of soil aXw
=mg OC g-1 soil
Calculations

5. % OC and OM
4(a-b)
% OC = _____________
aXw

% OM =% OC x 1.724

Fractions and properties of humus

DEFINITION OF HUMUS

● Humus is defined as a more or less stable fraction of the soil organic matter remaining
after the major portions of added plant and animal residues have decomposed.
● They are high molecular weight compounds, complex, resistant, polymeric compounds.
● They are amorphous and colloidal organic substances
● Usually, it is dark or brown in color.

162
 HUMUS FORMATION

● Humic substances are produced when plant residues and other organic debris are
broken down and/or chemically altered by microorganisms and subsequently recombine
under the influence of enzymes.

● Humus formation is a complex two stage process in which organic residues of plant and
animal origin undergo profound transformation.

● 1. The decomposition of the original components of tissues and their conversion by

microorganisms in to simpler chemical compounds and partially to products of complete
mineralization (CO2, NO2, NO3, NH3, CH4, H2O etc.)

● The humus fraction of soil organic matter plays a major role in soil biology.

● The roles of both HAs and FAs in soil and plants have been well-studied and they are
recognized as major biostimulants.

Humus is mainly composed of two major groups, they are:

I. Humic group

II. Non-humic group

THE HUMIC GROUP

▪ On the basis of resistance to degradation and of solubility in acids and alkalis, humic
substances have been classified into five chemical groupings.

Fulvic Acid
❑ Lowest in molecular weight, lightest in color, soluble in both acid and alkali and most
susceptible to microbial attack.

❑ Contain uronides, simple carbohydrates and their sugars, phenolic glycosides, tannin
and other organics, also rich in N and P.

One of the greatest advantages of fulvic acids over humic acids is that FAs are soluble in all pH
conditions and are small enough to readily enter plant roots, stems and leaves.

163
Humic Acids

Humic acids are a large molecule with a molecular weight ranging from approximately 10,000 to
100,000.

HAs are only soluble in alkaline solutions and the molecules are too big to be absorbed by the
plant; however, HAs can efficiently bind to clay minerals to form stable clay complexes.
❑ The roles of both HAs and FAs in soil and plants have been well-studied and they are
recognized as major biostimulants.

Humins
▪ Highest in molecular weight, darkest in colour, insoluble in both acid and alkali and most
resistant to microbial attack
▪ Polymerized product of a part of the FA and HA fractions.

Apocremic acid
Hematomelanic acid

All the five fractions are amorphous and show no signs of crystallization.

NON- HUMIC GROUP

▪ It comprises about 20-30% of the organic matter in soils. They are less complex and less
resistant to microbial attack than those of humic group

▪ They are composed of specific organic compounds with definite physical and chemical
properties.

▪ E.g.: a. Polysaccharides- Polymers with sugar like structures. They are effective in
enhancing soil aggregates stability.

▪ b. Polyuronoids- They are not found in plants but have been synthesized by the soil
microbes and held as part of the organisms’ body tissues;

164
165
166
167
168
PROPERTIES OF HUMUS

▪ It is a light bulky amorphous material of dark brown to black color. The black color of
surface soil is usually due to the presence of humus.
▪ It has a great water absorbing and water holding capacity. 100 part humus-181 part of
water.
▪ It possesses the power of adhesion and cohesion (but less than clay) so it acts as a
cementing agent in crumb formation. In Sandy soils- adhesive capacity and in clay soils
– cohesive capacity increases
▪ It has a high ion adsorbing capacity (4-6 times that of clay) and CEC is very high (300-
350 meq./100gm)
▪ It is insoluble in water.
▪ It behaves like a weak acid and forms salts with bases.
▪ It acts as a buffering agent and as an oxidation reduction buffer.
▪ It serves as a source of energy and food for the development of various

Composition of Humus

▪ Humus is a heterogeneous mixture of complex organic compounds.

▪ It is mainly made up of 58% C
▪ 3-6% of N- and C:N ratio of 10:1 to 12:1.

169
C:N ratio
▪ It is defined as the ratio of the weight of organic carbon to the weight of total nitrogen in
a soil or organic matter.
▪ It is the relationship between organic matter and nitrogen content of soils or plants.

Importance OF C: N ratio
1. C:N ratio mainly controls decomposition rate in soil
2. It is a source of food and energy for plants
3. Influence of C/N ratio on N release
4. The decay of organic matter can be delayed
5. Influence of C/N ratio on Soil ecology\
6. It is related to release of available N, total organic content and accumulation of humus.

C:N ratios of some of the organic materials

1. Alfalfa 20:1
2. Microbial population 10:1
3. Soil organic matter 10-12:1
4. Maize stalk 40:1
5. Rice straw 100:1
6. Rye straw 200:1

170
7. Saw dust 400:1
8. Clovers (mature) 20:1
9. Soil humus 11:1 Ratio varies from about
10. 10 for leguminous and young plant materials and >100 for cereal straws.

171
SUMMARY OF LEARNING POINTS

● Mesofauna, also called Meiofauna- intermediate-sized animals - nematodes, mites,

springtails, proturans, and pauropods.
● Megafauna are the principal agents of soil turnover and distribution; this movement
loosens soil structure, improves aeration and drainage, and distributes soil
microorganism.
● small vertebrates. moles, mice, hares, rabbits, gophers, snakes, and lizards. Most of
the vertebrates feed on plant material, invertebrates, and other small vertebrate animals.
● Bacteria. Single-celled, lack membrane-bound organelles, many are heterotrophic,
many are aerobes, some anaerobic, some are facultative aerobes, they multiply by
binary fission or splitting of cells into two parts. The most abundant microorganisms (in
population).

● Rhizobacteria are rhizosphere-competent bacteria that aggressively colonize plant

roots. They are free-living bacteria and some invade the tissues of living plants
(endophytes). They induce plant growth promotion directly and indirectly.

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● Algae. not important as decomposers but as producers of new photosynthetic growth,
most abundant photosynthetic microorganism in soil, acting as a cementing agent by
binding soil particles and thereby reducing and preventing soil erosion.
● Actinomycetes. Source of natural products and antibiotics, ex. Streptomycin, produce
“geosmin”, the compound that gives the soil its “earthy smell”.
● Fungi. most adaptable and versatile soil organisms, reproduce sexually and asexually,
sexual reproduction is by Spores and hyphal fragmentation, pores can become dormant
for a long time, some species can thrive in extreme acidity and alkalinity, they account
for the largest part of total microbial biomass in well-aerated soils.
● Mycorrhiza. an association between fungus and higher plants, fungus obtains CHO
and other growth components such as A and B vit. from the plant while the plant obtains
water and nutrients through the fungus.
● Nitrogen Cycle- Nitrogen Fixation. conversion of atmospheric N2 to ammonia (NH3) by
Nitrogen-fixing microbes. N-fixers have nitrogenase enzymes which carry out the N-
fixation process.
● Nitrification. Biological oxidation of ammonium to nitrate or biological formation of
nitrate or nitrite from compounds containing reduced nitrogen
● Denitrification. Biochemical reduction of NO3-N to N2 under low oxygen levels
(anaerobic condition, waterlogged, flooded).
● Mineralization - Conversion of organic N to inorganic or mineral N.
● Immobilization. Conversion of inorganic or mineral N to organic N.
● Those with wider C:N ratios favor immobilization while narrower C:N ratios favor
mineralization.
● Plant materials with high N contents (such as legumes) have narrow C:N ratios are
easily decomposed; non-legumes and woody plants have lower nitrogen contents
(wider C:N ratios) are slowly decomposed.
● Soil organic matter. any material produced originally by living organisms (plant or
animal) that is returned to the soil and goes through the decomposition process.
● Humus. defined as they are a more or less stable fraction of the soil organic matter
remaining after the major portions of added plant and animal residues have decomposed.
Usually, it is dark or brown in color.

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 References:

Barak, Philip. 2000. Essential elements for plant growth-The law of ____Bowen’s Reaction
Series @ http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/Geophys/Bowen.html on June25, 2015.

Hobart, King M. _____. Pictures of igneous rocks. @Geology.com

Karathanasis, A. D. ____. Soil Mineralogy. Land Use, Land Cover and Soil Sciences Vol VI. @
www.eolss.net

Singh, B. & Schulze D. G. 2015. Soil Minerals and Plant Nutrition. Nature Education Knowledge
6 (1):1

Soil Science Society of America. _____. Soil Mineralogy @ www.soils4teachers.org on

September 20, 2020.
https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeologyearle/wp-content/uploads/sites/ 145/2016/06/ingeous-
rocks2.png
https://cdn-0.easyscienceforkids.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/All-about-Igneous-Rocks-
Easy-Science-for-Kids-a-Diagram-Showing-Igneous-Rocks-Forming.jpg

Vadivel, A. Professor, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, TNAU,

Coimbatore-3.

Gali,S.K. Professor & Head, Department of Environmental Sciences, College of Agriculture,

UAS, Dharwad;

Suresh,P.R. Professor of Soil Science and Agril. Chemistry, College of Horticulture, Vellanikara,
Thrissur-680656, KAU, Kerala.

Hippeshappa, DG.N. Associate Professor of Soil Science (SG),

College of Horticulture, Mudigere-577 132,.Chikmagalur District (Karnataka).

Osma, K.T. 2012. Biological Properties of Soils. Department of Soil ScienceUniversity of

ChittagongChittagongBangladesh.

174
175
 LESSON 1

Introduction to Soil Fertility and Conservation

This module aims to give you a review on the basic ground of soil fertility and
conservation. Module 1 provides a review on the foundation for understanding soil fertility,
productivity, and conservation. We will focus on the definition and importance of soil fertility
and productivity, and its historical background.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the module, you should be able to:
1. Identify key terminologies in defining the soil fertility and productivity,
2. Review the historical background of soil fertility and its importance, and
3. Discuss the basic concepts of plant nutrition.

Definition of Soil Fertility and Conservation

Soil fertility refers to the quality of a soil that enables it to provide essential chemical
elements in quantities and proportions for the growth of specified plants. Understanding the
cation exchange capacity is the single most important concept in understanding soil fertility.

Soil productivity refers to the capacity of a soil for producing a specified plant or sequence of
plants under a specified system of management. Soil fertility is only one of the factors that
make a soil productive.

For soil to be productive, it must:

● Be easily tillable and fertile,

● Contain all essential elements in the forms readily available to plants in sufficient
amount, and
● Physically good to support plants and contain just the right amount of water and air
for proper root growth. The soil must supply these essentials every day in the life of
the plant.

Other factors that make the soil productive are:

● Moisture – the soil must have enough moisture or water for plant growth.
● Aeration – plant roots need to be properly aerated.

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 ● Absence of pests and diseases – these can hamper crop growth and productivity.
● Presence of microorganisms that support plant growth – these organisms affect soil
development and nutrient availability.
● Management practices – Farmers need to manage their crops properly.
● Large amounts of topsoil – topsoil is the most fertile part of a soil profile.

A soil can be highly fertile, i.e., it has ready supply of nutrients in available form, yet it may
not be highly productive. For example, water-logged soils may be highly fertile but may not
produce good crops because of the unfavorable physical conditions. A fertile soil may be
highly saline or alkaline which may not be good for agriculture.

Historical Background of Soil Fertility and Conservation

The cultivation of plants for food allowed humans to convert from a nomadic hunting and
gathering lifestyle to a more settled one. According to the 2500 B.C writings of Mesopotamia
(now Iraq), the land between Tigris and Euphrates, that shows evidence of early civilization,
fertility of the land was mentioned. Fertility was due to annual flooding of the land and a
system of canals were built for irrigation of the crops. Before, there was what we call shifting
agriculture in the uplands or also known as the slash and burn in which large scale
deforestation was being practiced for agriculture use. After using the land for agriculture,
people tend to abandon the land and look for another place to perform slash and burn for
agricultural purposes.

Some of the important Greek historical writings related to soil fertility are discussed below:
● Xenophon was a Greek historian who first recorded the merits of green manure crops.
He wrote “But then whatever weeds are upon the ground, being turned into the earth,
enrich the soil as much as dung “meaning incorporating weeds into soils is as good
as applying dung.

● During the Golden Age of Greeks (800-200 B.C), the following were discovered:
o Manure increased productivity ad prolonged land use - the green manure crops
(i.e., legumes) enriched the soil,
o Liming increased productivity,
o Wood ashes and salt peter (KNO3) are beneficial, and
o Saline soils can be detected by taste.

● In first 18 century A.D., Pietro de Crescenzi, a Roman, Published a book on

agricultural practices (horticulture and agronomy)

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 ● Jan Baptista Van Helmont performed the Willow Tree Experiment in which he
concluded that the Willow tree grew by drinking water and water was the sole nutrient
of plants.

● Jethro Tull thought soil small particles were ingested by plants. He concluded that
cultivating the soil made it easier for plants to take up soil particles.

● Justus Von Liebig is the father of the modern fertilizer industry. He stressed the value
of mineral elements from the soil. He found that C in plants comes from CO2 of the
atmosphere and not from humus, H and O come from water, Alkaline metals (Ca, Mg
and K) were needed to neutralize acids formed by plants, and phosphates are
necessary for seed formation. He manufactured fertilizer but made the mistake of
fusing P and K with lime, making P and K unavailable to plants) and authored the
Liebig's Law of Minimum which states “If one of the essential nutrients is deficient,
growth will be poor even if all other elements are abundant”.

Some of the important historical development of soil fertility in the US are discussed below:
● James E. Oglethorpe established the experimental garden of bluffs of Savannah
River in Georgia to produce exotic food crops during 1733.
● Benjamin Franklin demonstrated the value of gypsum which improves soil physical
and chemical properties.
● Thomas Jefferson was an agronomist who wrote quotes related to agriculture. One of
the known quotes he wrote is that “Agriculture is our wisest pursuit, because it will in
the end contribute most to real wealth, good morals and happiness.”
● Edmund Ruffin is the Father of Soil Chemistry in the US. He was the one who first
used lime in humid regions and was the one who showed how to restore fertility to
depleted Southeast plantations.

Importance of Soil Fertility and Conservation

Importance of Soil Fertility

Soil plays an essential part in our survival since it is connected to our food supplies. Fertile
soil ensures plant survival and holds plants in place while providing them with the life-
supporting nutrients that they need to survive. Plants ensure our survival. The food (nutrients)
that all living organisms, including humans need to survive comes immediately or indirectly
from plants.

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Without fertile soil we would have no plants. Without plants we would have no food. And
without food, there is no us since we need food to survive.

Importance of Soil Conservation

Soil conservation saves the soil through harsh weather and stops erosion. It ensures the soil
is getting more nutrients. Humans depend on food grown for survival. If we take care of our
soil, we will have suitable lands to grow our food and meet our most basic need. Increased
crop productivity is seen when the soil is healthy.

The soil gets its source of nutrients from most living organisms because the soil is their home.
The more we conserve soil the more crops grow. Furthermore, crop production is a source of
income for many farmers. By conserving the soil, we can harvest better and healthier crops.

Learning Activities

● Video to watch: https://youtu.be/CzI-wj2p0ss

● Book to read: Benton Jones Jr., J. 2012. Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility Manual
Second Edition ISBN 13:978-1-4398-1610-3 You can download the book from this
link:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/16l4UmehnkO5T_X-
P342pou6NeDE0WO19/view?usp=sharing

● Link to read:
http://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/areas-of-work/soil-fertility/en/

Summary of Key Takeaways

● Soil fertility refers to the quality of a soil that enables it to provide essential
chemical elements in quantities and proportions for the growth of specified
plants.
● Soil productivity refers to the capacity of a soil for producing a specified plant or
sequence of plants under a specified system of management.
● The cultivation of plants for food allowed humans to convert from a nomadic

179
 hunting and gathering lifestyle to a more settled one.
● Justus Von Liebig authored the Liebig's Law of Minimum which states “If one of the
essential nutrients is deficient, growth will be poor even if all other elements are
abundant”.
● Fertile soil ensures plant survival and holds plants in place while providing them
with the life-supporting nutrients that they need to survive.
● Soil conservation saves the soil through harsh weather and stops erosion.

References

Benton Jones Jr., J. 2012. Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility Manual Second Edition ISBN
13:978-1-4398-1610-3

FAO. 2020. Soil Fertility. Retrieved from Food and Agriculture Organization last
December 28, 2020 at http://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/areas-of-work/soil-
fertility/en/

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 LESSON 2
Soil-Plant Relationships

This module aims to give a review on the basic ground of soil and plant relationships.
Module 2 focuses on the essential elements in the soil, their availability and mechanism of
plant uptake. This module will also tackle the causes of decline of soil fertility.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. Identify essential elements in soils, their forms, and roles
2. Determine the when the nutrients are available for plant uptake as affected by
different factors
3. Discuss the causes of decline in soil fertility

Essential Elements in the Soil: Forms and Roles

There are 18 nutrient elements that are considered essential for plant growth. These
are composed of two major groups, the macronutrients, and the micronutrients.
Macronutrients are those nutrient elements needed by plants in large quantities. They could
come from the air such as C, H and O, and from the soil such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S.
Those macronutrients that could be found in the soil could be present in combination with
other compounds, in the complex structure of minerals, and in salts in the soil solution.
Microelements are Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, Mo, Co, Cl and Ni.

The criteria for essentiality of nutrient elements are the following:

1. Plants cannot complete their life cycle in the absence/deficiency of any one of the
nutrient elements,
2. The nutrient is an integral component of a plant structure and/or participates in one or
more metabolic processes in the plant, and
3. No other element can substitute for the element if it is absent/lacking in supply.
Its deficiency can only be corrected by addition of that element.

Some plants either need or can have some benefits from other elements such as: silicon,
sodium, iodine, fluorine, barium, and strontium, but these are not generally considered to be
essential elements for plant growth.

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Sources of Nutrient Elements

The essential nutrient elements can be derived from organic matter, minerals, air,
and water. The sources of C, H and O are CO2, H2O, and O2. The three primary
macronutrients needed by plants are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K).

The air, partly containing 78% N, supplies N. Nitrogen is being supplied to the
plants through biological nitrogen fixation and when lightning converts it to NO3-. The
major source of N in the soil is organic matter. Organic matter contains about 5%
nitrogen. Most minerals do not contain nitrogen.

Phosphorus is released from soil organic matter. Organic matter contains about 1%
P. It is bound in phytin, phospholipids, and nucleic acids. The major inorganic sources
of P in the soil are acid-soluble P, calcium phosphate, aluminum phosphate and iron
phosphate.

Potassium can be found in minerals like feldspars and micas which contains 90%
of soil K. It can also be found inside of clay minerals which is 9% of soil K (i.e.,
unavailable for plant uptake). Available for plant uptake are those that are present on
the soil exchange sites (1%) and in the soil solution (0.1%).

Sulfur, another macronutrient can be found in organic matter which contains about
1%. It is also present in minerals, i.e., gypsum and pyrite. When sulfur is released into
the soil, it is in the forms of H2S, FeS, and SO42- .

Other macronutrient elements are present in organic matter but at very low
concentrations. Most comes from the weathering of minerals such as:

● Calcium – this element can be found in hornblende, plagioclase, dolomite, and

calcite.
● Magnesium – this element can be found in hornblende, dolomite, and biotite.

Micronutrients are derived from various minerals. An example is iron. Iron is among
the most abundant micronutrients. It can be found in limonite, hematite, goethite, etc.
Another is chlorine which can be found in minerals and maybe also supplied from
salt sprays from oceans and irrigation water.

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Table 1. Forms of elements that are available for plant use.

Element Form(s) available for plant use

Nitrogen NH4+, NO3-
Phosphorus H2PO4- (dihydrogen phosphate ion)
HPO42- (hydrogen phosphate ion)
Potassium K+
Calcium Ca2+
Magnesium Mg2+
Sulfur SO42- (sulfate)
Iron Fe2+ (ferrous)
Manganese Mn2+
Boron H3BO3 (boric acid; hydrogen borate), BO3–
Zinc Zn2+
Copper Cu2+
Chlorine Cl-
Molybdenum MoO42- (molybdate)
Nickel Ni2+
Cobalt Co2+

Table 2. Essential elements roles in plant growth.

Element Roles in Plant Growth

Carbon Constituent of carbohydrates; necessary for photosynthesis
Hydrogen Maintains osmotic balance; important in numerous
biochemical reactions; necessary in photosynthesis
Oxygen Constituent of carbohydrates; necessary for respiration
Nitrogen Constituent of proteins, chlorophyll, and nucleic acids
Phosphorus Constituent of many proteins, coenzymes, nucleic acids, and metabolic
substrates; important in energy
Potassium Involved in photosynthesis; carbohydrate translocation, protein synthesis,
etc.
Calcium Component of cell wall; plays a role in the structure and permeability of
membranes
Magnesium Enzyme activator; component of chlorophyll
Sulfur Component of plant proteins
Iron Involves in chlorophyll synthesis and enzyme for electron transfer
Manganese Control several oxidation-reduction systems and photosynthesis

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 Boron Important in sugar translocation and carbohydrate metabolism
Zinc Involved with enzyme systems that regulate various metabolic activities

Copper Catalyst for respiration; component of various enzymes

Chlorine Involved in oxygen production in photosynthesis
Molybdenum Involved with nitrogen fixation and transforming nitrate to
ammonium
Nickel Necessary for proper functioning of the enzyme, urease, and
found to be necessary in seed germination
Cobalt Necessary for nitrogen fixation

Availability of Nutrients and Mechanism of Nutrient Uptake

Plant nutrient uptake is a process in which nutrients enter the cellular material of
the plant following the same pathway as water. The most common entry point for nutrient
uptake is through the roots, sometimes in the leaves. There are three mechanisms of plant
nutrient uptake which are mass flow, diffusion, and root interception. Mass flow happens
when water absorbed by the root creates a water deficit near the root this will in turn create
more water movement to the root carrying nutrients. This process is important for nutrients
in large quantities present in the soil solution such as N, K, and Ca.

Diffusion refers to the movement of nutrients due to an imbalance of concentration

or diffusion gradient, i.e., movement of nutrients from higher concentration to lower
concentration. On the other hand, root interception is also known as contact exchange
which happens upon exposure of the roots to the soil and new supplies of nutrients. The
roots could contact 3% of the soil nutrients.

The following are the conditions required for nutrient uptake by plants:

1. Actively growing plants – anything that affects the metabolism of the plant will affect
nutrient uptake.

2. Metabolic energy – plant roots must be able to respire, and soils must have oxygen.

3. Root hairs – these are the most active points of nutrient uptake.

Table 3. Rates of Root interception, Mass Flow and Diffusion in Ion Transport to Corn Roots

184
 Adapted from Havlin et. al. 2005 as cited by Alberta Agriculture and Forestry

Carbon enters almost completely through stomata as CO2 with release of O2 produced
during photosynthesis. Hydrogen as part of water molecules is absorbed through stomata
however in much lower levels compared to absorption by the roots.

Liebig’s Law of Minimum states that “By the deficiency or absence of one
necessary constituent all others being present, the soil is rendered barren for all those crops
to the life of which that one constituent is indispensable.” Plant growth is limited by that
nutrient present below the minimum requirement.

An equation which can describe nutrient uptake is the Mitscherlich’s equation which
has this formula:
DY/DX = (A-Y)c

where: DY = increase in yield

DX = increase in input
A = maximum possible yield Y
= actual yield
c= constant depending on the nature of x

This equation means that if plants were supplied with adequate amounts of all nutrients
except one, the growth is proportional to the amount of this limiting element which was

185
added to the soil. Plant growth increases as more of the element is added but not in direct
proportion to the amount of the growth factor added. The total increase in growth becomes
less as increments of the growth factor increases.
The forms of nutrient elements determine its availability for plant uptake as well as
its interaction with other factors such as water content, soil texture, soil structure, cation
exchange capacity, etc. A soil could be rich in nutrients, but the crops cannot extract it
because it is fixed in the clay minerals, there is not enough water, the cation exchange
capacity is low. These are just some of the factors affecting its availability and plant uptake.

Timing of Nutrient Uptake

Nutrient uptake does not necessarily match the increase in plant biomass as
presented in Figure 1. When the grain crop reaches 50% of their total biomass, they
have accumulated approximately 80% of their necessary N and K, 60% of P and
70% of S.

Figure 1. Relationship of plant nutrient uptake and plant growth.

Malhi, S.S., A.M. Johnston, J.J. Schoenau, Z.H. Wang, and C.L. Vera.
2006

186
Nutrient Mobility Within the Plant and Soil

All nutrients move relatively easily from root to the growing portion of the
plant through the xylem. Some nutrients can move from older leaves to newer leaves.
Knowing nutrient mobility within the plant is useful in diagnosing plant nutrient
deficiencies. For example, if the lower leaves are affected (older leaves), then mobile
nutrient is most likely deficient. If only upper leaves (younger leaves) are affected,
the immobile nutrient is likely deficient.

Table 4. Mobile and immobile nutrients in plant and soil.

Nutrient Mobility in Plant Mobility in Soil
Nitrogen Mobile Mobile in the form of NO3–,
Immobile in the form of NH4+
Phosphorus Somewhat mobile Immobile
Potassium Very mobile Somewhat mobile
Calcium Immobile Somewhat mobile
Magnesium Somewhat mobile Immobile
Sulfur Mobile Mobile
Boron Immobile Very mobile
Copper Immobile Immobile
Iron Immobile Immobile
Manganese Immobile Mobile
Zinc Immobile Immobile
Molybdenum Immobile Somewhat mobile
Chlorine Mobile Mobile

Adapted from Smart Fertilizer, 2020

Factors Affecting the Release of Nutrient to Plants

The following are the factors affecting the release of nutrients to plants:

1. Percentage saturation of the exchange complex by nutrient cation in question.

For example, if the percentage Ca saturation of a soil is high, the displacement of
this cation is comparatively easy and rapid.

2. Influence of complementary adsorbed cations. For example, based on the

187
 lyotropic series

Al3+ > H+> Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ = NH4+ > Na+

K+ is less tightly held by the colloids if the complementary ions are Al3+ and H+
than if they are Mg2+ and Na+. K+ is more readily available for absorption by plants
or more prone to leaching in acid soils.

3. Nutrient antagonisms
For example, K+ uptake by plants is limited by high levels of Ca. High K levels
limit the uptake of Mg even when significant quantities of Mg are present in the
soil.

4. Effect of type of colloid

The strength of adsorption of specific cations varies with types of colloids. At a

given percent base saturation (%BS), smectites hold Ca more strongly than
kaolinite. Smectite clays must be raised to about 70% BS before Ca will
exchange easily and rapidly enough to satisfy most plants. Kaolinite clays
exchange Ca more readily at a much lower %BS.

Causes of Decline in Soil Fertility

The following are reasons behind the decline of soil fertility in an area:

1. Loss of topsoil by erosion

The topsoil is rich in nutrients and organic matter. Loss of the fertile topsoil
components through erosion by water and wind results in decreased fertility.

2. Nutrient mining
Removal of more nutrients by crops than added through manures or
fertilizers is called nutrient mining or depletion. It results from the exhaustion of any
nutrient required in moderate to large amounts.

3. Physical degradation of soil

Physical degradation of soil leading to poor structure, compaction, crusting,
and waterlogging reduces soil fertility. Soil structure is a variable soil property that,
from an agronomic point of view, can improve or deteriorate.

4. Decrease in organic matter content and soil biological activity.

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 The decreased levels of organic matter cause a strong reduction in soil
fertility as it plays several roles in soil. It can result in poor physical, chemical, and
biological properties of the soil.

5. Loss of nutrients through various routes

Losses of nutrients from soil can be caused by soil erosion, leaching, crop
removal by soil erosion, leaching, or in the form of gases, e.g., in case of N and to a
lesser extent S. Nutrient removal by crop products compared with external nutrient
inputs can be similar, higher, or lower.

6. Soil acidification, salinization, and alkalinization

Acidification, salinization or alkalinization causes reduction in soil fertility, and
eventually lead to problems of nutrient deficiencies, toxicities, and imbalances.

7. Inefficient soil management

Poor or inefficient soil management such as improper crop rotations leading
to nutrient mining may decrease the soil fertility tremendously. Excessive soil tillage
leads to erosion of the topsoil.

8. Soil pollution
Soil pollution caused by indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals and heavy
metals reduces fertility of the soil by affecting its biological properties. The growth of
soil organisms is affected adversely and will cause decline of biological soil fertility.

Supplementary Activities

● Video to watch: https://youtu.be/uapQT4WWvWU

● Book to read: Benton Jones Jr., J. 2012. Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility Manual
Second Edition ISBN 13:978-1-4398-1610-3 You can download the book from this
link:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/16l4UmehnkO5T_X-
P342pou6NeDE0WO19/view?usp=sharing

● Links to read:
https://www.smart-fertilizer.com/articles/nutrient-uptake/

https://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/epw11920/$FILE/2

189
 -1.pdf

https://landresources.montana.edu/soilfertility/nutuptake.html
Summary of Key Takeaways

● There are 18 nutrient elements that are considered essential for plant growth.
● The essential nutrient elements can be derived from organic matter, minerals, air,
and water.
● There are three mechanisms of plant nutrient uptake which are mass flow, diffusion,
and root interception.
● Liebig’s Law of Minimum states that “Plant growth is limited by that nutrient present
below the minimum requirement”.
● Mitscherlich’s equation explains that “Plant growth increases as more of the element
was added but not in direct proportion to the amount of the growth factor added”.
● Knowing nutrient mobility within the plant is useful in diagnosing plant nutrient
deficiencies.

References

Benton Jones Jr., J. 2012. Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility Manual Second Edition ISBN
13:978-1-4398-1610-3 You can download the book from this link:

Smart Fertilizer. 2020. Nutrient Uptake in Plants. Retrieved from Smart Fertilizer on
January 6, 2021 at https://www.smart-fertilizer.com/articles/nutrient-uptake/

Alberta Agriculture and Forestry. n.d. Soil Nutrient Cycling. Retrieved from Alberta
Agriculture and Forestry on January 6, 2021 at
https://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/epw11920/$FILE/2-1.pdf

Malhi, S.S., A.M. Johnston, J.J. Schoenau, Z.H. Wang, and C.L. Vera. 2006. Seasonal
biomass accumulation and nutrient uptake of wheat, barley and oat on a Black
Chernozem soil in Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 86: 1005–1014.
DOI: 10.4141/P05-116

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 LESSON 3
Evaluation of Soil Fertility

This module aims to a review on how to evaluate soil fertility. Module 3 provides the
foundation for understanding the different methods of soil fertility evaluation such as diagnostic
procedures, procedures for determining amounts of nutrients needed, microbiological methods,
and pot cultures.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. Describe the different methods of soil fertility evaluation.
2. Demonstrate how to properly obtain a soil sample.
3. Determine the amount of fertilizer needed.

Soil fertility varies in different locations. This property of the soil is affected by different factors
such as soil types and mineralogy, crop grown, cropping system, climate, fertilization practice,
topography, and slope. Moreover, this property of the soil is dynamic. It changes easily with
management and environmental condition.

The objectives of soil fertility evaluation are:

1. To determine with greater precision the soil and crop nutrient status as basis for
estimating the amount of fertilizers needed. That is to apply what is needed and that
which cannot be provided by the soil., and

2. To provide a basis in determining soil management for the improvement and

maintenance of chemical properties such as pH, OM, CEC, salinity, and nutrient element
levels in soils.

Topic 1 – Diagnostic Procedures in Determining Soil Fertility

Nutrient management practices formulated to achieve economically optimum plant

performance as well as minimal leakage of plant nutrients from the soil-plant system can be
optimize after soil fertility evaluation. Soil fertility evaluation can be carried out through range of
field and laboratory diagnostic techniques and a series of increasingly sophisticated empirical
theoretical model that quantitatively relate indicators of soil fertility to plant response. The

191
different diagnostic techniques are the following:

 Chemical and biological soil test

 Visual observations of nutrient deficiency or toxicity symptoms
 Chemical analysis of plant tissues

Soil Testing

Soil testing involves the determination of the available amounts of nutrients in the soil or
its chemical properties followed by evaluation or interpretation and formulation of fertilizer
recommendations. The assumptions are:
 The available amounts at sampling time reflects the amounts available during the
cropping season, and
 The amount analyzed is a portion of the total available amount to be released.

There are four basics of soil testing, and these are:

 Soil sample collection and handling
 Soil analysis
 Interpretation of results
 Recommendations for actions

Soil sample is the basic entity which is used for evaluation of soil fertility and for giving
advice to the farmer for a profitable manipulation of soil fertility. It is important that a soil
sample is a truly representative of the field. Ideally, samples should be taken prior to seeding
and before applying any inputs.

Soil test values need to be related to the nutrient status of the soil and sufficiency for a
specific crop to apply a corrective dose of nutrient through fertilizer or manure. Numerical
value of soil test has no meaning unless information is generated to evaluate the following:

 What the soil test value means concerning growth and/or yield level in relation to the
amount needed to maximize growth/yield
 Whether crop growth or yield will be greater when the nutrient added to the soil how
much greater
 The amount of nutrient needed for the crop to attain better growth or yield in different
soils and for different crops at different test levels.

Interpretation of soil test for agricultural system is based on establishment of statistical

correlation between soil test value and some aspect of plant response such as of dry matter,

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grain, or nutrient, preferably in the field. Greenhouse studies is the first step to determine the
relationship of plant uptake or yield and nutrient extracted from the soil. An example of a
relationship curve between available phosphorus content of the soil and yield of the crop is
presented in Figure 1. After soil fertility evaluation using soil testing, the next step is
calibration, which aims to categorize soil test levels in terms of probability of economic
response to nutrient applications (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Relationship of available P in the soil and yield of soybean, rice, and wheat (Singh
& Singh, 2015).

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Figure 2. General illustration of the principles of soil test correlation and calibration using
curvilinear model (Singh & Singh, 2015).

Table 1 presents the laboratory methods used to determine the soil test values of the most
important parameters in the soil in relation to plant growth.

Table 1. Laboratory methods used to determine different soil chemical characteristics.

Parameter Method
Organic matter (%) Walkley and Black Method
Total Nitrogen (%) Kjeldahl Method
Available Phosphorus (ppm) Bray No. 2 (for soils with pH below 6.0)
Olsen (for soils with pH above 6.0)
Cation Exchange Capacity (cmol/kg soil) Ammonium Acetate
Exchangeable Ca (cmol/kg soil) EDTA Titration
Exchangeable Mg (cmol/kg soil) EDTA Titration
Exchangeable K (cmol/kg soil) Flame photometer using ammonium acetate
extraction

Source: Soil Fertility Evaluation Laboratory Manual of the University of the Philippines Los
Baños.

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The advantages of soil testing include the following:

 It is the only method that can guarantee or check the correctness of nutrient supply
before cropping.
 It is a priori determination of soil nutrients or problems.
 It is rapid and suitable for the evaluation of a large number of soils samples.
 It is the most reliable in evaluating soil chemical problems: acidity, alkalinity, salinity,
etc.

The disadvantages of soil testing are:

 It is useful only when soil test values are calibrated with yield responses to fertilizer
levels.
 It is roughly comparable to uptake and total release.
 It needs expensive equipment

Soil Sampling and Preparation of Samples for Analyses

The main objective of soil sampling is to collect small amount of soil (1/2 kg) that will
represent the soil in a large area. Since only a small amount of soil sample is used in
chemical analysis and results are projected for a large quantity of soil, the accuracy of soil
testing depends largely on proper soil sampling. The materials can be used are not limited to
the following:

 Shovel/knife/trowel
 Small pail
 Plastic bag(s)

The following are the steps in soil sampling:

Step 1: Make a map of the farm showing sampling area. Divide the farm into sampling areas.
Each sampling area should be uniform in cropping history, past line and fertilizer treatments,
slope, degree of erosion, texture, color, etc. Each sampling area should not be more than five
hectares.

Step 2: Collect spot soil samples from each sampling area. In each sampling area, dig 5 to
10 pits and collect spot soil sample in each pit. The number of spot soil samples depends on

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the size of the sampling area. Follow the guidelines below:

1. Before digging the pit, clear the soil surface from litters and vegetation,

2. Using shovel, dig a pit to a depth of 20 to 30 cm.

3. From the vertical side of the pit, take a slice of soil 2-3 cm thick with a single
downward thrust of the shovel. Using a knife or a trowel, trim the slice of soil on both
sides to a bar 3-4 cm width. This bar of soil (representing one spot sample) is then
placed in a pail. Another way of obtaining a soil sample is by using soil auger. If
subsoil is needed, take a bar of soil from succeeding 20-30 cm depth. The subsoil
and the surface samples should be placed in separate containers.

4. Cover the pit and move to another spot.

Step 3: Take composite soil sample: After collecting all the spot soil samples of a particular
sampling area, pulverize, mix thoroughly, and remove stones and fresh leaves from the soil
in the container. A composite soil sample (about ½ kg) is taken from the pail and placed in a
clean plastic bag. The composite sample is now ready for chemical analysis using STK or
maybe sent to a soil testing laboratory with label and information.

Plant Testing

Plant testing involves characterization of growth and nutrient composition of plants.

Plant-based soil fertility evaluation techniques includes the following:

 Identification of nutrient deficiency symptoms,

 In-field evaluation techniques,
 Analysis of plant tissues in the laboratory, and
 Remote sensing

Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms

When the soil is not able to supply adequate amounts of one or more plant
nutrients, plants start showing signs called deficiency symptoms. Symptoms are nutrient
specific and show different patterns in different plants. Table 2 presents general
description of symptoms of nutrient deficiencies of some of the essential elements.

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Table 2. General description of symptoms of nutrient deficiencies.
Nutrient Symptoms1
N Chlorosis of whole plant; older leaves affected first.
P Purpling of leaves; older leaves affected first
K Older leaves show chlorosis and necrosis near margin or marginal burn;
younger leaves are interveinally chlorotic with shiny surface.
Ca Growing point dies; leaf-tip burn
Mg Older leaves marginal or interveinal chlorosis
S Chlorosis of whole plant; younger leaves affected first
Cu Death of young leaves, chlorosis
Zn Little leaf, deformed, chlorotic mottle in less severe cases
Mn Interveinal chlorosis - middle leaves affected first.
Fe Interveinal chlorosis; total bleaching and necrosis of young leaves
B Death of growing points; young leaf distortion
Mo Cupping of the leaf margins of the younger leaves

Symptom expression can vary from crop to crop.

1

One must develop diagnostic proficiency through practice and close observation to
identify nutrient deficiencies in plants. The deficiency symptoms in many cases are not
always clearly defined. The symptoms can be common to other causes or may be
masked by other nutrients. Examples of which are the following:

 N deficiency can be confused with S deficiency.

 Ca deficiency can be confused with B deficiency.
 Fe deficiency can be confused with Mn deficiency.
 Effect of virus can be confused with Zn and/or B deficiency.

The advantages of using nutrient deficiency symptoms in soil fertility evaluation is that it
is cheap and does not need elaborate equipment but require skill. Moreover, it is quick to
accomplish as it does not require chemical analysis identify the problem. However, the
deficiency symptoms always indicate severe starvation and therefore the crop may have
suffered before it appears. Many crops start losing yield well before deficiency signs start
showing – hidden hunger. Another disadvantage is that it cannot indicate the amount of
fertilizer needed to correct the deficiency. It is recommended to confirm deficiency problem
with other diagnostic technique such as soil testing.

In-field Evaluation of Nutrient Status of the Plant

One method of in-field evaluation is using chlorophyll meters for field scale plant

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N testing in intact leaves. Chlorophyll meters direct a beam of light corresponding to the
wavelength absorbed by the chlorophyll molecule through a plant leaf. Measures the leaf
greenness which is a measure of leaf chlorophyll content. A qualitative measure of
chlorophyll content and N content is through use of leaf color chart (LCC). These
methods can tell when it is time to apply nitrogen fertilizers.

Another method of in-field evaluation is through remote sensing. This involves

the use of satellite images and characterization of spatial variability. It can identify
nutrient deficiencies in real time.

Plant Tissue Analysis

The two general types of plant tissue analysis are discussed below:

1. Rapid Tissue Test

This semi-quantitative test is done in the field for the determination of nutrient
elements in plant sap of fresh tissue. The fresh plant tissue or sap from ruptured
cells is tested for unassimilated N, P, and K. The plant part that is usually being
tested is in general the conducive tissue of the latest mature leaf. Immature leaves
are avoided.

Some tips to remember:

 The critical stage of growth for tissue testing is at flowering to early fruiting
because it when the utilization of nutrients is at its maximum.
 The time of the day has an influence on the NO3 levels in plants. It is higher
in the morning than in the afternoon when N supply is short because NO3
accumulates at night and being utilized during the day as carbohydrates are
synthesized. Therefore, test should not be done early in the morning or late in
the afternoon.

2. Total Analysis

This test is usually done in laboratory using precise analytical techniques. The purpose
is to monitor the nutrient status of crops and to diagnose existing nutrient problems.
This involves drying, grinding, and ashing of plant samples (plant parts to sample are
recently matured materials (leaves)). Moreover, in this method, many elements can
be determined simultaneously. This involves the use of ICP optical emission
spectrometry and flame atomic absorption spectrometry. Table 2 presents the
laboratory methods used to determine different plant tissue nutrient content.

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 Table 2. Laboratory methods used to determine different plant tissue nutrient content.

Parameter Method
Total Nitrogen Kjeldahl Method
Total Phosphorus Vanadomolybdate Method
Total Potassium Flame photometer using ammonium acetate extraction
Total Calcium Ethylenediaminetetraacetic Acid (EDTA) Method
Total Magnesium Titration of Calcium plus Magnesium with EDTA

The following are the advantages of plant tissue analysis:

 It indicates the result of absorption as affected by factors of availability

existing in the location or environment.
 It provides direct measure of the nutrient status of the plant that is affected by
the availability of the nutrients in the soil.

The following are the disadvantages of plant tissue analysis:

 It needs more complex calibration of analytical test values and consideration

on the age of plant and cultivar is needed.
 It is expensive and it requires laboratory equipment.
 The nutrient concentration is easily affected by environmental conditions such
as drought, rainfall, and drainage.
 The shortage of one element may cause other elements to accumulate or it
may result in poor utilization of other elements resulting in increased
concentration.
 It is a postmortem kind of analysis.

Field Experiment

Field experiment is usually done to compare several treatments of fertilizer, lime,

etc., including a control to answer specific questions under field condition. The principle
is that comparison of plant growth rate at different treatments or levels of the selected
factor under actual field condition better reflects the influence of the environment. In this
method, plants are harvested after a uniform time interval, usually at the end of the
growing season.

The advantages of field experiment are:

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  It shows the integrated effects of the treatments with plants, soil, and other
environmental factors.
 It provides a basis for calibration of other methods of soil fertility evaluation.
 It is an ultimate basis for determining economic fertilizer recommendation.
 It is for follow-up of long-term consequences of fertilization management
 It can be extrapolated to other location with similar soil types or properties, rainfall,
and physiographic location (agro-ecosystem).

The disadvantages of field experiment are:

 It is expensive,
 It is time consuming, and
 It is difficult to conduct numerous experiments for every soil fertility variation.

Topic 2 – Procedures for Determining Amounts of Nutrients Needed

Fertilizer trials can be used in determining amounts of nutrients needed by the plants
and it is done through comparing several treatments of fertilizer, including a control, to answer
specific questions under field conditions. The comparison of plant growth rate at different
fertilizer levels under actual field conditions reflects better the influence of the environment. An
example of which is the field nutrient omission plot technique.

By knowing the yield responses to fertilizer application using field nutrient omission
trials, the amount of fertilizer needed to be applied can be estimated. A soil analysis result, if
available, can also be used in the estimation. Another method is the use of Soil Test Kits (STK).
STKs can help one to determine the soil pH and the soil N, P and K easily and quickly. It also
contains blanket fertilizer recommendations for some crops depending on the nutrient levels.
Submitting a properly obtained soil sample to analytical services laboratories which can
recommended fertilizer rates for a particular crop can be also done.

How to Calculate for the Amount of Fertilizer Needed by Your Crops?

Fertilizer is any substance that is applied to the soil or to the planting solid, liquid,
or gaseous form to supply one or more of the essential nutrient elements required for the
nutrition and growth of plants. Fertilizers are used to supply the nutrient requirement of a
crop. The amount of available nutrients in the soil is not enough to meet crop
management for high yield and many of the soil nutrients are not present in readily

200
available form.

Fertilizers can be broadly classified into:

 Organic fertilizers

These are any fertilizer product of plant and/or animal origin e.g. animal manures,
green manures, compost that has undergone decomposition through biological,
chemical and or any other process as long as the original materials are no longer
recognizable, soil-like in texture and free from plant or animal pathogens.

The different kinds organic fertilizer are discussed below:

o Pure organic fertilizer: no chemical has been added to the finished
product to increase nutrient content.
o Fortified or enriched: has been enriched with microbial inoculants,
hormones or chemical additives to increase nutrient content.
o Plant residues:
 Rice straw is one of the most abundant crop residues in the
country and is usually used with animal manure in compost
making.
 Corn stover can be composted but needs to be chopped further
for faster decomposition
 Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) leaves with their high nitrogen
content can also be used as green manure.
 Kakawate (Glyricidia sepium) leaves have more than 4% nitrogen
content and can be applied to the soil directly as N fertilizer.

 Inorganic fertilizers

These are fertilizers that are synthesized or are processed from mineral
deposits. It can be refered to as any fertilizer product whose properties are
determined primarily by its content of mineral matter or synthetic chemical
compounds. It can also contain one or more combination of the three primary
elements, N, P, or K.

The different kinds of inorganic fertilizer are:

o Single nutrient fertilizer: fertilizers that supply one primary nutrient; also
called straight fertilizers; Examples: urea , ammonium sulfate
o Multinutrient fertilizers: fertilizers containing two or three primary nutrients;
also known as: complex, compound and mixed fertilizers; Example:
Ammonium phosphate (16-20-0)

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 o Complete fertilizer: contains the 3 primary nutrients which are historically
known to be deficient in most soils

The conventional units of expressing fertilizer nutrients are usually stated in either
pure form or oxide form. Nitrogen is expressed as pure element N while P and K are in
oxides, P2O5 and K2O.The nutrient content in fertilizers is written in %N, %P2O5
and %K2O in that order.

The following are examples of common nitrogen fertilizers:

 Urea (46-0-0): highest N content among the solid N-fertilizers (NH2)2CO;

Hygroscopic and 100% soluble
 Anhydrous ammonia: with 82% N has the highest amount of N among all fertilizers;
contained in pressure tanks and is usually custom-applied by injecting into the soil;
ammonia gas is basic, pungent and colorless
 Ammonium sulfate (21-0-0): hygroscopic and nearly 100% soluble; contains sulfur
(~24%), recommended for S-deficient soils

The following are common P fertilizers:

 Ordinary superphosphate (OSP): contains 20% P2O5; Pelleted as grayish granules
and has a faint acid odor; About 85% of the P is water soluble and it contains traces
of other nutrient elements
 Triple superphosphate (TSP): monocalcium phosphate monohydrate

The following are common K fertilizers

 Muriate of potash or potassium chloride (KCl) : highly soluble and contains traces of
other elements

Fertilizer computations and recommendations

The following are important terms you need to be familiar with before learning
how to do fertilizer calculation:
 Fertilizer grade – this refers to the weight percentage of the nutrients contained in a
fertilizer. It is the guaranteed minimum analysis of the plant nutrient in terms of %
total N, % available phosphoric acid (%P2O5) and % soluble potash (%K2O)
 Fertilizer ratio – this refers to the relative proportion of each of the primary nutrients
N, P2O5 and K2O in a fertilizer material
Example: 14-14-14 => 1:1:1

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 Sample problems could be found below:

o Problem 1: A farmer applied 2 bags of Urea (46-0-0). How many kg of N did he apply?

Given: 2 bags of Urea or 100 kg (1bag = 50 kgs)

Fertilizer Grade (46-0-0) (remember fertilizer grade is in percent so 46% is equal

to 0.46)

Amount of Nutrient = 100 x 0.46 = 46kg of N

o Problem 2: A farmer applied 1bag of 14-14-14 and 1 bag of urea in his farm. How
many kg of each N, P2O5, and K2O did he apply?

Given: 1 bag of triple 14 (50kgs)

1 bag of Urea (50kgs)
Fertilizer Grade of T14 (14-14-14)
Fertilizer Grade of Urea (46-0-0)

Amount of N, P, and K in triple 14= 50 x 0.14 = 7kg of N, P, K

Amount of N in Urea = 50 x 0.46 = 23kg of N

Total N = 7+23 = 30 Total P2O5=7 Total K2O = 7

The total NPK applied was 30kg N, 7kg P2O5, and 7kg K2O

If the given is the recommendation and the thing you need to find out is the amount of
fertilizer needed to apply you need to follow this formula:

Weight of Fertilizer = Recommendation

Fertilizer Grade

For Example:

Problem 3: A recommendation calls for 45-0-0/ha. How many kg of urea (46-0-0)

must be applied?

Given: Recommendation 45-0-0 (45kg of nitrogen and no other element meaning

it is a single element fertilizer is needed)

Fertilizer Material available if Urea 46-0-0

Weight of Fertilizer = 45/0.46

= 97.83kg of Urea/ha

Problem 4: A recommendation calls for 120-60-30/ha. How many kgs of Urea (46-
0-0), OSP (0-20-0), and Triple 14 (14-14-14) must be applied?

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 Given: Recommendation 120-60-30/ha (meaning three elements are needed to be
supplied)

Fertilizer Materials Available: Urea (46-0-0), OSP (0-20-0), Triple 14 (14-14-14)

First is to compute for the fertilizer with the lowest recommendation. The lowest
recommendation is 30 which is K and the fertilizer that has K is Triple 14 so the
first solution is:

Amount of Triple 14 = 30/0.14 = 214.29kg of T14/ha

Keep in mind that T14 does not only contain K, it also contain N and P so to get
how many kg of N and P was applied you need to do this

Amount of N, P, and K in T14 = 214.29 x 0.14 = 30kg of N, P, and K.

214.29kg of T14 also contain 30 of N, 30 of P, and 30 of K. This will be subtracted

from the recommendation:
120-60-30
-30-30-30
90-30-0 will be the new recommendation

Amount of OSP = 30/0.20 = 150kg of OSP/ha

It only has P so to check 150x0.20=30kg of P

90-30-0
-0-30-0
90-0-0

In this case the N is the only nutrient that is not yet satisfied so it is the last to
compute.

Amount of Urea = 90/0.46 = 195.65 kg of Urea/ha

To check 195.65 x 0.46 = 90kg N
90-0-0
-90-0-0
0

Meaning you need to apply 214.29kg of T14/ha, 150kg of OSP/ha, and

195.65 kg of Urea/ha to meet the recommendation.

If the area is not 1ha you will convert it.

For Example:

Problem 5. 214.29kg of T14/ha is needed to be applied. However, the area is

only 2,000 m2. How many kg of T14 will be applied?

Amount of T14/2,000 m2= 214.29 x 2,000

10,000

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 = 42.86kg of T14/2,000 m2

Always remember that 1ha=10,000m2

If per hill was needed. You need to compute for the number of plants in the given
area and then divide the amount of fertilizer by the number of plants.

If number of bags is needed. You need to divide the kg into 50 because 1bag =
50 kgs

If cost is needed you will just multiply the number of bags of fertilizer needed to
its price.

Methods of fertilizer application

The different methods of fertilizer application are:

 Broadcast: this refers to the method in which the fertilizer is spread evenly on
the soil surface; suitable for rice crop since they are closely planted
 Band placement: in this method, fertilizers may be applied on the row below the
seed level or slightly on the side of the seeds along the row; usually done for
crops like corn, sorghum, tobacco, and fruit trees
 Foliar application: application of fertilizers on the leaves is made when quick
action of nutrients is desired or when certain micronutrients are needed to be
supplied with the crop; usually employed in very plantations such as pineapple
or banana
 In-the-row: this is when fertilizer is applied along the bottom of furrow
 Ring: this is when fertilizer is applied around the base of the plant or tree
 Hole: this is when fertilizer is dropped in holes around the tree
 Spot: this is when fertilizer is dropped in small amount on the side of each hill or
plant.
 Basal: this refers to the method of appyling fertilizer for the first time at planting
 Topdress: this refers to fertilizer application sometime after plants have
emerged
 Fertigation: this refers to the application of fertilizer dissolved in irrigation water

The following factors are important to consider in choosing method of fertilizer

application:
 Relative mobility of nutrients in the soil
 Type of crop and its rooting pattern
 Soil texture
 Season of the year
 Kind of fertilizer

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 Time of fertilizer application is important it depends on the climate, soil, nutrient and
crop. In sandy soils, N is necessarily split as well as K. For heavy clays, all of N is
sometimes placed at planting. P and K are usually applied at planting as they are less
mobile, less subject to leaching and less soluble.

Topic 3 - Microbiological Methods

Microbiological test involves the use of microorganism to determine the presence of

nutrients in the soil. Certain micro-organisms exhibit behavior like that of higher plants when
exposed to environments deficient in one or more plant nutrients. For example, the growth of
Azotobacter or Aspergillus niger reflects nutrient deficiency in the soil. In this method, the soil
can be rated from ‘very deficient’ to ‘not deficient’ in different nutrients, depending on the extent
of colony growth.

Different methods have been developed by researchers worldwide to determine soil fertility
based on microbial activity. The following are some of the methods (Baliyarsignh et al., 2017):

1. The general mechanism of assessment of soil fertility is by adding moistened soil

samples with 60 or 70% of water-holding capacity, with specific nutrient solution,
followed by incubation at 20-30 ◦C for 7-30 days and observes biological changes.

2. The biological reactions involving metabolism of nitrogen compounds are analyzed for
soil fertility evaluation. The common biological reactions analyzed are ammonification,
nitrification, denitrification, and nitrogen fixation.

3. The abundance of certain organisms in the soil and presence of other organisms can be
examined by various microbial culture methods. Changes in the concentration of
important nutrients in the soil with respect to microbial activity and abundance can
provide an idea about the soil fertility.

However, the major difficulty in using the above said methods is the dependency of soil
microbial reaction on many natural variables. These include different soil conditions,
weather conditions, and soil management.

According to Chourasia et. al., 2017, some of the tools used for assessing microbial
community and diversity in the soil are the following:

1. Structural profiling technique

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 Structural diversity refers to the number of species, genes, and communities in
an ecosystem (Avidano et. al., 2005 as cited by Chourasia et.al., 2017). Analysis of fatty
acid methyl ester/phospholipid-derived fatty acid (FAME/PLFA) profile in soil is being
used to detect structural profiling of soil from a specific agroecosystem. FAME/PLFA
profiling in soil is a culture independent technique. Analyzing PLFA in soil can help in
distinguish the microbial communities or groups of organisms based on fatty acid
profiling (Ibekwe and Kennedy, 1998 as cited bu Chourasia et. al., 2017). Molecular
Genetic Profiling

2. Catabolic Profiling Techniques

Examination of the number of different C-substrates utilized by microbial

community is being done in these techniques.

Note: There are a lot of microbiological methods in examining soil fertility but those will not be
discussed in further details in this module.

Topic 4 - Pot Cultures and Experiments

Pot cultures are usually done for examining changes in the microbial composition and
properties of the soil its relation to plant growth. Pot experiments are usually done to determine
the nutrient levels of the soil by having fertilization experiments in pots or small containers inside
a greenhouse or near the field. One example of pot experiment is the Minus One Element
Technique (MOET) that is usually being use for rice. MOET was developed by Dr. Cesar P.
Mamaril in Philippine Rice Research Institute which involves the following treatment:
- complete fertilization (with N, P, K, Zn)
- minus N (no nitrogen)
- minus P (no phosphorus)
- minus K (no potassium)
- minus Zn (no zinc)

To know more about MOET, please watch the video by opening the link below:

https://youtu.be/sWlJjceYhCc

The advantages of pot experiments are:

 It is less labor intensive, simple, and more rapid, and less expensive
 It is suitable for large number of soils.

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  It gives preliminary answers to specific questions or suspected problems.
 It is a more sensitive method to determine or detect effects of secondary and
micronutrients.

The disadvantages of pot experiments are:

 It is done under artificial conditions, therefore not a good basis for determining yield per
hectare or economic representations.
 It does not represent field condition and yield might be over extrapolated.

Learning Activities

Problem Solving

1. A farmer applied 120kg of Triple 14, 50kg of Ordinary Superphosphate (0-20-0), and
60kg of Urea (46-0-0). Determine how many kilograms of total N, total P, and total K
was applied.

According to the soil analyst the following fertilizer recommendation was given:

Fertilizer Recommendation/ha: 150kg of N – 90kg of P2O5 – 30kg of K2O

The fertilizer materials available in the market were:

Triple 14
Ammophos (16-20-0)
Urea (46-0-0)

Determine how many kg of each fertilizer material is needed to meet the

recommendation.

The following fertilizers were mixed:

4 bags of Triple 14
3 bags of ammphos (16-20-0)
3 bags of ammonium sulphate (20-0-0)
1bag of muriate of potash (0-0-60)

What is the resulting grade (%N, %P, and %K) of the resulting mixture?

Summary of Key Takeaways

 The fundamental purpose of soil fertility evaluation is to quantify the ability of soils to
supply nutrients for plant growth.

 The techniques used to assess nutrient status of a soil are observation of the nutrient
deficiency symptoms, plant analysis, biological tests (pot test, field experiments,
microbiological test), and soil analysis or soil testing.

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  Soil sample is the basic entity which is used for evaluation of soil fertility and for giving
advice to the farmer for a profitable manipulation of soil fertility.

 Laboratory methods used to determine different soil chemical characteristics can be

found below:

Parameter
Organic matter (%)
Total Nitrogen (%)
Available Phosphorus (ppm)
Cation Exchange Capacity (cmolc/kg Ammonium Acetate
soil)
Exchangeable Ca (cmolc/kg soil)
Exchangeable Mg (cmolc/kg soil)
Exchangeable K (cmolc/kg soil)
Method
Walkley and Black Method
Kjeldahl Method
Bray No. 2 (for soils with pH below 6.0)
Olsen (for soils with pH above 6.0)
EDTA Titration
EDTA Titration
Flame photometer using ammonium
acetate extraction

 When the soil is not able to supply adequate amounts of one or more plant nutrients,
plants start showing signs called deficiency symptoms.

 In plant analysis, plant samples are taken to the laboratory and are analyzed for its
chemical characteristics.

 Fertilizer is any substance that is applied to the soil or to the planting solid, liquid, or
gaseous form to supply one or more of the essential nutrient elements required for the
nutrition and growth of plants.

 The general formula for fertilizer calculation is:

Weight of fertilizer = weight of nutrient

nutrient content

References

Benton Jones Jr., J. 2012. Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility Manual Second Edition ISBN 13:978-
1-4398-1610-3

Green Empire PH. 2019. Soil Science Review Module.

Sanchez, P.B. 2017. Soil Fertility Evaluation. Soil 151 Lecture Handout. University of the
Philippines Los Banos

Singh, B., Singh, Y. 2015. Soil Fertility: Evaluation and Management. Retrieved from Academia

209
on February 2021 at
https://www.academia.edu/38680580/Soil_Fertility_Evaluation_and_Management

Soil Fertility Evaluation Laboratory Manual of the University of the Philippines Los Banos.

210
 LESSON 4
Characteristics of Different Problem Soils

This module aims to give as review on the different problem soils. Module 4 provides the
foundation for understanding the different methods of on how to manage problem soils
effectively for agriculture.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Describe the different problem soils, and
2. Describe how to manage problem soils for agricultural purposes.

Topic 1 – Formation of Saline and Sodic Soils

All soils contain soluble salts. The salts in the root zone determines whether it is normal,
or salt affected. The excessive salts in the soil could adversely affect crop growth. Salt affected
soils exist mostly under arid and semi-arid regions, in more than 100 countries. Annual rainfall is
arid and semi-arid regions is not sufficient to leach down the salts to the deeper layers of the
soil. High evaporation can also result to the accumulation of salts in the root zone.

Soil salinity could be due to natural causes and/or due to irrational land use and
inappropriate agricultural practices. Primary salinity can happen naturally in soils. Salt
accumulation processes could happen naturally with certain types of topography,
geomorphological and hydrogeological condition. A high-water table could impede drainage with
only evaporation and transpiration processes can control the ground water table. Secondary
salinity could be cause by excessive water inputs through irrigation and leaching of soils in the
absence of appropriate drainage systems which can use rapid rising of the water table.

Soil salinity is caused by various factors or combination of factors. The main sources of
salinity are salts that are present on its parent materials, mineralized grounds, surface water
and wind-blown deposits. The presence of saline parent materials such as rock salts and salt
domes are the major cause of natural soil salinization. Aeolian transport of salts from the sea
surface (salt spray) is another cause. Hydrogenic salt accumulation in an important source of
salts in soils within the areas of groundwater springs and shallow groundwater tables. Biogenic
salt accumulation associated with the ability of plants to accumulate certain salts and later
return these to soils as plant litter undergoes decomposition.

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 The major constituents of dissolved salts in soil are the following:
 Na+
 Ca2+
 Mg2+
 Cl-
 SO42-
 CO32-
 HCO-

Salinity can be expressed as electrical conductivity (EC) of the irrigation water (ECw), the soil
water (ECss) or the saturated soil extract (ECe). Sodicity is measured in the soil by
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) and in the soil solution by sodium adsorption ratio
(SAR). Too much sodium can cause problems related to soil structure. As sodium increases,
the risk of soil aggregate dispersion (Figure 1) increases. Cations are flocculators. They bring
negatively charge clay particles to flocculate soil clay. Na+ is a much poorer flocculator than Ca2+
and Mg2+ because it has less charge and its ionic size in water is much larger. Flocculation is
important because water moves through large pores and plant roots grow mainly in pore space.
Dispersed clay plugs soil pores and impeded water movement and soil drainage. Any salt that
accumulates in excessive amounts can cause toxicity and plant growth problems.

Figure 1. The difference between flocculated (aggregated) and dispersed soil structure
(Choudhary & Kharche, 2018).

Classification of the Salt -affected Soils

There are three general categories of salt-affected soils which are the following:

 Saline soils – this contains sufficient neutral soluble salts which adversely affect the
growth of most crop plants. The soluble salts are chiefly sodium chloride and sodium
sulphate. It also contains chlorides and sulfates of Ca2+ and Mg2+.These soils are

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 characterized by electrical conductivity of the saturated extract (ECe) more than 4 dS
m-1 at 25 oC and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) less than 15 and sodium
adsorption ratio (SAR) less than 13. The soil pH is ordinarily less than 8.5. These
soils are usually in a flocculated state and their permeability is equal to or higher than
the normal soils. Most of these soils have salt efflorescence or white encrustation of
soluble salts at the surface.

 Sodic soils - These soils are also known as alkali soils which contain sodium salts
capable of causing alkaline hydrolysis, mainly Na2CO3 (Figure 2). The sodic soils
have ECe less than 4 dS m-1 at 25oC, ESP more than 15 and SAR more than 13.
Most of the sodium is in exchangeable form. Very small amounts of free salts are
present in soil solution. The soil pH is more than 8.5. As a result of irrigation, strongly
alkaline conditions may develop in these soils and pH values reaching or exceeding
10 are common. When organic matter is dispersed and deposited on the surface,
sodic soils appear brown-black and are known as black alkali soils.

Figure 2. Barren sodic soil (Choudhary & Kharche, 2018).

Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) refers to the degree by which the

exchange sites of colloids are occupied by sodium ions. This is used in the
classification of saline and alkali soils or to determine if a sodium hazard exists and is
computed by taking the ratio of the me of Na+ and that of the cation exchange capacity
(CEC).

Sample calculation:
CEC = 27 me/100g soil while Na+ = 1.5 me/100g soil

ESP = (me Na+/ CEC) x 100

ESP = (1.5/27) x 100 = 5.6%

The soil becomes highly dispersed with high ESP values (>15%). High ESP is

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 undesirable because it leads to poor aeration and drainage or permeability to water.

 Saline-sodic soils - These soils have high concentration of neutral salts and
appreciable sodium on the exchange complex i.e., have problems because of sodium
and other salts. The saline-sodic soils have ECe more than 4 dS m-1 at 25 oC, ESP
more than 15 and SAR more than 13. In these soils, both free salts and
exchangeable Na+ are present. Excess salts present in the soil keep the soil
flocculated and the soil pH is normally less than 8.5. Upon leaching, when free salt
content decreases, these soils may behave like a sodic soil (pH > 8.5) because of the
hydrolysis of exchangeable Na+. The selection of the critical value for ECe 4 dS m-1 to
distinguish a saline soil from non-saline soil is based on the expected salt damage to
crops. At this level, the yield of many crops is restricted. At ECe values between 2
and 4 dS m-1, the growth of only sensitive crops is affected. Below ECe value of 2 dS
m-1, the effect of salinity is negligibly small. Use of ESP value of 15 is arbitrary since
no sharp changes in soil properties have been observed as the proportion of Na+ on
the exchange complex is increased.

Topic 2 –Management of Saline, Sodic, Acidic and Nutrient Deficient Soils

Management of Salt Affected Soils

There are different methodological approaches for different classification of salt affected
soils amelioration measures. Table 1 shows the different classification of ameliorative measures
(Choudhary & Kharche, 2018).

Table 1. Classification of ameliorative measures for salt-affected soils (Choudhary & Kharche,
2018)

Groups Types Techniques

Hydrotechnical Irrigation systems Sprinkling
amelioration Surface irrigation (furrows, bands, flooding)
Subsurface irrigation
Drip irrigation
Irrigation and Irrigation combined with horizontal drainage
drainage systems Irrigation combined with vertical drainage
Chemical Application of Overall application
amelioration gypsum, Scattering
Acidification Compensating
treatments, etc. Local
Combined
Agrotechnical Surface-water Levelling
amelioration regulating Furrowing
reclamation Ridging

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 Subsurface water Deep tilling
regulating Slitting
reclamation Moling
Phytobiological Grass plantation Inclusion of phytomeliorants into crop rotations
amelioration Green manure (cover crops)
Organic carbon sequestration
Grassing
Agro-technical Amelioration Removal of shrubs and trees, stumps, and
amelioration (cultivation) of the stones
(Culturetechnical) land surface Removal of humps, levelling
Management of Acid and Nutrient Deficient Soils

Soil acidity affects crop production. Acid soils are characterized as soils with pH<6.5 in
the top layer. The major factors that affect crop growth are associated with acid soil infertility
including the toxicity of aluminum and manganese, low pH and deficiencies or low availability of
essential elements such as calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, boron, and molybdenum.
Moreover, strongly acid soils may arise from water stress which results from restriction of root
growth into acid subsurface horizons.
The following are some management strategies for acid soils:

1. Plant acid tolerant crops

Acid tolerant crops include tomato, cassavas, strawberry, etc.

2. Acid soil management

The major problem of highly weathered acid soil is low P. To overcome this crop-limiting
factor, application of lime and alternative liming materials, inorganic and organic nutrient
sources, and management of rhizosphere activities as components of integrated nutrient
management, and genetic improvement of plants for enhanced P uptake could be used for P
management in acid soils.

Acidity and aluminum toxicity can be ameliorated through liming. Liming materials could
come from ground limestone, which can be calcite (CaCO3), dolomite (CaCO3, MgCO3), or
combination of the two. Lime is usually broadcasted on the soil surface and then mixed with the
soil during tillage operations. With water, CaCO3 dissolved and hydrolyses to form OH- that
reacts with H+. However, since calcite and dolomite have industrial uses, their application in
agriculture is not economical. It has been suggested that the recommendation of lime should be
made in small quantities to make it cost effective and for better acceptability of resource-poor
farmers.

Integrated nutrient management can increase crop productivity in acid soils. Proper
application of lime, organic manure and inorganic fertilizers could be of help. Application of
inorganic P at right rate, time and place can increase P use efficiency in crops There are
numerous P solubilizing microorganisms that could be inoculated to the soil to enhance P

215
availability. Evidence shows that soil application of organic manures either alone or in
combination of agricultural lime can neutralize soil acidity. Organic manure, whether in solid or
liquid form improves soil structure, water holding capacity, microbial activity which can promote
plant growth and yield.
Management for nutrient deficient soil generally includes detection of the deficient
nutrient through soil and plant tissue analyses and observation of crop nutrient deficiency
symptoms. Application of the fertilizers in response to the deficient nutrient is generally
recommended along with the different recommended nutrient management strategies for
different crops.

The most favorable pH for growing most agricultural plants is between pH 6 and pH 7
because at the availability of the nutrients and activities of beneficial microorganisms are at
maximum at his range. The range of pH in the Philippines is from pH 5.5 to ph 6.5. When the pH
is too low (< 5.0, strongly acidic), nutrients particularly Ca, Mg, K, P, Mo, N become less
available to plants. N release may also be hindered when the symbiotic nitrogen fixation and
nitrification are inhibited. Fe, Al, and Mn become more soluble to the point of toxicity. P
becomes complexed into insoluble forms with Fe and Al. P can also be precipitated as insoluble
manganese phosphate compounds when the soil is rich in manganese oxides. Soils also
become acidic when the bases are leached out and replaced by H+ ions e.g., old soils in the
humid tropics. Soil acidity may also develop from the decomposition of organic matter due to the
formation of organic acids like fulvic acid, humic acid, and carbonic acid.

When pH is too high (>8.0, strongly alkaline), same nutrients become unavailable. Most
micronutrients (except Mo) become unavailable at high pH. Iron deficiency commonly develops.
P becomes complexed with calcium as precipitates of calcium hydroxyapatite or calcium
phosphate dehydrate. K also competes with the now abundant Ca for plant absorption.

Links for videos:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3QLeSReHnYY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=htQL_keYvXM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=38lrS4MUvDA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tLaJawbMrT0

https://youtu.be/NztGRuzgYsA

216
Summary of Key Takeaways

 All soils contain soluble salts. The salts in the root zone determines whether it is normal,
or salt affected.

 Salinity can be expressed as electrical conductivity (EC) of the irrigation water (ECw), the
soil water (ECss) or the saturated soil extract (ECe). Sodicity is measured in the soil by
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) and in the soil solution by sodium adsorption
ratio (SAR).

 The three general categories of salt-affected soils are: saline, sodic, and saline-sodic.

References

Benton Jones Jr., J. 2012. Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility Manual Second Edition ISBN 13:978-
1-4398-1610-3

Choudnary, O.P. and Kharce, V.K. 2018. Soil Salinity and Sodicity. Soil Science: An
Introduction pp. 353 – 384. Retrieved from Research Gate on January 18, 2021 at
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327824188_Soil_Salinity_and_Sodicity

FAO. 2018. Handbook of Saline Soil Management. ISBN 978-92-5-130141-8 (FAO)

Sharma, D.K., Singh, A., Sharma, P.C., Dagar, J.C., and Chaudhary, S.K. Sustainable
Management of Sodic Soils for Crop Production:
Opportunities and Challenges. Journal of Soil Salinity and Water Quality 8(2), 109-130

Thakuria, D., Hazarika, S., and Krishnappa, R. 2016. Soil Acidity and Management Options.
Indian Journal of Fertilizers, Vol. 12 (12), pp. 40-56

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 LESSON 5
Erosion Process and Mechanics

This module aims to give a review on the basic ground on soil erosion. Module 5 focuses on
the different soil erosion processes, and factors affecting soil erosion.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the module, student should be able to:

1. Identify different types of soil erosion.
2. Determine and discuss different processes and energy involved in soil erosion.
3. Determine and discuss different factors affecting soil erosion.

Definition and Factors Influencing the Rate of Erosion

Soil erosion is defined as the net long- term balance of all processes that detach soil
and move it from its original location (Lupia-Palmieri, 2004 as cited in FAO, 2019). The
following are the on-site effects of soil erosion: loss of topsoil, loss of soil moisture,
breakdown of soil structure, decline in organic matter, decline in soil fertility, and loss or
productivity. Erosion leads to the breakdown of soil aggregates and clods into their primary
particles of clay, silt, and sand. These will result in the reduction of cultivable soil depth, more
drought prone conditions which restricts what can be grown in the soil which can ultimately
lead to the abandonment of land. Off-site problems that are due to sedimentation
downstream or downwind include sediment pollution, reduction of the capacity of rivers and
drainage ditches, enhancement of flooding risk, blocking of irrigation canals, and shortening
of the design of life of the reservoir.

Many hydroelectricity and irrigation projects have been ruined because of erosion.
Sediment pollution can happen when the chemicals absorbed into cause the levels of
nitrogen and phosphorus in water bodies. It can cause eutrophication. Eutrophication is
characterized by excessive plant and algal growth due to increased availability of one or
more limiting growth factors needed for photosynthesis. This can cause creation of dense
blooms or noxious, foul-smelling phytoplankton that reduce water clarity and harm water
quality.

Soil erodibility is an estimate of the ability of soils to resist erosion, based on the
physical characteristics of each soil. The principal soil physical property influencing soil
erodibility is the texture. Soil structure, organic matter and permeability can also influence soil

218
erodibility. Sand, sandy loam and loam-texture soils tend to be less erodible than silt, very fine
sand and certain clay-texture soils. Generally, soils with faster infiltration rates and higher
levels of organic matter have greater resistance to erosion. The steeper and longer the slope
of a field, the higher the possibility of erosion. Due greater accumulation of runoff as the slope
length increases soil erosion by water increases. Poor crop cover also means lesser
protection against the force of water and wind. Plants and residue cover protects the soil from
raindrop impact and splash. They tend to slow down the movement of runoff water and allow
excess water to infiltrate.

Tillage and cropping practices resulting in reduction of soil organic matter levels, poor
soil structure, and compaction can increase soil erodibility. Compacted subsurface soil layers
can decrease water infiltration and therefore increase runoff. Runoff is the downward
movement of surface water under gravity in channels ranging from small rills to large rivers.
The formation of soil crust that seals the soil surface decreases infiltration. In some situations,
soil crusting can lessen the impact of raindrops and splash that detaches soil particles;
however, it can contribute to runoff which leads to a more serious problem.

The two general types of erosion are water and wind erosion. Different forms of water
erosion are discussed below:

Forms of water erosion

1. Sheet erosion
This form of water erosion refers to the movement of soil from raindrop and
runoff water. It occurs evenly over a uniform slope and goes unnoticed until
most of the productive topsoil has been lost. Eroded soils are deposited at the
bottom of the slope or in low lying areas

2. Rill erosion
This form of water erosion results when surface water runoff concentrates,
forming small and well-defined channels. The channels are called rills and are
small enough not to interfere with field machine operations. As part of tillage
operations, rills are filled in many cases.

3. Gully erosion
This form of water erosion is an advance of rill erosion where surface
channels are eroded to the point where they hamper tillage operations. It
results in significant amounts of land being taken out of production and results
in hazardous conditions for the operators of farm machineries. Gully
formations are difficult to control if corrective measures are not designed and

219
 properly constructed.

4. Bank erosion
This form of water erosion is the progressive undercutting, scouring, and
slumping of natural streams and constructed drainage channels. Poor
construction practices, inadequate maintenance, uncontrolled livestock access
and cropping too close on natural streams and drainage channels can lead to
bank erosion.

Wind erosion can cause major losses of soil and property. Wind can move soil particles
in three ways, depending on soil particle size and wind strength – suspension, saltation, and
surface creep. The rate and magnitude of wind erosion are affected by the following factors:

1. Soil texture
Very fine soil particles are carried high into the air by wind and transported great
distances (suspension). Fine to medium sized soil particles are lifted and carried at a short
distance into air and drop back to the soil surfaces causing damage to crops and dislodging
more soil (saltation). Large size soil particles are dislodged by the wind and roll along the soil
surface (soil creep).

2. Surface roughness
Soil surfaces that are not rough have low resistance to the wind. Ridges that dry
quickly can result in more loose, dry soil that is easy to below. When soil surfaces become
filled in, the roughness will be broken down over time which can result in a smoother soil
surface susceptible to wind erosion.

Process and Energy Available for Soil Erosion

Soil erosion has a three-phase process consisting of detachment, transport, and

deposition. The first phase is the detachment of individual soil particles from the soil mass.
The second phase is the transport of the individual soil particles by the erosive agents such
as water and wind. The third phase is the deposition of those particles

The energy available for erosion takes two forms: potential and kinetic. Potential
energy results from the difference in height of one body with respect to another. It is the
product of mass (kg), height difference (m) and acceleration due to gravity (m/s) as
summarized in this formula:

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 PE (J) = mhg

The potential energy for erosion is converted into kinetic energy, the energy in motion.
Kinetic energy is related to the product of mass (kg) and velocity (m/s) as summarized in
this formula:

KE (J) = ½ (mv2)

Table 1. Efficiency of forms of water erosion (Morgan, 2005).

This shows that the concentration of running water in rills affords the most powerful erosive
agent as the sediments are higher, but raindrops are potentially more erosive than overland
flow as seen in its energy. Most of the raindrop energy is used in detachment, however, so
that the amount available for transport is less than that from overland flow.

The actual response of a soil to a given rainfall depends upon its moisture content,
structural state, and the intensity of the rain. Le Bissonnais (1990) as cited by Morgan (2005)
describes three possible responses:

1. If the soil is dry and the rainfall intensity is high, the soil aggregates break down
quickly by slaking. This is the breakdown by compression of air ahead of the wetting
front. Infiltration capacity reduces rapidly and on very smooth surfaces runoff can be
generated after only a few millimeters of rain.

2. If the aggregates are initially partially wetted or the rainfall intensity is low,
microcracking occurs and the aggregates break down into smaller aggregates.

221
 Surface roughness thus decreases but infiltration remains high because of the large
pore spaces between the microaggregates.

3. If the aggregates are initially saturated, infiltration capacity depends on the saturated
hydraulic conductivity of the soil and large quantities of rain are required to seal the
surface. Nevertheless, soils with less than 15 per cent clay content are vulnerable to
sealing if the intensity of the rain is high.

Coarser soils are resistant to detachment because of the weight of the larger
particles. Finer soils are resistant because the raindrop energy must overcome the adhesive
or chemical bonding forces that link the minerals comprising the clay particles. The wide
range in energy required to detach clay particles is a function of different levels of resistance
in relation to the type of clay minerals and the relative amounts of calcium, magnesium and
sodium ions in the water passing through the pores (Arulanandan & Heinzen 1977 as cited
by Morgan 2005).

Factors Controlling Soil Erosion

The factors controlling soil erosion are the erosivity of the eroding agent, the
erodibility and slope of the land, and the nature of plant cover. Soil loss is closely related to
rainfall partly through the detaching power of raindrops and partly through its contribution to
runoff.

Table 2. Rainfall intensity and soil loss relationship (Morgan 2005).

Maximum 5-min intensity Number of falls of rain Average soil loss per
(mm/h) rainfall (t/ha)
0 – 25.4 40 3.7
25.5 – 50.8 61 6.0
50.9 – 76.2 40 11.8
76.3 – 101.6 19 11.4
101.7 – 127.0 13 34.2
127.1 – 152.4 4 36.3
152.5 -177.8 5 38.7
177.9 – 254.0 1 47.9

Erodibility defines the resistance of the soil to both detachment and transport. Large
particles are resistant to transport because of the greater force required to entrain them and
fine particles are resistant to detachment because of their cohesiveness. Soils with high

222
 content of basic minerals are generally more stable as these minerals contribute to the
chemical bonding of the soil aggregates.

The organic and chemical constituents of the soil can influence its aggregate
stability. Soils with less than 3.5% organic matter are erodible (Evans 1908 as cited by
Morgan 2005). Most agricultural soils contain less than 15% organic matter and many sands
and sandy loams have less than 2%. Most soils contain less than 15%
organic content and many sands and sandy loams have less than 2 per cent.

Erosion is expected to increase with increasing slope steepness and length because
of increase in velocity and volume of surface runoff. On a flat surface, raindrops splash soil
particles in all directions while on a sloping ground, more soil is splashed downslope than
upslope and the proportion is increasing as the slope steepness. On the other hand,
vegetation acts as a protective layer or buffer between the atmosphere and soil.

Greatest reductions in velocity occur with dense, spatially uniform, vegetation covers.
Moreover, it can reduce the velocity of wind by imparting roughness to the flow of air. Forest
covers generally help to protect land against mass movements partly through the cohesive
effect of the tree roots to the soil. However, trees planted at the top of a slope can reduce
stability as it can induce landslides through an increase in loading brought about by their
weight and increase in infiltration lowering the soil strength.

Learning Activities

Links for videos to watch:

● https://youtu.be/DhOzDMb0au4
● https://youtu.be/kqKYszb3g2U
● https://youtu.be/MSbbl5lpmik

Link for articles to read:

https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/eutrophication-causes-
consequences-and-controls-in-aquatic-102364466/

Summary of Key Takeaways

● Soil erosion is defined as the net long- term balance of all processes that detach soil
and move it from its original location.
● The two general types of erosion are water and wind erosion. The actual response of

223
 a soil to a given rainfall depends upon its moisture content, structural state, and the
intensity of the rain.
● Soil erosion has a three-phase process consisting of detachment, transport, and
deposition.
● The factors controlling soil erosion are the erosivity of the eroding agent, the
erodibility and slope of the land, and the nature of plant cover.

References

FAO. 2019. Soil erosion: the greatest challenge to sustainable soil management. Rome. 100
pp. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO

Morgan, R.P.C. 2005. Soil Erosion and Conservation. Third Edition. Blackwell Publishing.

Ritter, J. 2012. Soil Erosion – Causes and Effects Factsheet Order No. 87-040. Ministry of
Agriculture Food and Rural Affairs, Ontario.

224
 LESSON 6
Soil Erosion Measurement and Management

This module aims to give a review on how to measure soil erosion and a review on
different soil and water conservation strategies. Module 6 focuses on the widely used Universal
Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and different soil and water conservation strategies such as crop
management, soil management and mechanical methods of control in relation to agricultural
crop production.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. Familiarize the Universal Soil Loss Equation.
2. To learn the importance of soil conservation as a means of sustaining soil fertility
to crop production,
3. To discuss different methods of soil conservation and management.

Factors Affecting Soil Erosion

1. Climate
• Rainfall is the climatic element that mainly affects erosion in humid tropics.
• Rainfall intensity (not rainfall amount) is positively correlated to soil erosion if all
other factors are held constant.
• Rainfall erosivity: the potential ability of the rain to cause erosion.
• Downpours of high intensity and comparatively short duration invariably cause
maximum runoff of lands subject to erosion

2. Relief/slope
• slope steepness and slope length affect splash erosion and runoff behavior by
imparting velocity.
• in longer slopes, the runoff water accumulates speed as it nears the bottom end of
the slope.
• a long steep slope causes the most severe soil erosion
• Land slopes cannot be directly changed but can be modified for their effect on
runoff by the use of traverse channels of terraces.

3. Vegetation

225
 • intercepts rainfall by absorbing the energy of raindrops, thus reducing runoff.
• retards erosion by decreased runoff velocity.
• physically restrains the soil movement.
• improves aggregation and porosity of soil by roots and plant residue.
• increases biological activity in the soil.
• its transpiration through the body tissues decreases soil moisture, resulting in
increased storage capacity.

4. Soil properties
• Soil erodibility: the soil’s vulnerability or proneness to erosion which is influenced by
infiltration capacity and structural stability of the soil.
• high clay content induces surface runoff and increases transportability but
decreases detachability

5. Human activities
• include management practices and choice of cropping system
• Farm practices contributing to soil erosion:
o Shortening of fallow periods: more cropping period due to increased demand in
food.
o Kaingin system of farming/swidden agriculture/slash and burn.
o Monoculture system: planting of only one crop may have heavy demands for a
particular nutrient.
o Overgrazing
o Plowing along the slope of the land
o Logging
o Other practices such as; road construction, area development for housing and
resettlement.

On site effects of soil erosion

• effects of erosion from the farm where if occurs

o Loss of soil and particle selectively
- fine soil particles along with the nutrients are selectively
removed.
- the fraction of the coarse primary soil particles increases in the
eroded area.
o surface sealing and hardening
- soil particles are washed into the surface pores, forming a seal

226
 up to 1cm thick which restricts water infiltration and increases
water runoff.
- upon drying, the seal becomes a crust (a dense surface layer of
soil particles) which impedes seedling emergence
o Loss of nutrients/decreased fertility
- selective removal of absent forming elements (K, Ca, Mg)
- nutrients attached to soil sediments are lost
- dissolved nutrients are also lost in runoff
- added nutrients (fertilizers) are also washed away
o Decreased soil depth
- degrades soil as a medium for plant growth
- rooting depth is reduces
- thin topsoil, often mixed with the subsoil which is generally more
acidic and less fertile
-
Off-site effects of soil erosion

• effects of soil erosion downstream where soil sediments are deposited; usually a
consequence of the on-site effects
o Siltation of irrigation dams, canals, paddy fields, etc.
o Reduce life span of reservoirs
o Destruction of crops and animals downstream; buried crops adjacent
bottomlands
o Destruction of infrastructure like bridges, roads and buildings
o sediment deposits raise the level of riverbeds reducing its capacity to
hold water and increases the chances of overflowing; hazard to
navigation

Estimation of Soil erosion: (USLE) Universal Soil Loss Equation

• Developed to estimate the rate of soil erosion under various conditions
• It can be a guide for selecting the most appropriate system and management
practices that limit soil loss through erosion
• A = 0.224 R * K * L* S * C * P
where: A = predicted rate of soil loss in tons/ha/year R
= rainfall erosivity index
K = soil erodibility
factor L = slope length
factor

227
 S = slope gradient factor
C = cropping system and management factor
P = erosion control practice factor
R factor
• reflects climate (rainfall intensity and erosivity) as a factor of soil erosion
• found in long term records of rainfall specific to each country or state
• determined by the total kinetic energy and the maximum 30-minute intensity of
rain for a given time interval of a given rainstorm
K factor
• reflects the fact that different soils erode at different rates
• the measure of rate of erosion per unit quantity of erosion for specific soils
determined using the standard erosion plot
• can be estimated using data of texture, organic matter, structure and
permeability
L factor
• result of correlation studies of slope length and erosion using standard plots
S factor
• shows the correlation of erosion to percent slope and slope gradient
C factor
• The C factor is the crop management factor and is the ratio of soil loss
compared to fallow (bare, exposed) soil.
P factor
• The P factor is the erosion control factor expressed as a ratio of the soil loss
with practices
• If a farmer plows up and down the slope of a hill, P=1. When plowing is done
following the contours of the hill, P is reduced.
Tolerable soil loss (T)
• T is the maximum level of soil erosion that will permit a high level of crop
productivity to be maintained economically and indefinitely.

Soil And Water Conservation and Management Strategies

Soil and water conservation measures

1. Biological/ Vegetative measures

Agronomic measures reduce the impact of raindrops through the covering of soil

228
surface and increasing infiltration rate and water absorption capacity of the soil which
results in reduced runoff and soil loss through erosion. These measures are cheaper,
sustainable, and may be more effective than structural measures, sometimes.

Mulching

□ the practice of covering the soil surface with crop residues

□ residue mulches are effective in reducing soil erosion because the scour
forces of runoff are distributed among the mulch elements instead of acting
entirely on the soil surface
□ mulches maintain a greater infiltration rate under prolonged erosive rainfall
event by preventing the sealing of surface soil pores

Cover cropping

□ practice of planting close-growing grasses and legumes to cover and

protect the surface of the soil
□ increases and maintains organic matter content and improves soil physical
condition, suppresses weeds, and conserves water
□ recommended cover crops include centrosema, napier grass, para grass,
guinea grass, tropical kudzu

Crop rotation

□ the systematic planting of different crops in succession on the same piece of

land
□ allows the soil to renew the supply of nutrients which are preferentially
depleted by specific crops
□ guide: grain crops such as upland rice and corn should be followed by
legumes such as mungbean, peanut, and soybean
□ advantages
- rotation provides more uniform distribution of stable manure and
fertilizer to all fields
- soils are given time to recuperate from the effects of crops that may
have extra-heavy demands for certain nutrients
- soil-building crops are distributed over all fields
- rotation favors control of pests, diseases, and weeds

Agroforestry

229
 □ refers to the system of land management where woody perennials and
agricultural crops are raised at the same time or sequentially

□ Types of agroforestry systems

Agri-Silviculture: It is the growing of agricultural crops as a primary component

with the secondary component of multipurpose trees (MPTs) on the same
managed land unit. The tree species bind soil particles in the root zone and
increase water infiltration and reduce runoff.

Agri-Horticulture: Growing of agricultural crops and fruit trees on the same

managed land unit is known as agri-horticulture. Fruit tree species like lemon
(Citrus limon), and mango (Mangifera indica), can be successfully planted in
agricultural fields and on degraded and low fertile lands with some restoration
measures.

Alley cropping

System where arable crops are grown in alleys between rows of shrub/tree
legumes which are pruned periodically to prevent shading and to provide green
manure to the companion crops

Growing of agricultural crops in the alley formed between the hedge rows
of leguminous nitrogen-fixing tree species
□ contour hedges commonly used are gliricidia, ipil-ipil, camachile (should be
deep rooted compared to the main crop

High density planting

□ practice of increasing the population of the crop per unit of land area with
respect to the effect of crop competition

Multiple cropping

□ practice which increases crop productivity while providing better protection of

the soil from erosion
□ can be intercropping and/ or mixed cropping (growing of two or more crops
on the same piece of land at the same time) or can be sequential cropping
(growing of two or more crops a year in sequence)

Relay cropping

230
 □ planting of two or more annual crops with the second crop planted after the
first crop has flowered or nearing its harvest.
□ the objective is to allow the second crop to make use of the residual
moisture and to provide continuous ground cover to protect the soil from
erosive rains

Strip cropping
□ the growing of erosion-permitting crop and soil-conserving crop in
alternate strips aligned on the contour

2. Mechanical/ engineering measures

Mechanical measures or engineering structures are designed to modify the land slope,
to convey runoff water safely to the waterways, to reduce sedimentation and runoff
velocity, and to improve water quality. These measures are either used alone or
integrated with biological measures to improve the performance and sustainability of
the control measures. In highly eroded and sloppy landscape biological measures
should be supplemented by mechanical structures. A number of permanent and
temporary mechanical measures are available such as terraces, contour bunding, and
check dams.

Terracing
□ involves construction of broad channels or benches across the slope to break
the flow of runoff water, not a practical method for shallow soils

Check dam
□ a structure above the pond which retards runoff velocity

Grassed waterways
□ refers to canals or channels planted with grasses to provide outlets for
disposal of unavoidable runoff water

Diversion canal
□ Diversion canals are supplementary practices which will reduce the hazard of
erosion on sloping land

Pond
□ a depression of considerable size located below the check dam to collect
runoff

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 Geotextiles
□ Surface-laid mats of natural fibers are the most effective in controlling soil
detachment by raindrop impact because they provide good surface cover, high
water absorption, thick fibers to intercept splashed particles from their point of
ejection and a rough surface in which water is ponded, thereby further
inhibiting the splash action on the soil

Brush matting
□ Brush mats can be used as an alternative to geotextiles to provide an
immediate cover to the slope and prevent surface erosion.

Learning Activities

Links for video / lecture

For additional discussions and presentations relative to this module, kindly click the link below:

Video to watch:

https://www.coursera.org/lecture/sustainableagriculture/soil-management-part-2-
kINzM

Links to read:

http://soilwater.okstate.edu/courses/lecturespowerpoint
http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?e=d-00000-00---off-0hdl-00-0----0-10-0---0---
0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20about---00-0-1-00-0--4 0-0-11-10-
0utfZz-8-00&cl=CL2.11.4&d=HASHbdde2fe3749493c1a0de2d.4&gt=1

http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/thematic-sitemap/theme/spi/scpi-
home/managing-ecosystems/conservation-agriculture/ca-
how/en/#:~:text=Avoid%20mechanical%20soil%20disturbance%20to,by%20wind%20
and%2For%20water

Summary of Key Takeaways

● The most widely used tool to estimate erosion is the Universal Soil Loss Equation

232
 (USLE).
● The crop management strategies that can help conserve soil include crop
rotation, cover cropping, strip cropping, multiple cropping, mulching,
revegetation, and agroforestry.
● Soil and water management strategies for conservation include application of
organic matter, tillage practices, and drainage.
● Mechanical methods of erosion control include contouring, terracing, diversion
canal, geotextile, and brush matting.

References:

Cosico, W.C. 2005. Primer on Soil Science. Agricultural Systems Cluster. UPLB, College of
Agriculture, Laguna.

Weil, R.R and N.C. Brady. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils. 15th ed. Pearson
Education Inc, England.

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234
 LESSON 1
SOIL CLASSIFICATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this chapter, the reviewees are expected to:

1. Understand the principles and concepts of soil profile characterization.
2. Differentiate the master horizons of the USDA Soil Taxonomy.
3. Explain the distinct properties of the 12 soil orders.

A. SOIL MORPHOLOGY – SOIL PROFILE CHARACTERIZATION

Soil Profile
A soil profile is the sequence of natural layers, or horizons, in a soil. Each soil series consists of
soils having major horizons that are similar in color, texture, structure, reaction, consistency,
mineral and chemical composition, and arrangement in the soil profile. It is the standard unit for
soil classification.

Vertical face of the soil that can be exposed, for example, by digging a pit or in a road cut;
includes all the layers (horizons) from the surface down to the parent material.

Pedon
Pedon is the smallest volume that may represent a soil. It is generally 1 to 10 meters across and
hexagonal in shape. If similar pedons are put together, we get a polypedon. The pedons in a
polypedon have similar features and characteristics. Polypedons are put together into groups
known as Soil Series. There are over 14,000 soil series throughout the world. Each of these
series has different chemical and physical properties that affect management.

Figure 1. Diagram illustrating the concept of pedon and soil profile (Source: Brady and Weil, 2014)

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HORIZON DESIGNATION

I. Horizon Designation

Soil Horizon

A layer of soil approximately parallel to the land surface and differing from adjacent genetically
related layers in physical, chemical, and biological properties or characteristics such as color,
structure, texture, consistency, kinds and number of organisms present, degree of acidity or
alkalinity etc.

MASTER HORIZONS

Figure 2. Hypothetical mineral soil profile showing the master horizons (Brady and Weil, 2014)

organic material at the surface (top of ) soil -- leaves, twigs, branches, dead grass
O etc. These horizons are usually seen in forested soils and wetlands, generally not
in cultivated soils.
horizon where decomposed O.M. accumulates -- usually has a dark color area
where most biological activity occurs most - soil microbes are here, as are earth
A worms etc. - usually at the surface. If the field is plowed this horizon extends to
the depth of cultivation. This is why it is called the plow layer. Area of clay and
chemical loss. It is called the zone of eluviation.

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 horizon of maximum removal or leaching. This is also a zone of eluviation.
E Maximum clay and chemical losses have occurred here. -- generally light colored
and sandy
horizon where the material from the A and E horizon will collect. This horizon is
B known as the zone of illuviation. -- clay and chemicals are generally at maximum
levels
layer of nearly unaltered mineral material. no biological activity here. neither a
zone of eluviation or illuviation. No changes have really taken place. Very little if
C
any rooting has occurred in this horizon. Generally considered to be the lower
limit of the soil. -- This is called the soil's parent material.
R the underlying bedrock, such as limestone, sandstone, or granite.

ses involved in horizon differentiation

1. Additions
2. Losses
3. Translocations
4. Transformations

Figure 3. Schematic illustration of additions, losses, translocations, and transformations as the

fundamental processes driving soil-profile development. (Source: Brady and Weil, 2014)

a. Additions
 water as precipitation, condensation, or runoff
 O2 and CO2 from the atmosphere
 N, Cl, and S from the atmosphere and precipitation

237
  organic matter from biotic activities
 material from sediments
 energy from the sun
b. Losses
 water by evapotranspiration
 N by denitrification
 C as CO2 from oxidation of O.M.
 soil by erosion
 energy by radiation
 water and material in solution or suspension
c. Translocations
 clay, organic matter, iron oxides, and chemicals by
water
 nutrients circulated by plants
 soluble salts in water
 soils by animals
d. Transformations
 decomposition of organic matter
 reduced particle size by weathering
 mineral transformations (primary to secondary)
 clay and organic matter reactions

II. Subordinate Distinctions

Horizon Suffixes - Historically referred to as “Horizon Subscripts,” “Subordinate
Distinctions,” “Horizon Designation Suffix” or “Suffix Symbols”

Horizon Suffixes Criteria

Highly decomposed organic matter (OM); rubbed fiber
A content <17% (by vol.); used only with O Horizon

Aa Accumulation of anhydrite (CaSO4)

Buried genetic horizon (not used with organic
B materials or to separate organic from mineral
materials).
Concretions or nodules; significant accumulation of
cemented bodies enriched with Fe, Al, Mn, Ti (cement
C not specified except excludes a predominance of silica
[see q]); not used for carbonates or soluble salts (see
z).
Co Coprogenous earth (used only with L); organic

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 materials deposited under water and dominated by
fecal material from aquatic animals.
Physical root restriction due to high bulk density
D (natural or human-induced conditions; e.g., lodgment
till, plow pans.
Diatomaceous earth (used only with L); materials
Di deposited under water and dominated by the siliceous
diatom remains.
Moderately (intermediately) decomposed organic
E matter; rubbed fiber content 17 to <40% (by vol.);
used only with O (see a,).
Permafrost (permanently frozen subsurface soil or
F
ice); excludes seasonally frozen ice and surface ice.
Dry permafrost (permanently frozen soil; not used for
Ff seasonally frozen soil; no continuous ice bodies [see
f]).
Strong gley (Fe reduced and pedogenically removed);
G typically ≤2 chroma; may have other redoximorphic
features (RMF); not used for geogenic gray colors.
Illuvial organic matter (OM) accumulation (with B:
accumulation of illuvial, amorphous OM-sesquioxide
H complexes); coats sand and silt particles and may
fill pores; use Bhs if significant accumulation of
sesquioxides and moist chroma and value ≤3.
Slightly decomposed organic matter; rubbed fiber
I
content ≥40% (by vol.); used only with O (see a, e).
J Jarosite accumulation; e.g., acid sulfate soils.
Evidence of cryoturbation; e.g., irregular or broken
horizon boundaries, sorted rock fragments (patterned
Jj
ground), or OM in lower boundary between active
layer and permafrost layer.
Pedogenic carbonate accumulation (e.g., CaCO3;
K
<50% by vol.).
Major pedogenic carbonate accumulation; soil fabric is
Kk
plugged ≈ continuous (≥50% by vol. estimated).
Continuous pedogenic cementation or induration
(>90% cemented, even if fractured); physically root
M restrictive. Dominant cement type can be indicated by
additional letters; e.g., km or kkm—carbonates, qm—
silica, kqm—carbonates and silica, sm—iron, yym—

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 gypsum, zm—salts more soluble than gypsum.
Marl (used only with L); materials deposited under
Ma water and dominated by a mixture of clay and CaCO3;
typically gray or beige.
N Pedogenic exchangeable sodium accumulation.
O Residual accumulation of sesquioxides.
Tillage or other disturbance of surface layer (pasture,
plow, etc.). Designate Op for disturbed organic
P
surface, Ap for mineral surface even if the layer
clearly was originally an E, B, C, etc.
Q Accumulation of secondary (pedogenic) silica.
Used with C to indicate weathered or soft bedrock
(root-restrictive saprolite or soft bedrock), such
as weathered or partially consolidated sandstone,
R siltstone, or shale; materials are sufficiently
incoherent to allow hand digging with a spade
(Excavation Difficulty classes are Low to High). Roots
only penetrate along joint planes.
Significant illuvial accumulation of amorphous,
dispersible sesquioxides and organic matter
S complexes and moist color value or chroma ≥4. Used
with B horizon; used with h as Bhs if moist color value
and chroma are ≤3.
Presence of sulfides (in mineral or organic horizons).
Se Typically dark colors (e.g., value ≤4, chroma ≤2);
may have a sulfurous odor.
Slickensides; e.g., oblique shear faces 20-60º off
horizontal; caused by shrink-swell clay action; wedgeshaped
Ss
peds and seasonal surface cracks also are
commonly present.
Accumulation (by translocation or illuviation) of
T silicate clays (clay films, lamellae, or clay bridging in
some part of the horizon).
Presence of human-manufactured materials
U (artifacts); e.g., asphalt, bricks, plastic, glass, metals,
construction debris, garbage.
Plinthite (high Fe, low OM, reddish contents; firm or
V very firm moist consistence; irreversible hardening
with repeated wetting and drying).
W Incipient color or pedogenic structure development,

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 minimal illuvial accumulations; used only with B
horizons, excluded from use with transition horizons.
Fragipan or fragic characteristics (pedogenetically
X developed brittleness, firmness, bleached prisms, high
bulk density, root restrictive).
Accumulation of gypsum (CaSO4 • 2H2O); <50% by
Y
volume (estimated).
Dominance of gypsum (≈ ≥50% by vol. estimated);
light colored (e.g., value ≥7, chroma ≤4); may be
Yy
pedogenically derived or inherited transformation of
primary gypsum from parent material.
Pedogenic accumulation of salts more soluble than
Z
gypsum; e.g., NaCl.

Source: 1. Soil Survey Division Staff, 1993; 2 Soil Survey Staff, 2010

B. DIAGNOSTIC HORIZONS

1. Epipedons (Diagnostic Surface Horizons). The epipedon (Gr. epi, over, upon, and
pedon, soil) is a horizon that forms at or near the surface and wherein most of the rock
structure is destroyed. These horizons are usually darkened due to the presence of
organic matter or due to the evidence of eluviation, or both. There are eight epipedons or
diagnostic surface horizons:

a. Anthropic epipedon is the same with mollic epipedon in terms of color, structure,
and organic-carbon content. This horizon is formed during a long-continued use of
the soil by humans such as a place of residence or a site for growing irrigated crops.
The level of phosphorus is too high compared to mollic epipedon, from the disposal
of bones and shells.

b. Folistic epipedon consists of organic material unless the soil has been plowed. This
epipedon normally is at the soil surface, although it can be buried. This epipedon
differs from histic epipedon because it is saturated with water for less than 30 days
(cumulative) in normal years (and are not artificially drained).

c. Histic epipedon consists of organic soil material (peat or muck) if the soil has not
been plowed. Same with folistic epipedon, it is normally at the soil surface, although
it can be buried. But, histic epipedon is characterized by saturation and reduction for
some time in normal years or has been artificially drained.

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 d. Melanic epipedon is a thick, dark colored (commonly black) horizon at or near soil
surface. The intense dark colors are attributed to the accumulation of organic matter
from large amounts of root residues supplied by a vegetation.

e. Mollic epipedon is a relatively thick, dark colored, humus-rich surface horizon in

which bivalent cations are dominant on the exchange complex and the grade of
structure is weak to strong.

f. Ochric epipedon is too thin or too dry, has too high color value or chroma, contains
too little organic carbon, and both massive and hard or harder when dry.

g. Plaggen epipedon is a human-made surface layer 50 cm or more thick due to long-

continued manuring. In medieval times, sod or other materials commonly were used
for bedding livestock and the manure was spread on fields being cultivated. The
mineral materials brought in by this kind of manuring eventually produced an
appreciably thickened Ap horizon.

h. Umbric epipedon is a relatively thick, dark colored, humus-rich surface horizons.

This epipedon can’t be distinguished from mollic epipedon by the eye, but with
laboratory analysis for base saturation with less than 50 % (by NH4OAc) in some or
all parts.

2. Subsurface Horizons

These are the horizons form below the surface of the soil, but sometimes they form directly
below a layer of leaf litter. Some of these horizons are generally regarded as B horizons by
many but not all pedologists. Hence, others generally considered it as parts of the A horizon.

a) Agric horizon is an illuvial horizon that has formed due to cultivation and contains
significant amounts of illuvial silt, clay, and humus.

b) Albic horizon is an eluvial horizon, 1.0 cm or more thick, that has 85 percent or more
(by volume) of albic materials.

c) Argillic horizon is a subsurface horizon shows evidence of clay illuviation and

significantly contains higher percentage of phyllosilicate clay than the overlying soil
material.

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d) Calcic horizon is an illuvial horizon in which secondary calcium carbonate or other
carbonates have accumulated to a significant extent.

e) Cambic horizon is a subsurface horizon that is considered part of the solum, and it
normally occurs within the zone that is reached by the roots of native plants. It normally
lies in the position of a B horizon and in most pedons is considered to be a B horizon,
but it can include some A, E, and transitional horizons.

f) Glossic horizon (Gr. glossa, tongue) develops as a result of the degradation of an

argillic, kandic, or natric horizon from which clay and free iron oxides are removed.

g) Gypsic horizon is an illuvial horizon in which secondary gypsum has accumulated to a

significant extent. Most gypsic horizons occur in arid environments where the parent
materials are rich in gypsum.

h) Kandic horizon is a subsurface horizon that has a significantly higher percentage of

clay than the overlying horizon or horizons.

i) Natric Horizon (modified from natrium, sodium; implying the presence of sodium)
horizon is a special kind of argillic horizon. The dispersive properties of sodium
accelerate clay illuviation.

j) Oxic Horizon is a mineral subsurface horizon of sandy loam or a finer texture with a low
cation-exchange capacity and a low content of weatherable minerals. It is at least 30 cm
(12 in) thick. The clay-sized fraction generally is dominated by kaolinite with or without
iron and aluminum oxyhydrates and with few or no other lattice silicate minerals, except
for hydroxy interlayered vermiculites. The silt and sand fraction of the oxic horizon is
generally dominated by quartz with some other resistant minerals.

k) Petrocalcic Horizon is an illuvial horizon in which secondary calcium carbonate or other

carbonates have accumulated to the extent that the horizon is cemented or indurated.

l) Petrogypsic Horizon is an illuvial horizon, in which secondary gypsum has

accumulated to the extent that the horizon is cemented or indurated

m) Placic Horizon (Gr. base of plax, flat stone; meaning a thin cemented pan) is a thin,
black to dark reddish pan that is cemented by iron (or iron and manganese) and organic
matter.

n) Sombric Horizon (F. sombre, dark) is a subsurface horizon in mineral soils that has
formed under free drainage. It contains illuvial humus that is neither associated with

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 aluminum, as is the humus in the spodic horizon, nor dispersed by sodium, as is
common in the natric horizon.

o) Spodic Horizon is an illuvial layer with spodic materials. Spodic materials contain illuvial
active amorphous materials composed of organic matter and aluminum, with or without
iron.

C. NOMENCLATURE OF SOIL TAXONOMY

Categories of Soil Taxonomy

The system contains six categories, from highest (soil order) to lowest (soil series) levels of
generalization. These are the soil order, suborder, great group, subgroup, family, and series.

Categories of Soil taxonomy and its Differentiating Characteristics

Category Nature of Differentiating Characteristics

Order Presence or absence of major diagnostic horizons, mineralogical
properties, and extremes of soil temperature and moisture regime
Suborder Soil moisture regimes and diagnostic horizons
Great group Degree of diagnostic horizon expression within each suborder taxa
Subgroup Properties that intergrade to taxa in other orders, suborders and great
groups, or extra grade to non-soil material
Family Particle-size and mineralogy class of control section, soil temperature
regime, and cation exchange activity class in most families; calcareous
and reaction, depth, rupture-resistance, coating and crack classes in
some families
Series Any consistently identifiable soil property not specifically identified as
criteria in a higher category.

Source: Soil Survey Division Staff, 1999

Order Category

The names of orders can be recognized as such because the name of each order ends in
sol (L. solum, soil). The formative element of each order is plural, except for the formative

244
 element “ox” for Oxisols (which omits the ‘s’ to avoid awkward pronunciation).

Soil order names and their formative elements

Name of order Formative Derivation of formative Pronunciation of

element element formative element
Alfisols Alfs Meaningless syllable Pedalfer
Andisols Ands Jap. Ando, black soil Ando
Aridisols Ids L. aridus, dry Arid
Entisols Ents Meaningless syllable Recent
Gelisols Els L. gelare, to freeze Jell
Histosols Ists Gr. histos, tissue Histology
Inceptisols Epts L. inceptum, beginning Inception
Mollisols Olls L. mollis, soft Mollify
Oxisols Ox F. oxide, oxide Oxide
Spodosols Ods Gr. spodos, wood ash Odd
Ultisols Ults L. ultumus, last Ultimate
Vertisols Erts L. verto, turn Invert
Source: Soil Survey Division Staff, 1999

Suborder Category

The names of suborders have exactly two syllables. The first syllable connotes something
about the diagnostic properties of the soils. The second is the formative element from the
name of the order. For example: Aqualfs are wet Alfisols (alfs) preceded by aqu connoting
wetness.

Formative elements for suborder names

Formative Derivation Pronunciation Meaning or Connotation

element Aid
Alb L. albus, white albino Presence of an albic horizon
Anthr Gr. anthropos, anthropology Specific human modifications
human
Aqu L. aqua, water aquarium Characteristics associated with
wetness
Ar L. arare, to plow arable Mixed horizon
Arg L. argilla, white argillite Presence of an argillic horizon
clay

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Calc L. calcis, lime calcium Presence of calcic horizon
Camb L. cambiare, to cambist Presence of a cambic horizon
exchange
Cry Gr. kryos, cold cryolite Cold climate
Dur L. duras, hard durable Presence of a duripan
Fibr L. fibra, fiber fibrous Least decomposed stage
Fluv L. fluvius, river fluvial Flood plains
Fol L. folia, leaf foliage Mass of leaves
Gel L. gelare, jello Mean annual soil temperature
freeze 0°C or less
Gyps L. gypsum, gypsum Presence of a gypsic horizon
gypsum
Hem Gr. hemi, half hemisphere Intermediate state of
decomposition
Hist Gr. histos, histology Presence of Organic soil
tissue material
Hum L. humus, earth humus Presence of organic matter
Orth Gr. orthos, true orthothoponic The common ones
Per L. perennis, all perennial Perudic soil moisture regime
year
Psamm Gr. psammos, psammite Sand textures
sand
Rend Polish- rendzina High carbonate content
Rendzina,
limestone soil
Sal L. sal, salt saline Presence of salic horizon
Sapr Gr. sapros, saprophyte Most decomposed stage
rotten
Torr L. torridus, hot, torrid Torric soil moisture regime
dry
Turb L. turbidis, turbulence Pedoturbation, presence of
disturbed cryoturbation
Ud L. udus, humid udometer Udic soil moisture regime
Ust L. ustus, burnt combustion Ustic soil moisture regime
Vitr L. vitrum, glass vitrous Presence of glass
Wass Ger. Wasser, wassermann Daily under shallow water
water
Xer Gr. xerox, dry xerophyte Xeric soil moisture regime
Source: Soil Survey Staff 1999, 2010a.

246
Great Group Category

The name of a great group consists of the name of a suborder and a prefix that consists
of one or two formative elements suggesting something about the diagnostic properties.
The names of great groups have three or four syllables and end with the name of a
suborder. Examples:
 Fluvents that have a cryic temperature regime are called Cryofluvents (Gr. kryos,
icy cold, plus fluvent).
 Fluvents that have a torric moisture regime are called Torrifluvents (L. toridus,
hot and dry).
 Cryaqualfs are cold (Cry), wet (aqu), Alfisols (alfs).

Note: Great group, suborder, and order are proper names and always capitalized.

Great Group Formative Elements

Formative Derivation Mnemonicon Meaning or Connotation

element
Acr (Acr)1 Gr. akros, at the end acrolith Extreme weathering
Al Modified from aluminum Aluminum High aluminum; low iron
Alb L. albus, white albino Presence of an albic horizon
Anhy Gr. anhydros, dry anhydrous Very dry
Anthra Gr. anthropos, human Anthropology Presence of an anthropic
epipedon
Aqui (Aqu)1 L. aqua, water aquarium Wetness
Argi L. argilla, white clay argillite Presence of an argillic
horizon
Calci L. calcis, lime calcium Presence of a calcic horizon
Cryo (Cry)1 Gr. Kryos, cold crystal Cryic soil temperature regime
Duri (Dur)1 L. duras, hard durable Presence of a duripan
Dystro (Dystr)1 Gr.dys, ill; dystrophic, dystrophic Low base saturation
infertile
Endo Gr. endon, within endocarp Ground water table
Epi Gr. epi, on, above epicarp Perched water table
Eutro (Eutr)1 Gr. eu, good; fertile eutrophic High base saturation
Ferr L. ferrum, iron ferric Presence of iron
Fibr L. fibra, fiber fibrous Least decomposed stage
Fluv L. fluvus, river fluvial Flood plain

247
Fol L. folia, leaf foliage Mass of leaves
Fragi L.-fragillis, brittle fragile Presence of a fragipan
Fragloss Compound of fra(gi) See the formative elements
and gloss fragi and gloss
Frasi Ger. Frasi, fresh Phraseology Not salty
Fulvi (Fluv)1 L.-fulvus, brownish Fulvic acid Dark brown with organic
yellow carbon
Glac L.-glacialis, icy Glacial ice Presence of ice lenses
Glosso (Gloss)1 Gr.-glossa, tongue glossary Presence of a glossic horizon
Gypsi L. gypsum, gypsum gypsum Presence of a gypsic horizon
Hal Gr.-hals, salt halophyte Salty
Haplo (Hapl; Gr.-haplous, simple haploid Minimum horizon
Hap)1 development
Hemi Gr. hemi, half hemisphere Intermediate state of
decomposition
Histo (Hist)1 Gr. histos, tissue histology Presence of organic soil
material
Humi (Hum)1 L. humus, earth humus Presence of organic matter
Hydro (Hydr)1 Gr.-hydro, water hydrophobia Presence of water
Kandi Modified from kandite kandite Presence of a kandic horizon
Kanhaplo Compound kan(di) Thin kandic horizon
(Kanhap)1 and hapl
Luvi Gr.-louo, to wash ablution Illuvial organic material
Melano (Melan)1 Gr.-melasanos, black melanic Presence of melanic
epipedon
Molli (Moll)1 L.-mollis, soft mollify Presence of a mollic
epipedon
Natri (Natr)1 Modified from natrium, natrolite Presence of a natric horizon
sodium
Pale Gr.-paleos, old paleosol Excessive development
Petro (Petr)1 Gr.-petra, rock petrology Petrocalcic horizon
Plac Gr.-base of plax, flat placard Presence of a thin pan
stone
Plagg Ger.-plaggen, sod Presence of a plaggen
epipedon
Plinth Gr.-plinthos, brick Presence of plinthite
Psammo Gr. psammos, sand psammite Sand texture
(Psamm)1
Quartzi Ger.-quarz, quartz quartz High quartz content
Rhodo (Rhod)1 Gr.- rhodon, rose rhododendron Dark red colors

248
Sali (Sal)1 L. sal, salt saline Presence of a salic horizon
Sapr Gr. sapros, rotten saprophyte Most decomposed stage
Sombri Fr.-sombre, dark somber Presence of a sombric
horizon
Sphagno Gr.-sphagnos, bog sphagnum Presence of sphagnum moss
moss
Sulfo (Sulf; Sulfi)1 L.-sulfur, sulfur sulfur Presence of sulfides or their
oxidation products
Torri L. torridus, hot and dry torrid Torric (aridic) soil moisture
regime
Udi (Ud)1 L. udus, humid udometer Udic soil moisture regime
Umbri (Umbr)1 L.-base of umbra, shade umbrella Presence of an umbric
epipedon
Usti (Ust)1 L. base of ustus, burnt combustion Ustic soil moisture regime
Verm L.-base of vermes, worm vermiform Wormy, or mixed by animals
Vitri (Vitr)1 L. vitrum, glass vitreous Presence of glass
Xero (Xer)1 Gr. xerox, dry xerophyte Xeric soil moisture regime

Source: Soil Survey Staff, 1999, 2010a.

1
(Alternative spelling used for some Great Groups)

Subgroup Category

Subgroups are identified with a binomial nomenclature. Subgroup names include the
great group name, as a capitalized noun, preceded by a capitalized modifying subgroup
adjective(s) name identifying the main differentiating characteristic of that subgroup. For
example: the subgroup name Humic precedes the great group name Fragiaqualfs
forming the complete subgroup name Humic Fragiaqualfs. Another, Typic subgroups
simply do not have any of the characteristics used to define the other subgroups in a
great group. Each Typic subgroup has, in clearly expressed form, all the diagnostic
properties of the order, suborder, and great group to which it belongs.

Family Category.

The names of families are polynomial. Each consists of the name of a subgroup and
descriptive terms, generally three or more, that indicate the particle-size class (or
combinations thereof if strongly contrasting), the mineralogy (26 classes), the cation-

249
 exchange activity (4 classes), the calcareous and reaction class (4 classes), the
temperature (8 classes), and, in a few families, depth of the soil (3 classes), rupture
resistance (2 classes), and classes of coatings and classes of cracks (3 classes). The
names of most families have three to five descriptive terms that modify the subgroup
name, but a few have only one or two and a few have as many as six.
For example:
 fine-loamy (particle-size class), mixed (mineralogy), superactive (cation-
exchange activity), calcareous (calcareous and reaction), mesic (soil
temperature) Typic Torrifluvents

Series Category

The names of series as a rule are abstract place names. The name generally is based
on the name of place the series was first recognized (name of a town, a county, or some
local feature). Some series have coined names. Many of the series names have been
carried over from earlier classifications. Some have been in use since 1900. The name
of a series carries no meaning to people who have no other source of information about
the soils in the series.
For example:
 soils of the Mohave series are identified as Mohave soils (fine-loamy, mixed,
superactive, thermic, Typic Calciargids).

250
D. THE TWELVE SOIL ORDERS

1. ENTISOLS (RECENT: LITTLE IF ANY PROFILE DEVELOPMENT

- Very young soils in new parent materials or where alluvial deposition or erosion
limits profile development (slopes).

- Weakly developed mineral soils without natural genetic (subsurface) horizons or

with only the beginnings of such horizons.

- Most have an ochric epipedon and a few have human-made anthropic or agric
epipedons.

- Some have albic subsurface horizons.

- Soil productivity ranges from very high for certain Entisols formed in recent
alluvium to very low for those forming in shifting sand or on steep rocky slopes.

Figure 4. Entisols soil order—global distribution, land area, suborders, and a

representative profile (Source: Brady and Weil, 2014)

251
2. INCEPTISOLS (FEW DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES: INCEPTION OF B HORIZON)

- The beginning or inception of profile development is evident, and some diagnostic

features are present.

- The well-defined profile characteristics of soils thought to be more mature have not
yet developed.

- A cambic horizon showing some color or structural change is common in Inceptisols

- An argillic B horizon cannot be present

Figure 5. Inceptisols soil order—global distribution, land area, suborders, and a

representative profile, (Source: Brady and Weil, 2014)

- Other subsurface diagnostic horizons that may be present in Inceptisols include

duripans, fragipans, and calcic, gypsic, and sulfuric horizons.

- The epipedon in most Inceptisols is an ochric, although a plaggen or weakly

expressed mollic or umbric epipedon may be present.

- Inceptisols show more significant profile development than Entisols but are defined
to exclude soils with diagnostic horizons or properties that characterize certain other
soil orders.

252
3. ANDISOLS (VOLCANIC ASH SOILS)

- Commonly found near the volcano source or in areas downwind from the volcano,
where a sufficiently thick layer of ash has been deposited during eruptions.

- The principal soil-forming process has been the rapid weathering (transformation) of
volcanic ash to produce amorphous or poorly crystallized silicate minerals such as
allophane and imogolite and the iron oxy-hydroxide, ferrihydrite.

- Some have a melanic epipedon, a surface diagnostic horizon that has a high
organic matter content and dark color

- The accumulation of organic matter is quite rapid due largely to its protection in
aluminum–humus complexes.

- Andisols have a unique set of andic properties in at least 35 cm of the upper 60 cm

of soil due to common types of parent materials.

- Usually of high natural fertility, except that phosphorus (P) availability is severely
limited by the extremely high P retention capacity of the andic materials.

Figure 6. Andisols soil order—global distribution, land area, suborders, and a

representative profile, (Source: Brady and Weil, 2014)

253
4. GELISOLS (PERMAFROST AND FROST CHURNING)

- Young soils with little profile development.

- Cold temperatures and frozen conditions for much of the year slow the process of
soil formation.

- The principal defining feature of these soils is the presence of a permafrost layer

- Permafrost is a layer of material that remains at temperatures below 0 °C for more

than two consecutive years.

- The permafrost layer lies within 100 cm of the soil surface, unless cryoturbation is
evident within the upper 100 cm, in which case the permafrost may begin as deep
as 200 cm from the soil surface.

- Cryoturbation is the physical disturbance of soil materials caused by the formation

of ice wedges and by the expansion and contraction of water as it freezes and
thaws.

Figure 7. Gelisols soil order—global distribution, land area, suborders, and a

representative profile (Source: Brady and Weil, 2014)

254
5. HISTOSOLS (ORGANIC SOILS: WITHOUT PERMAFROST)

- Soils that have undergone little profile development because of the anaerobic
environment in which they form.

- The main process of soil formation evident in Histosols is the accumulation of

partially decomposed organic parent material without permafrost

- Histosols have organic soil materials in more than half of the upper 80 cm of soil in
two-thirds of the soil overlying shallow rock.

- Organic deposits accumulate in marshes, bogs, and swamps, which are habitats for
hydrophilic (water-loving plants) such as sedges, reeds, mosses, shrubs, and even
some trees.

Figure 8. Histosols soil order—global distribution, land area, suborders, and a

representative profile (Source: Brady and Weil, 2014)

255
6. ARIDISOLS (DRY SOILS)

- As the name implies, aridity (scarcity of water) is a major characteristic of these

soils such that soil moisture sufficient to support plant growth is present for no
longer than 90 consecutive days.

- The natural vegetation consists mainly of scattered desert shrubs and short
bunchgrasses.

- These soils may have a horizon of accumulation of calcium carbonate (calcic),

gypsum (gypsic), soluble salts (salic), or exchangeable sodium (natric).

- In stony or gravelly soils, erosion may remove all the fine particles from the surface
layers, leaving behind a layer of wind-rounded pebbles that is called desert
pavement.

Figure 9. Aridisols soil order—global distribution, land area, suborders, and a

representative profile (Source: Brady and Weil, 2014)

256
7. VERTISOLS (DARK, SWELLING AND CRACKING CLAYS)

- The main soil-forming process affecting Vertisols is the shrinking and swelling of
clay as these soils go through periods of drying and wetting.
- Vertisols have a high content (730%) of sticky, swelling, and shrinking-type clays to
a depth of 1 m or more.
- Unlike for most other soils, the dark color of Vertisols is not necessarily indicative
of high organic matter content.
- The organic matter content of dark Vertisols typically ranges from as much as 5 or
6% to as little as 1%.
- Typically develop from limestone, basalt, or other calcium- and magnesium-rich
parent materials.
- Vertisols generally occur where the climate features alternating wet and dry
periods of several months each.
- In dry seasons the clay shrinks, causing the soils to develop deep, wide cracks that
are diagnostic for this order.
- When the rains come, water entering the large cracks moistens the clay in the
subsoils, causing it to swell.

Figure 10. Vertisols soil order—global distribution, land area, suborders, and a
representative profile (Source: Brady and Weil, 2014)

257
8. MOLLISOLS (DARK, SOFT SOILS OF GRASSLANDS)

- The principal process in the formation of Mollisols is the accumulation of calcium-

rich organic matter, largely from the dense root systems of prairie grasses, to form
the thick, soft Mollic epipedon that characterizes soils in this order

- This humus-rich surface horizon is often 60–80 cm in depth.

- Its cation exchange capacity is more than 50% saturated with nonacid cations (Ca2+,
Mg2+, etc.).

- The surface horizon generally has granular or crumb structures, largely resulting
from an abundance of organic matter, fine roots and swelling-type clays.

- Most Mollisols have developed under grass vegetation.

- Grassland soils of the central part of the United States, lying between Aridisols on
the west and the Alfisols on the east, typify the central concept of this order.

Figure 11. Mollisols soil order—global distribution, land area, suborders, and a
representative profile. (Source: Brady and Weil, 2014)

258
9. ALFISOLS (ARGILLIC OR NATRIC HORIZON, MODERATELY LEACHED)

- Develop under native deciduous forests

- Characterized by a subsurface diagnostic horizon in which silicate clay has
accumulated by illuviation
- Clay skins or other signs of clay movement are present in such a B horizon
- In Alfisols, this clay-rich horizon is only moderately leached, and its cation exchange
capacity is more than 35% saturated with nonacid cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, etc.).
- In most Alfisols this horizon is termed argillic because of its accumulation of silicate
clays.
- The horizon is termed natric if, in addition to having an accumulation of clay, it is
more than 15% saturated with sodium and has prismatic or columnar structure
- In some Alfisols in subhumid tropical regions, the accumulation is termed a kandic
horizon (from the mineral kandite) because the clay minerals are more highly
weathered and have a low cation exchange capacity.

Figure 12. Alfisols soil order—global distribution, land area, suborders, and a
representative profile (Source: Brady and Weil, 2014)

259
10. ULTISOLS (ARGILLIC HORIZON, HIGHLY LEACHED

- The principal processes involved in forming Ultisols are clay mineral weathering,
translocation of clays to accumulate in an argillic or kandic horizon and leaching of
nonacid cations from the profile.
- Most Ultisols have developed under moist conditions in warm to tropical climates.
- Ultisols are formed on old land surfaces, usually under forest vegetation, although
savanna or even swamp vegetation is also common.
- They often have an ochric or umbric epipedon but are characterized by a relatively
acidic B horizon that has less than 35% of the exchange capacity satisfied with
nonacid cations.
- The clay accumulation may be either an argillic horizon or, if the clay is of low
activity, a kandic horizon.
- Ultisols commonly have both an epipedon and a subsoil that is quite acid and low in
plant nutrients.
- More highly weathered and acidic than Alfisols but less acid than Spodosols and
less highly weathered than the Oxisols.

Figure 13.Ultisols soil order—global distribution, land area, suborders, and a

representative profile (Source: Brady and Weil, 2014)

260
11. SPODOSOLS (ACID, SANDY, FOREST SOILS, HIGHLY LEACHED)
- Intensive acid leaching of coarse-textured, acid parent materials is the principal
process leading to the formation of Spodosols
- These are mineral soils with a spodic horizon, a subsurface accumulation of
illuviated organic matter, and an accumulation of aluminum oxides with or without
iron oxides.

- Usually thin, dark, illuvial horizon typically underlies a light, ash-colored, eluvial albic
horizon.

- The combination of bright white E and very dark A and B horizons is visually quite
striking and makes for some of the most easily recognized and some would say most
beautiful of soil profiles.

- Spodosols form under forest vegetation, especially under coniferous species whose
needles are low in base-forming cations like calcium and high in acid resins. soil
profiles.

- The leaching and precipitation often occur along wavy wetting fronts, thus yielding
the striking profiles seen in Spodosols.

Figure 14. Spodosols soil order—global distribution, land area, suborders, and a
representative profile (Source: Bradyand Weil, 2014)

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 12. OXISOLS (OXIC HORIZON, HIGHLY WEATHERED)

- The Oxisols are the most highly weathered soils in the classification system
- They form in hot climates with nearly year-round moist conditions; hence, the native
vegetation is generally tropical rain forest.
- Their most important diagnostic feature is a deep oxic subsurface horizon.
- Oxic horizon is generally very high in clay-size particles dominated by hydrous
oxides of iron and aluminum.
- Weathering and intense leaching have removed much of the silica from the silicate
materials in this horizon.
- Some quartz and 1:1-type silicate clay minerals remain, but the hydrous oxides are
dominant.
- The epipedon in most Oxisols is either ochric or umbric.
- The clay content of Oxisols is generally high, but the clays are of the low-activity,
non-sticky type.
- The low-activity clays have a very limited capacity to hold nutrient cations such as
Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+, so they are typically of low natural fertility and moderately acid.
- The high concentration of iron and aluminum oxides also gives these soils a capacity
to bind so tightly with what little P is present that P deficiency often limits plant
growth once the natural vegetation is disturbed.

Figure 15. Oxisols soil order—global distribution, land area, suborders, and a
representative profile (Source: Brady and Weil, 2014)

References:

262
Brady, N.C. & R.R. Weil. 2014. Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils. Prentice-Hall,
Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. 559p.

Buol, S.W., Southward, R.J., Graham, R.C., and McDaniel P.A. 2011. Soil Genesis and
Classification, 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Soil Survey Division Staff. 1993. Soil survey manual. Soil Conservation Service. U.S.
Department of Agriculture Handbook 18.

Soil Survey Staff. 1999. Soil Taxonomy—A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and
Interpreting Soil Surveys. 2d ed. Agric. Handb. No. 436. USDANRCS, p. 869.

Soil Survey Staff. 2010. Keys to Soil Taxonomy. 11th ed. USDA-Natural Resources
Conservation Service, Washington, DC.

Schoeneberger, P.J., D.A. Wysocki, E.C. Benham, and Soil Survey Staff. 2012. Field book for
describing and sampling soils, Version 3.0. Natural Resources Conservation Service, National
Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE.

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 LESSON 2
SOIL SURVEY AND MAPPING (GIS)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this chapter, the reviewee is expected to:

1. Explain the things soil science do in conducting soil survey;
2. Identify various data sets needed to be presented in the soil survey report;
3. Acquire knowledge on the preparation of soil survey reports; and
4. Predict and evaluate impacts of soil resource utilization on the environment.
5. Equip themselves with the necessary skills in GIS mapping and knowledge in evaluating
soil resources for agricultural utilization.

A. INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION OF SOIL SURVEY

The inventory of soil resources in an area is soil survey. It consists of determining

important characteristics of the soil, classify the soil into defined units, locate and plot their
boundaries on maps and predict their suitability for various uses. It allows the measurement and
observation of soil behavior and properties at one location to be used in making soil
interpretation at other locations. In other words, a technology developed in one group of soils
can be transferred to another area provided the same soil group exists. According to USDA-
NRCS, soil survey is a systematic examination, description, classification, and mapping of soils
in an area. Thus, agricultural management practices of a certain soil classification in any given
location can be adopted in other areas, if crops to be planted are of similar varieties. Soil
surveys are classified according to the kind and intensity of field examination.

Soil surveys were made first in the United States as early as 1896. In the Philippines, the
first soil survey was done by Pendleton in 1935 at the Province of Negros. The survey was
intended to evaluate the lands for sugarcane production. Until lately, when the Bureau of Soil
and Water Management (BSWM) was created under the Department of Agriculture, soil survey
has become part of their mandates. In the early 60’s, soil survey reports were published per
province and later in the 80’s, Land Resources Evaluation Project (LREP) per province were
made as well.

It is very evident that the soil survey investigates the use of soil for farming, ranching,
forestry, etc. As experience was acquired in the use of soil survey predictions were made about
other uses such as highways, airfields, residential development, and many more. As the making
and the use of soil survey expanded, the knowledge about soil and the nature, occurrence and
behavior for defined use and management also increased.

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 B. PURPOSE OF SOIL SURVEY IN AGRICULTURE

The basic objective of soil surveys is the same for all kinds of land, although the number
of mapping units, their composition, and the detail of mapping vary with complexity of the soil
patterns and the specific needs of the user. Thus, soil survey is matched to the soil and soil-
related problems of the area.
Soil surveys are conducted using either the general-purpose or special-purpose survey.
General-purpose surveys are expected to provide the basis of interpretations for many different
purposes, some of which may not yet be known. This involves the production of a pedological
map which shows the distribution of soil units defined primarily according to their morphology,
and the acquisition of field and laboratory data on other physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of these land units. Special-purpose soil surveys are carried out where the
purpose is known and specific, for example, irrigation, land reclamation or the cultivation of a
particular crop such as corn or sugarcane. It is most useful therefore in areas, where a good
deal of data is already known.

The deficiency of general-purpose surveys is that they cannot serve all purposes equally
well. The logic of this applies conversely to special purpose classification i.e. the more closely
tailored that a survey is to one specific purpose, the less likely it is to be of value for other
purpose.

C. USES AND APPLICATIONS OF SOIL SURVEY

The application of the science of soil surveying is broadly categories from land resource
planning and evaluation of different land uses. These categories are explicitly discussed under
similar purposes of utilization.

Planning and Management for Farming, Ranching and Forestry

Soil survey forms a bridge between experimental science and practical agricultural and
forestry for it enables the result of research and experience of soil use to be transferred to
particular locations. It also helps in deciding the optimum cropping system and management of
soils and identifies soils that will respond to new crop technique.

Normally, most of all farm plan is formulated for the proper use of an area, so with ranch
or pasture and forestry. In the Philippines, forest land use plans are formulated for the proper
use and management of such land use.

Engineering Purposes

Data from soil survey are usually obtained from depths of utmost 2m, but this is still of

265
considerable value in the initial planning of engineering works. It enables hazards and problem
areas like swelling clays and peat to be located and avoided at an early stage, provides a
sampling bases for essential but expensive detailed site investigation and it is a guide to
location of sand, gravel and construction materials.

Special Purposes - Urban and Regional Planning and Waste Disposal)

When a change in major kind of land use is contemplated, the value of the land under
alternative uses must be assessed and response of the soil to proposed changes in use must
be predicted. The above condition has increased the need for soil survey, although the soil is
only one of many factors being considered.

D. PRINCIPLES OF SOIL SURVEY

The following are a number of general considerations related to soil survey and their
applications, directed partly at those who commission or make use of such surveys and partly at
those who execute them.

1. A soil survey must have an object or aim

The object or aim may be wide ranging such that it can provide a relatively stable data
base that will last for many years and be usable for a variety of purposes, some not yet
envisaged, or it may be narrow and specific. Normally, the objective must be of SMART
characteristics i.e. simple, measurable, attainable, must have resource needs and time
bound.

2. A soil map must show soils

A map is considered a soil map if the mapping units are based in substantial part on soil
profiles or map based on classes such as soil. Landform associations is a soil map also
if it is directed towards showing the distribution of soils.

3. Land resources do not consist of soils alone

One should bear in mind that the potential of the land to support crop depends on
climates as much as on soils. Conversely, soil surveyors need to have an appreciation of
their specialization and interacts with other kinds of environmental information so that
proper interpretation will be arrived at.

4. The soil map and report are complimentary

The output of soil survey includes both map and a report, neither is more important than
the other for they are mutually indispensable. Since the amount of information that can
be printed in the face of the map is limited, it must be amplified by data given on the

266
 report. However, the report is more than just an amplified legend.

5. A soil survey is not the sole basis for decision on land use and management, it is
only and aid.
It should be emphasized that decisions on land management are invariably influenced by
economic considerations, social and institutional factors, often by existing legal land
rights and sometimes by political constraints and not only on the soils.

E. WHAT SOIL SURVEY CANNOT DO

The usefulness of a soil survey depends on two things. First, the accuracy with which
soil properties are mapped, and second, the relevance of these properties to the purpose in
hand. Despite of its accuracy, however, it should be appreciated by all who commission soil
surveys that everything cannot be achieved through it.

The following are the things that soil survey can’t do:

1. Map soils to a high accuracy with little effort

The boundaries between soil mapping units are complex and are not always visible by
the eye whilst the mapped units themselves are by no means homogenous. Despite that
mapping units are considered homogenous; soil and its properties are largely variable.

2. Produce one soil classification that meets the need of all users
No single soil classification can be derived that will meet all the varied needs of different
kinds of land users for different land uses have different land use requirements.

3. Grade land uniquely from “best” to “poorest” quality

Not only are soil and other land requirements are specific to each use, but what is better
for one use may be poorer for the other. In other words, a soil maybe best grown to rice
but not for vegetable especially so that it is high in clay content, with poor drainage and
having a hard pan.

4. Produce by soil survey alone can accurately estimate of crop yields

Young (1981) revealed that broad estimates of ranges of crop yields and other levels of
production, can and should be obtained in the course of soil surveys. He warned that
such estimates have substantial range of error at the order of ± 33%, for it is highly
dependent on levels of inputs and standards of management.

F. KINDS OF SOIL SURVEY AND ITS USES

Soil surveys can be designed to meet the needs of users who need the precise
information about soil resources of an area a few hectares or less size, or for users who need a

267
broad prospective of the soil resources of areas thousands of hectares in size. Soil surveys
differ mainly in: a) the kind of mapping units; b) kind of soil taxa used to identify components of
mapping units; c) kinds and intensity of field procedures; and d) minimum size of delineated
areas. The tables below present the criteria for identifying different kinds of soil survey as well
as the appropriateness of its uses for different kinds of soil survey activities

Table 1. Criteria for identifying kinds of soil surveys.

Kinds Min.
Kind of
of Map Units FIELD PROCEDURES SCALE SIZE
Components
Survey (ha)

The soils in each

delineation are identified
Mainly by transecting and
1st consociations Phases of traversing. Soil
1:12 000 0.6
Order and some soil series boundaries are observed
complexes throughout their length.
AP used to aid boundary
delineation.

Soil boundaries are

1:12 000
plotted by observation
Consociations,
and interpretation of
associations Phases of to
remotely sensed data. 0.6 to 4
and soil series
Boundaries are verified
complexes 1:31 680
at closely spaced
intervals.
The soils in each
delineation are identified
1:24 000
Associations by transecting, traversing
Phases of
and some and some observations.
3rd soil series to 2.3 to
consociations Boundaries are plotted
Order and soil 252
and by observation and
families 1:250
complexes interpretation by remotely
000
sensed data and verified
with some observation.
The soils of delineations
representative of each
map unit are identified 1:100
and their patterns and 000
Associations Phases of composition determined
4th 40 to
with some soil families by transecting. to
Order 370
consociations and groups Subsequent delineations
are map by some 1:300
traversing, by 000
observation and
interpretation of remotely

268
 sensed data verified by
occasional observations.
Boundaries are plotted
by API.
Soils, their pattern and
1:150
Phases of composition for each 252
000
sub-groups, mapping unit are
5th
Associations great-groups, identified through to
Order to
suborders mapping selected areas
and orders 39 to 65 sq. km with 1st 4 000
1:1M
or 2nd order survey.

Table 2. Kind of Soil Survey and their Uses

Kind of Soil Survey Examples of Uses Type of Planning

Detailed – very intensive
1st Order Experimental plots for houses
planning
Farming, ranching, woodland
2nd Order management, watershed Detailed planning
management
Extensive ranching or woodland
3rd Order management, watershed General specialized planning
management
Large watersheds, large resource
conservation and development
areas, large regional council of
4th Order General planning
government’s areas, country or
multi-country planning districts,
state planning districts
5th Order Multi-state or nations General very broad planning

G. MAJOR COMPONENTS OF SOIL SURVEYING

Soil Mapping Unit

A soil mapping unit is a kind of soil or combination of soil or of soil(s) and

miscellaneous area(s) that can be shown at scale of mapping for the defined purposes and
objectives of the survey. Mapping units can be identified as soil consociations, soil associations,
soil complexes, undifferentiated soil groups, soil series, soil type, soil variant, soil phase, soil
landscape, land system and facet and special purpose unit.

The objectives of survey determine component of map units and the taxonomic level
used identify components of map units. According to the USDA (2015) for the more detailed
surveys, decisions must be made about what criteria to use to recognize phase of soil science,
ha hardly or namely to define the phase, and which similar phase of different series have such

269
similar interpretations that they can be combined. Further, for the less detailed survey, decisions
must be made about how the complexities of soil in large areas can be identified for purpose of
the survey, what combination of soil characterize useful and map able units, what taxonomic
level should be used in naming map units, and which phase contribute to the usefulness of the
map units. Indicates that soils of the San Manuel series (Entisols) are dominant in that map unit.
The names of taxa of higher categories are also used in map unit names, especially on the
small-scale map. For example. “Entisols, level to nearly level” identifies a map unit consisting
dominantly of soils under Entisols, which includes San Manuel Series plus other series like
Bantog or Maligaya. The name of the taxa of the largest category that accurately identifies the
dominant soil is commonly used.

Based on the above discussion, designing map units to indicate significant difference in
behavior among soil is particularly important to meet the current objectives of a survey.
Reflecting differences in genesis and morphology is also important, even if no immediate
differences in interpretation are known. Even if one of the objectives of soil survey is too reserve
knowledge about soil, it does not mean that the soil map must show the location of every land of
soil in a survey area in that the publications must read all that has been learned about the soil.

Kinds of Map Units

It is a common knowledge that soils differ in size and shape of their areas, in degree of context
with adjacent soil, and in geographic relationship. There are four kinds of map units. Used in soil
surveys to know the relationship as follows:

 Consociations. These are mapping units where delineated areas are dominated by a
single soil taxon (or miscellaneous area) and similar soils. As a rule, at least one-half of
the pedon in each delineation of a soil consociation is of the same soil components that
provide the name of the map unit. The total amount of dissimilar inclusions of other
components in a map unit generally does not exceed about 15% if it’s limiting and 25% if
non-limiting.

 Association. A soil mapping unit in which two or more defined soil taxonomic unit occur
together in an individual characteristics pattern over a geographic region; the individual
soils can be separated but are not because of the objectives of the survey. The major
components of an association can be separated at a scale of about 1:24,000.

 Complex. A mapping unit used in detailed soil survey where two or more defined
taxonomic units are so intimately intermixed geographically that it is undesirable or
impractical to separate them because of the scale being used. The major components of
a complex cannot be mapped separately at a scale of about 1:24,000. Further, the major
components are sufficiently different in morphology or behavior that the mapping unit
cannot be called a consociation

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  Undifferentiated groups. This consists of two or more taxa components that are not
consistently associated geographically and, therefore, do not always occur together in
the same map delineation. There taxa are included as the same named map unit
because use and management are the same as very similar for common uses.
Generally, they include together because some common features such as steepness,
stoniness, flooding determiners use and management.

H. PLANNING SOIL SURVEY SEQUENCE OF OPERATION

Planning Soil Survey. Overall planning and the organization of the various contributing
activities are critical components of any soil survey. Mistakes made at the planning stage cannot
easily rectified, no matter how well the field survey and other activities are carried out. The
following will serve as a checklist for survey planning.

1. Identification and Definition of Objectives

• Location, extent, and boundary of survey area
• Problems to be solved
• Time and finance available

2. Appraisal of Physical and Social Environment

• Climate
• Geology and quaternary history
• Topography
• Aerial photographs (AP) and other remote sensing data
• Previous soil resource survey

3. Survey Design
• Publication scale
• Field mapping scale
• Observation intensity, location and depth
• Role of remote sensing
• Additional field studies
• Role of automatic data handling
• Laboratory requirements

4. Soil Classification and Map Legend

• US Soil taxonomy
• FAO soil map of the world
• Etc.

5. Interpretation, Land Evaluation Activities

• Field studies
• Interpretative legend

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 6. Check availability and sustainability of AP and topographic base commissions special
photography as required

7. Survey Schedule
• Staff mobilization
• Field research
• Preliminary API
• Field tests and laboratory analysis
• Interpretative activities
• Survey field checks
• Draft report
• Submission

8. Staffing
• Project leader Professional staff
• Support staff

9. Mobilization arrangements and logistics

• Survey field base
• Accommodation
• Travel
• Transport for field practice and equipment
• Equipment and materials
• Equipment and materials
• Laboratory facilities

10. Publication of results

• Form of publication
• Method of printing
• Number of copies

Sequence of Survey Operations. A number of activities related to soil survey have already
been discussed, however, the following general plan is recommended most soil and land survey
at whatever level:

1. Initial Reconnaissance. This involves the identification of the major problems,

establish methods of working and to familiarize the team with the area and form a
consensus on priorities, special features, etc. in the light of the survey purpose. It should
include preliminary identification of major soil/landform/vegetation relationships, and the
study of all relevant existing data.

2. Main Survey. This is to establish distribution of land units.

3. Sampling. This is to sample soils of major mapped areas for characterization.

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 4. Consolidation. This serves as a “filling-in” for areas of complex soil or difficult
boundaries, testing of mapped areas, revisions of API, incorporation of soil analysis
results and final classifications.

5. Reporting. This is the product of final report and accompanying maps and diagrams.

I. FIELD SURVEY AND THE REPORT

The three phases of field soil survey are research (preliminary and reconnaissance),
mapping and interpretation. Each of the phases has its main tasks to achieves and become part
of the sol survey report.

A. Research Phase

The task of research phase is to establish the following:

• Which soil properties are important for the purpose of survey;

• The field relationship between the soil properties and surface features;
• The soil classes to be mapped and the mapping legend; and
• How potential productivity and recommended management practices are related to
practicable mapping units.

B. The Mapping Phase

The soil survey attempts to delineate areas that behave differently or will respond
differently to some specified management. The mapping unit serves as a basis for predicting
soil behavior.

There are two techniques available for the surveyor, namely: grid survey and free survey,
observations are regularly spaced to produce a rectangular grid over the survey area. On the
other hand, free survey involves the surveyors to use of his judgment of the objectives of the
survey and all the available air-photo and ground evidence to locate profile observations at the
most useful and representative sites.

C. Field Observation Data

The data to be recorded at three levels of detail, namely: representative profile,

intermediate level and soil type identification is presented below:

Table 3. Data Recorded in Field Observation

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 KINDS OF OBSERVATION
(1) Identification and Location
Profile number X x x
Surveyor X x x
Date X x x
Location; grid reference X x x
Map Sheet X x x
Air photo number X x x

(2) Site information

Landform of surrounding area, e.g. X
undulating plain
2-5 degrees of site X x (x)
Slope angle and shape X x
Position of slope (upper, etc) X x
Micro-topography X x
Elevation X (x)
Surface stones / Rock outcrops X (x)
Evidence of erosion X x (x)
Hydrology of area X
Natural drainage X x x
Depth of groundwater table X x x
Vegetation of area: physiognomic type X
Dominant species X
Plant association, indicator sp. X (x)
Land use area, percent cultivated of
site, including history climate, added X
subsequently by analysis of record

(3) Soil Profile Information

Parent Material X (x)
Lithology and degree of weathering X x
Horizon depths X x x
Color mottling X x x
Texture X x x
Structure/consistence X (x)
Pedological features: cutans, nodules, X x
cementation, pans
Pores, roots and feature of biological X (x)
origin (e.g. krotovinas)
Content of rocks and mineral fragments X (x) (x)
Nature boundary X (x)
Field test
pH X x
Salinity (x) (x)
Infiltrated capacity (x)
Saturated hydraulic conductivity (x)
Sampling for laboratory characterization X (x)

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Legend:
X - always recorded
(x) – optional; according to the requirements of the survey

D. The Interpretation Phase

Soil survey produces a range of information required for each interpretation and
application, including land use potential, management practices and avoidance of hazards, plus
soil data needed as a basis for economic or other evaluation. A surveyor then relates land
potential and management recommendations. To accomplish this, two activities must be done
namely:

• Crop Yield Estimates. Crop yields vary with management practices whether in the year
concerned and soil type, therefore, it is essential to collect data and present results in
terms of inputs and management to include specific details of crop varieties, fertilizer
treatment, planting dates, etc. in developing countries like the Philippines it is convenient
to assemble data in terms of three levels of inputs: low, intermediate and high.

Crop yield estimates can be obtained the following ways:

a) By comparison with data from experimental sites on identified soil type both within
the survey sites and on similar soil and climate outside it.
b) By field experiment conducted within the survey sites specifically for this purpose.
c) From farm records, marketing board records, farm system studies, demonstration
plots or other data must be found.
d) By comparison of the known or supposed requirements of the crop with the chemical
and physical properties of the soil.

• Soil Responses to Specified Management. Since soil surveys are frequently carried
where changes in land use or management practices are contemplated, it is important
that predictions on how the various soils will response to the proposed changes be
included in the interpretation phase. In making such estimates of soil response two
approaches may be followed:

a) Reasoning based on the observed soil properties, knowledge of the proposed

changes and physical and chemical deduction in terms of processes.
b) Comparison with soil already under the proposed used.

E. Presentation of Results

Presentation of output is not a postscript to a survey but one of the most critical parts,
second only the initial planning. In the latter, sufficient time and resources must be allocated at

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the planning stage to produce the maps and reports.

The aim of the report shall be:

1. To tell the potential user what information is there

2. To emphasize the practical importance of the information
3. To help each kind of user find the information he needs and enable him to
understand it.

F. Outline of a Soil Survey Report

The following serves as an outline for soil survey report.

• Summary. This part be written in plain language avoiding technical jargon for it is
usually the only part read by senior personnel who need to know how the findings of the
survey affect their planning but who do not have the time to study the details of the
report.

• Main Report. This explains the methods, findings, and interpretation of the survey for a
broad readership that cannot have specialist knowledge of soil science.

• How to use this report. Explain to farmers, planners, and other sites on the maps, how
to find the soils present from the map legend and where in the text and tables to find
information of different kind.

• Abstract. This enables the potential user to judge whether the survey is of interest of
him. To be effective, it should be short less than 250 words.

• Table of Contents. This outlines the structure of the report and acts as a guide to the
reader. Headings should be informative.

• Background and Aims of the Survey. A short account of the circumstances which led
the survey being carried out and its intended purposes.

• Location – Give all place names in the report

• Physical Environment - Brief descriptions of climate, geology, geomorphology,
hydrology, and vegetation, not in comprehensive detail but sufficient to
support the description and interpretation of soil data.
• Agriculture and/or Present Land Use – This should be more detail than the
Physical Environment
• Economic and Social Background – this discusses the background the
management levels assumed in the recommendation.

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1. Methods of Survey. This portion includes information on base maps and air
photographs, density and types of field soil observation, laboratory analysis and other
type of survey carried out or incorporated. Any techniques especially developed or
adapted to overcome problems encountered in the survey should be stated briefly with
details reported in an appendix.

2. Soils. This includes the following:

• Introduction. This section explains the layout of the chapter, describe in non-technical
terms the soil classification employed and how the soil types have been group into
mapping units, and to state how this chapter to the interpretative chapter which follow.

• Legend. It must include the data of approximate equivalence between the soil types
distinguished in the survey, the national classification of the country and the FAO
classification or the US Soil taxonomy.

• Soil Mapping Unit. Each soil in the mapping unit should be described how to recognize
each including their position in the landscape. Take note that the technical term must be
defined and explain in glossary.

3. Land Evaluation/Soil Survey Interpretation. The parts included in this portion are:

• Introduction
• Land Capability/Land Suitability Classification
• Land Capability/Land Suitability Units
• Economic and Social Analysis

4. Soil and Land Management Unit. In the multi-disciplinary study, management

recommendation of any of the following topics must be included:

a. Choice of crops, crop variety, tree species

b. Soil fertility (recommendation application and type of fertilizer, specific nutrient and
toxicity problems, design and citing of field trails)
c. Land preparation (primary land leveling with respect to topography, infertile sub-soil and
crop tillage)
d. Erosion control (recommended cropping and cultivation techniques, contour cultivation,
strip cropping, shelter build and mechanical control)
e. Drainage and irrigation (design and methods of operation taking into account surface
topography, land grading, infiltration, deep percolation, surface and ground water
hydrology, water supply and quality, installation and running cost)

5. Closing Section
a. References

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 b. Glossary of technical terms
c. Unit of measurement

6. Technical Appendices. Information that is too technical to be used to non-specialist

readers or data that are primarily for reference are best reported in appendices like
detailed description of individual units and profile descriptions, range of variation,
impurities, analytical data and classification, survey and laboratory methods and
interpretative data.

7. Maps. Users have two main requirements of map, namely:

a. To locate the area of interest (farm, field, etc.) and;

b. To see overall distribution of soils.

Showing the distribution of the soil is the best achieved using good colors, other ways to
distinguish mapping unit are by symbols, monochrome tones and patterns, color and some
combination, use of numerical or mnemonic symbol.

Maps are often use without reference to their accompanying report, thus, field legend should be
on the map sheet. The legend must be informative relating each unit to its position in the
landscape and explain its most significant characteristics.

J. MAPPING USING GIS

Geographic Information System (GIS) define and its uses

The GIS is used for the preparation of a terrain mapping unit (TMU) map which integrates
data from existing maps and data interpreted from satellite images. The GIS is also used (i) to
derive relevant information from the TMU/soil map (e.g., land suitability and estimated erosion
rates) and (ii) to integrate this information with land cover/use and accessibility information. This
integrated information is used to locate physically suitable, accessible, and not yet used areas
that could become potential new cropland sites for highland people after resettlement.

Advantages of GIS method

GIS methods shows that apart from considerable time savings, also improvements in data
quality are achieved, e.g. by the preparation of a slope map based on a digital terrain model and
by up-dating of existing land use information with satellite imagery. The spatial and attribute
data base in the GIS makes it possible to use the original, non-aggregated data and, in addition,
facilitates the integration of the various data for the analysis of potential sites for resettlement
according to various criteria and objectives.

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 Here is a sample mapping tutorial using ArcGIS (Alibuyog, 2018).

MAP LAYOUTS

In this exercise you will learn how to make a layout including a scale bar, north
arrow, border, and title to create a map.

At the end of this exercise, you will be able to:

• Create a Layout
• Understand how to use the Frame tools
• Change the theme names

1. Add the SDN_muni_boundary.shp, SDN_landuse.shp, SDN_rivers_streams.shp,

and SDN_roads.shpto your View1.

2. Change the symbology of

SDN_rivers_streams.shpto“rivers”; SDN_muni_boundaryto“hollow” and
SDN_roads to “boundary, county” For the SDN_landuse, change the
symbology to Categories, Unique Values and choose LU_Name as the value field.
Click Add all values. Then Click OK.

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Note: You should have fourshapefiles,
"SDN_roads.shp”,"SDN_rivers_streams.shp", SDN_muni_boundary, and
SDN_Landuse.shp. When we make a Layout these files will appear in the Legend, so
the names will be changed to something more descriptive.

3. Make "SDN_roads.shp" active then Click on the highlighted name

"SDN_roads.shp". A cursor will appear and you can rename the layer to your
liking. Lets rename the layer Road networks. Repeat this process for the
"SDN_rivers_streams.shp" layer and name it Rivers and
Streams; SDN_Muni_boundary to Municipal boundary; and SDN_Landuse to
Landuse.

Note: Before we create a Layout, make sure you are satisfied with the colors. If not

click on the color block and adjust the look.

4. At the bottom of the Project window click on Layout View.

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5. Click the Insert tab at the top of the project

Note: These are the tools to make a View, Legend, Scale bar, North Arrow, Charts,
Tables, or a Picture Frame.

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6. Scroll down to Legend. You will receive the Legend Wizard, answer the
questions provided in the Wizard.

7. When your legend appears, you can resize by pulling the corner of the light blue
box surrounding it. You can also move the Legend by clicking and dragging
inside the light blue box. A light blue box around an object shows that the graphic
is active.

282
Note: Use the pan to reposition you
toolbar maps.

283
8. Next, we will add a title to the map. As in Step 4click on the Insert tab at the top
of the project. Scroll down to Title. Try to resize and drag the title.

9. We will now add a scale bar to the map. As in Step 4click on the Insert tab at the
top of the project. Scroll down to Scale Bar. The Scale Bar Selector window will
open up and allow you to choose from various scale bars.

Note: You can adjust the size and position of the scale bar by adjusting the light blue box.

10. We will now add a scale text to the map.

11. Add Text and type “SCALE:” Align this with the Scale Text as shown in the below.

12. We will now add a North Arrow to our map. Use the same process as Step 9.
Scroll down to North Arrow to open up the North Arrow Selector. Choose an arrow
to your liking and adjust the size and position with the light blue box.

284
285
Note: You may wish to resize and relocate some of the Layout features to create a
polished final product. Click on a feature to activate the graphic and use the little light
blue boxes to make adjustments.

12. You may now wish to or Print your layout.

13. If you don’t want to print your layout within ArcMap, you can export the page
layout as picture. To do this, Click File, Export Map.

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14. In the Export Map window,
navigate where you want to
save your file (i.e.,
C:\Data\GIS Lab Exercise\).
Enter the Filename as
Landuse.jpg and File type
as JPG. Optionally, you can
change the resolution as 600
dpi. Click Save.

15. Save you project as

Exer13.mxd. Close ArcGIS
or continue to the next
exercise.

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References

Alibuyog N.R. 2018. Tutorial Manual Basic GIS using ArcGIS. MMSU, Batac Ilocos Norte.

Dent D. and A. Young. 1981. Soil Survey and Land Evaluation. London. George Allen and
Unwin Publisher Ltd.

Landon. J.R. (ed.). 1984 Booker Soil Tropical Manual. A Handbook for Soil Survey and
Agricultural land Evaluation in the topic and subtopics. London: Longman Group Ltd.

Soil Conservation Society of America. 1984. Resource Conservation Glossary United States of
America. Government Printing Office.

Crop Science Society of America. 1984. Planning the Uses of Land. Washington: Government
Printing Office.

Hausenbuiller. R.L. 1978. Soil Sciences and Principle Practices. Lowa: WM. C. Brown Co.

Wolf, P.R. 1993. Elements of Photogrammetry. London. Mc Graw Hill Book Co.

Liengsakul, M., Mekpaiboonwatana, S., Pramojanee, P., Bronsveld, K., Huizing, H. 1993. Use of
GIS and remote sensing for soil mapping and for locating new sites for permanent
cropland - A case study in the "highlands" of northern Thailand(Article) Geoderma
Volume 60, Issue 1-4, December 1993, Pages 293-307 retrieved from
https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0- on July 28, 2021.

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 LESSON 3
LAND USE AND LAND EVALUATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

1. Understand the concepts and principles of land use and land evaluation;
2. Create basic land evaluation study;
3. Prepare land suitability analysis based on FAO framework;
4. To integrate the concepts of this module with other subdisciplines of soil science.

A. GENERAL CONCEPTS OF LAND USE

These are the formal definition of terms by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) that will
be used in this in this module for the sake of clarity.

Land - Land comprises the physical environment, including climate, relief, soils, hydrology, and
vegetation, to the extent that these influence potential for land use. It includes the results
of past and present human activity, e.g., reclamation from the sea, vegetation clearance,
and adverse results, e.g., soil salinization. Purely economic and social characteristics,
however, are not included in the concept of land; these form part of the economic and
social context.

Land Mapping Unit (LMU) - A land mapping unit is a mapped area of land with specified
characteristics. Land mapping units are defined and mapped by natural resource
surveys, e.g., soil survey, forest inventory. Their degree of homogeneity or of internal
variation varies with the scale and intensity of the study. In some cases, a single land
mapping unit may include two or more distinct types of land, with different suitabilities,
e.g., a river flood plain, mapped as a single unit but known to contain both well-drained
alluvial areas and swampy depressions.

Land Use - Suitability evaluation involves relating land mapping units to specified types of land
use. The types of use considered are limited to those which appear to be relevant under
general physical, economic, and social conditions prevailing in an area. These kinds of
land use serve as the subject of land evaluation. They may consist of major kinds of land
use or land utilization types.

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B. MAJOR KINDS OF LAND USE AND LAND UTILIZATION TYPES

A major kind of land use is a major subdivision of rural land use, such as rainfed
agriculture, irrigated agriculture, grassland, forestry, or recreation. Major kinds of land use
are usually considered in land evaluation studies of a qualitative or reconnaissance nature.

Land Utilization Type (LUT) - A land utilization type is a kind of land use described or defined
in a degree of detail greater than that of a major kind of land use. In detailed or
quantitative land evaluation studies, the kinds of land use considered will usually consist
of land utilization types.

Land utilization types are defined for the purpose of land evaluation. Their
description need not comprise the full range of farm management practices, but only
those related to land management and improvement. At detailed levels of evaluation,
closely defined land utilization types can be extended into farming systems by adding
other aspects of farm management.

A land utilization type consists of a set of technical specifications in each physical,

economic and social setting. This may be the current environment, or a future being
modified by major land improvement e, e.g., an irrigation and drainage scheme.

Attributes of land utilization types include data or assumptions on:

1. Produce, including goods (e.g., crops, livestock timber), cervices (e.g.,

recreational facilities) or other benefits (e.g. wildlife conservation);

2. Market orientation, including whether towards subsistence or commercial

production;

3. Capital intensity;

4. Labor intensity;

5. Power sources (e.g. man's labor, draught animals machinery using fuels);

6. Technical knowledge and attitudes of land users;

7. Technology employed (e.g. implements and machinery, fertilizers, livestock

breeds, farm transport, methods of timber felling);

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 8. Infrastructure requirements (e.g. sawmills, tat factories, agricultural advisory
services);

9. Size and configuration of land holdings, including whether consolidated or

fragmented;

10. Land tenure, the legal or customary manner in which rights to land are held,
by individuals or groups;

11. Income levels, expressed per capita, per unit of production (e.g. farm) or per
unit area.

Some examples of land utilization types according to FAO are the following:
1. Rainfed annual cropping based on groundnuts with subsistence maize, by
smallholders with low capital resources, using cattle drawn farm implements,
with high labour intensity, on freehold farms of 5-10 ha.

2. Farming similar to (i) in respect of production, capital, labour, power and

technology, but farms of 200-500 ha operated on a communal basis.

3. Commercial wheat production on large freehold farms, with high capital and
low labour intensity, and a high level of mechanization and inputs.

4. Extensive cattle ranching, with medium levels of capital and labour intensity,
with land held and central services operated by a governmental agency.

5. Softwood plantations operated by a government Department of Forestry, with

high capital intensity, low labour intensity, and advanced technology.

6. A national park for recreation and tourism.

C. LAND CHARACTERISTICS, QUALITIES AND DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA

Land Characteristics - A land characteristic is an attribute of land that can be measured or

estimated. Examples are slope angle, rainfall, soil texture, available water capacity,
biomass of the vegetation, etc. Land mapping units, as determined by resource surveys,
are normally described in terms of land characteristics.

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 If land characteristics are employed directly in evaluation, problems arise from
the interaction between characteristics. For example, the hazard of soil erosion is
determined not by slope angle alone but by the interaction between elope angle, slope
length, permeability, soil structure, rainfall intensity and other characteristics. Because of
this problem of interaction, it is recommended that the comparison of land with land use
should be carried out in terms of land qualities.

Land Quality - A land quality is a complex attribute of land which acts in a distinct manner in its
influence on the suitability of land for a specific kind of use. Land qualities may be
expressed in a positive or negative way. Examples are moisture availability, erosion
resistance, flooding hazard, nutritive value of pastures, accessibility. Where data are
available, aggregate land qualities may also be employed, e.g. crop yields, mean annual
increments of timber species.

Land qualities can sometimes be estimated or measured directly but are

frequently described by means of land characteristics. Qualities or characteristics
employed to determine limits of land suitability classes or subclasses are known as
diagnostic criteria.

Diagnostic Criterion - A diagnostic criterion is a variable which has an understood influence

upon the output from, or the required inputs to, a specified use, and which serves as a
basis for assessing the suitability of a given area of land for that use. This variable may
be a land quality, a land characteristic, or a function of several land characteristics. For
every diagnostic criterion there will be a critical value or set of critical values which are
used to define suitability class limits.

D. LAND REQUIREMENT, LIMITATIONS, AND IMPROVEMENTS

Land Requirement - requirements of the land use refer to the set of land qualities that
determine the production and management conditions of a kind of land use.

Land Limitations - limitations are land qualities, or their expression by means of diagnostic
criteria, which adversely affect a kind of land use.

For example, the requirements for mechanized cultivation of wheat include high
availability of oxygen in the root zone and absence of obstructions (boulders or rock
outcrops); waterlogging and the presence of boulders are limitations. Thus limitations
may be regarded as land qualities expressed in such a way as to show the extent to
which the conditions of the land fall short of the requirements for a given use.

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Land improvements - Land improvements are activities which cause beneficial changes in the
qualities of the land itself. Land improvements should be distinguished from
improvements in land use, i.e. changes in the use to which the land is put or
modifications to management practices under a given use.

Land improvements are classed as major or minor. A major land improvement

is a substantial and reasonably permanent improvement in the qualities of the land
affecting a given use. A large non-recurrent input is required, usually taking the form of
capital expenditure on structure and equipment. Once accomplished, maintenance of the
improvement remains as a continuing cost, but the land itself is more suitable for the use
than formerly. Examples are large irrigation schemes drainage of swamps and
reclamation of salinized land.

A minor land improvement is one which either has relatively small effects or is
non-permanent or both, or which lies within the capacity of individual farmers or other
land users. Stone clearance, eradication of persistent weeds and field drainage by
ditches are examples.

E. PRINCIPLES OF LAND EVALUATION

Land evaluation was defined by FAO (1976) as “the assessment of the land performances
when used for specific purposes”. It would include execution and interpretation of basic
survey of climate, soils, vegetation and other aspect of the land in terms of land use. It
focuses on relevant physical, economic and social parameter that will dictate the use
and somehow affect the performance of the given land area. Land evaluation
commences with initial consultation, concerned with the objective of evaluation,
assumption and constraint and the methods to be carried out which vary with
circumstances.

The concept of land suitability is only meaningful in terms of specific kinds of land
use, each with their own requirements, e.g. for soil moisture, rooting depth etc. The
qualities of each type of land, such as moisture availability or liability to flooding, are
compared with the requirements of each use. Thus the land itself and the land use are
equally fundamental to land suitability evaluation.

Certain principles are fundamental to the approach and methods employed in

land evaluation. These basic principles are as follows:

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1. Land suitability is assessed and classified with respect to specified
kinds of use

This principle embodies recognition of the fact that different kinds of land use
have different requirements. As an example, an alluvial flood plain with impeded
drainage might be highly suitable for rice cultivation but not suitable for many
forms of agriculture or for forestry.

The concept of land suitability is only meaningful in terms of specific kinds of land
use, each with their own requirements, e.g. for soil moisture, rooting depth etc.
The qualities of each type of land, such as moisture availability or liability to
flooding, are compared with the requirements of each use. Thus the land itself
and the land use are equally fundamental to land suitability evaluation.

2. Evaluation requires a comparison of the benefits obtained and the

inputs needed on different types of land

Land in itself, without input e, rarely if ever possesses productive potential; even
the collection of wild fruits requires labor, whilst the use of natural wilderness for
nature conservation requires measures for its protection. Suitability for each use
is assessed by comparing the required input e, such as labor, fertilizers or road
construction, with the goods produced or other benefits obtained.

3. A multidisciplinary approach is required.

The evaluation process requires contributions from the fields of natural science,
the technology of land use, economics and sociology. In particular, suitability
evaluation always incorporates economic considerations to a greater or lesser
extort. In qualitative evaluation, economics may be employed in general terms
only, without calculation of costs and returns. In quantitative evaluation the
comparison of benefits and inputs in economic terms plays a major part in the
determination of suitability.

It follows that a team carrying out an evaluation require a range of specialists.

These will usually include natural scientists (e.g. geomorphologists, soil
surveyors, ecologists), specialists in the technology of the forms of land use
under consideration (e.g. agronomists foresters, irrigation engineers, experts in
livestock management), economists and sociologists. There may need to be
some combining of these functions for practical reasons, but the principle of
multidisciplinary activity, encompassing studies of land, land use, social aspects
and economics, remains.

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 4. Evaluation is made in terms relevant to the physical economic and
social context of the area concerned

Such factors as the regional climate, levels of living of the population, availability
and cost of labor, need for employment, the local or export markets, systems of
land tenure which are socially and politically acceptable, and availability of capital,
form the context within which evaluation takes place. It would, for example be
unrealistic to say that land was suitable for non-mechanized rice cultivation,
requiring large amounts of low-cost labour, in a country with high labour costs.
The assumptions underlying evaluation will differ from one country to another
and, to some extent, between different areas of the same country. Many of these
factors are often implicitly assumed; to avoid misunderstanding and to assist in
comparisons between different areas, such assumptions

F. LAND CAPABILITY CLASSIFICATION (LCC) AND CROP SUITABILITY EVALUATION

(CSE)

1. Land capability classification is a scientific appraisal of the physical characteristics of the

land. “It is an inherent capacity of land to perform the general land use function.” It is the
quality of land and assessed by the physical properties of soil and terrain characteristics.
Land capability is by and large ascertained by inherent soil characteristics, external land
features and environmental factors limiting land use.

Land capability classification is also defined as a system of grouping soils

primarily on the basis of their capability to produce common cultivated crops and pasture
plants without deteriorating over a long period of time. It is divided into capability class
and capability subclasses.

Land Capability Classes and Subclasses:

Capability class is the broadest category in the land capability classification

system. Class codes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are used to represent both irrigated
and non-irrigated land capability classes.

LCC CHARACTERISTICS

Land Suitable for Cultivation

Class 1 - Very good cultivable, deep, nearly level productive land with almost no

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limitation or very slight hazard. Soils in this class are suited for a variety of crops,
including wheat, barely, cotton, maize, tomato, and bean. Need no special
practices for cultivation.

Class 2 - Good cultivable land on almost level plain or on gentle slopes,

moderate depth, subject to occasional overland flow, may require drainage,
moderate risk of damage when cultivated, use crop rotations, water control
system or special tillage practices to control erosion.

Class 3 - Soils are of moderate fertility on moderately steep slopes subject to

more severe erosion and severe risk of damage but can be used for crops
provided adequate plant cover is maintained, hay or other sod crops should be
grown instead of row crops.

Class 4 - These are good soils on steep slopes, subject to severe erosion, with
severe risk of damage but may be cultivated occasionally if handled with great
care, keep in hay or pasture but a grain crop may be grown once in 5 or 6 years.

Land unsuitable for cultivation but suitable for permanent vegetation

Class 5 - Land is too wet or stony which make it unsuitable for cultivation of
crops, subject to only slight erosion if properly managed, should be used for
pasture or forestry but grazing should be regulated to prevent cover from being
destroyed.

Class 6 - These are shallow soils on steep slopes, used for grazing and forestry;
grazing should be regulated to preserve plant cover; if the plant cover is
destroyed, use should be restricted until cover is re-established.

Class 7 - These are steep, rough, eroded lands with shallow soils, also includes
droughty and swampy land, severe risk of damage even when used for pasture
or forestry, strict grazing or forest management must be applied.

Class 8 - Very rough land, not suitable even for woodland or grazing, reserve for
wildlife, recreation or wasteland consideration.

Capability subclass is the second category in the land capability classification

system. Class codes e, w, s, and c are used for land capability subclasses.

Subclass e is made up of soils for which the susceptibility to erosion is the

dominant problem or hazard affecting their use. Erosion susceptibility and past

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 erosion damage are the major soil factors that affect soils in this subclass.

Subclass w is made up of soils for which excess water is the dominant hazard or
limitation affecting their use. Poor soil drainage, wetness, a high-water table, and
overflow are the factors that affect soils in this subclass.

Subclass s is made up of soils that have soil limitations within the rooting zone,
such as shallowness of the rooting zone, stones, low moisture-holding capacity,
low fertility that is difficult to correct, and salinity or sodium content.

Subclass c is made up of soils for which the climate (the temperature or lack of
moisture) is the major hazard or limitation affecting their use.

The subclass represents the dominant limitation that determines the capability
class. Within a capability class, where the kinds of limitations are essentially
equal, the subclasses have the following priority: e, w, s, and c. Subclasses are
not assigned to soils or miscellaneous areas in capability classes 1 and 8.

2. Crop Suitability Evaluation (CSE) - Suitability refers to use on a sustained basis. This
principle by no means requires that the environment should be preserved in a
completely unaltered state. Agriculture normally involves clearance of any natural
vegetation present, and normally soil fertility under arable cropping is higher or lower,
depending on management, but rarely at the same level as under the original vegetation.
What is required is that for any proposed form of land use, the probable consequences
for the environment should be assessed as accurately as possible and such
assessments taken into consideration in determining suitability.

The Food and Agriculture Organization classified the land suitability into suitable and not
suitable. Suitable lands are further classified into highly, moderately, suitable, and
marginally suitable. Lands that are not suitable are also further classified into currently
not suitable and permanent not suitable. The descriptions of these classifications are
reflected in Table 1.

Table 1. The FAO System of Land Suitability Classification for rainfed agriculture (FAO 1976,
1983)

ORDER CLASS DESCRIPTION

S1 Land is highly suitable - land units without limitations or with

2 or 3 slight limitations

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 S2 Land is moderately suitable - land units with 2 or three slight
Suitable limitations and no more than two moderate limitations

S3 Land is marginally suitable - land units with more than two

moderate limitations that however does not exclude the use of
the land

N1 Land is currently not suitable – land units with severe

limitation that exclude the use of the land or more than one
severe limitation that can be corrected
Not Suitable
N2 Land is permanently not suitable – land units with severe or
very severe limitations excluding the use of the land and that
cannot be corrected

Limitations due to:

t – topography; slope
w – drainage; flooding
s – physical soil characteristics (texture; soil depth; course fragments)
f – soil fertility characteristics (ph and nutrients)
n – salinity and alkalinity

G. RECOMMENDED PROCEDURES OF CONDUCTING LAND EVALUATION (According to

FAO Framework)

1. Development of the objective(s) of the evaluation;

2. Selection of relevant kinds of land uses, and identification of their requirements and
limitations for land;

3. Description of land (mapping) units, and assessment of land qualities;

4. Comparison of land use requirements for each land use with the adequacy of land
qualities identified in each land (mapping) unit;

5. Assessment of economic and social performance of each land use relative to the
objective(s) of the evaluation;

6. Final (suitability) classification and presentation of results.

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References

Food and Agriculture Organization. 1996. Guidelines for land-use planning. Rome, Italy:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from:
http://www.fao.org/3/t0715e/t0715e00.htm#Contents

Food and Agriculture Organization. 1981. A framework for land evaluation. Retrieved from:
http://www.fao.org/3/x5310e/x5310e02.htm#1.4%20principles.

Food and Agriculture Organization. 1983. Guidelines for Land Evaluation for Rainfed
Agriculture. FAO Soils Bulletin 52. FAO, Rome.

Food and Agriculture Organization. 1976. A framework for land evaluation. Soils Bulletin 32,
Rome, 72pp.

USDA-NCRS (2001). Land Capability Class, by State, 1997. Retrieve

https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/technical/nra/?cid=nrcs
143_014040#:~:text=Land%20capability%20class%20definitions%20area,very%
20severe%20limitations%20for%20cultivation%3B

Verheye, W. (2019). Land Evaluation. Retrieved from https://www.eolss.net/Sample-

Chapters/C19/E1-05- 02-00.pdf

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