Worked Solutions - Cambridge

Chapter 1 worked solutions – Complex numbers I
Solutions to Exercise 1A Foundation questions

1a 𝑖2
= 𝑖 4(0)+2
= −1
1b 𝑖4
= 𝑖 4(1)
=1
1c 𝑖7
= 𝑖 4(1)+3
= −𝑖
1d 𝑖 13
= 𝑖 4(3)+1
=𝑖
1e 𝑖 29
= 𝑖 4(7)+1
=𝑖
1f 𝑖 2010
= 𝑖 4(502)+2
= −1
1g 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 + 𝑖5
= −𝑖 + 1 + 𝑖
=1
1h 𝑖 7 + 𝑖 16 + 𝑖 21 + 𝑖 22
= −𝑖 + 1 + 𝑖 − 1
=0
© Cambridge University Press 2019 1

2a 2𝑖
=2×𝑖
= 2(−𝑖)
= −2𝑖
2b 3+𝑖
=3+𝑖
=3−𝑖
2c 1−𝑖
=1−𝑖
= 1 − (−𝑖)
=1+𝑖
2d 5 − 3𝑖
= 5 + −3𝑖
= 5 + −3 × 𝑖
= 5 − 3𝑖
= 5 − 3(−𝑖)
= 5 + 3𝑖
2e −3 + 2𝑖
= −3 + 2𝑖
= −3 + 2 × 𝑖
= −3 + 2(−𝑖)
= −3 − 2𝑖
3a (7 + 3𝑖) + (5 − 5𝑖)
= 7 + 3𝑖 + 5 − 5𝑖
= (7 + 5) + (3 − 5)𝑖
= 12 − 2𝑖
3b (−8 + 6𝑖) + (2 − 4𝑖)

= −8 + 6𝑖 + 2 − 4𝑖
= (−8 + 2) + (6 − 4)𝑖
= −6 + 2𝑖
3c (4 − 2𝑖) − (3 − 7𝑖)
= 4 − 2𝑖 − 3 + 7𝑖
= (4 − 3) + (−2 + 7)𝑖
= 1 + 5𝑖
3d (3 − 5𝑖) − (−4 + 6𝑖)

= 3 − 5𝑖 + 4 − 6𝑖
= (3 + 4) + (−5 − 6)𝑖
= 7 − 11𝑖
4a (4 + 5𝑖)𝑖
= 4𝑖 + 5𝑖 2
= 4𝑖 − 5
= −5 + 4𝑖
4b (1 + 2𝑖)(3 − 𝑖)
= 3 − 𝑖 + 6𝑖 − 2𝑖 2
= 3 − 𝑖 + 6𝑖 + 2
= 5 + 5𝑖
4c (3 + 2𝑖)(4 − 𝑖)
= 12 − 3𝑖 + 8𝑖 − 2𝑖 2
= 12 − 3𝑖 + 8𝑖 + 2
= 14 + 5𝑖
4d (−7 + 5𝑖)(8 − 6𝑖)

= −56 + 42𝑖 + 40𝑖 − 30𝑖 2
= −56 + 42𝑖 + 40𝑖 + 30
= −26 + 82𝑖
4e (5 + 𝑖)2
= 25 + 10𝑖 + 𝑖 2
= 25 + 10𝑖 − 1
= 24 + 10𝑖

4f (2 − 3𝑖)2
= 4 − 12𝑖 + 9𝑖 2
= 4 − 12𝑖 − 9
= −5 − 12𝑖
4g (2 + 𝑖)3
= 23 + 3 × 22 𝑖 + 3 × 2𝑖 2 + 𝑖 3
= 8 + 12𝑖 − 6 − 𝑖
= 2 + 11𝑖
4h (1 − 𝑖)4
= ((1 − 𝑖)2 )2
= (1 − 2𝑖 + 𝑖 2 )2
= (1 − 2𝑖 − 1)2
= (−2𝑖)2
= 4𝑖 2
= −4
4i (3 − 𝑖)4
= ((3 − 𝑖)2 )2
= (9 − 6𝑖 + 𝑖 2 )2
= (9 − 6𝑖 − 1)2
= (8 − 6𝑖)2
= 64 − 96𝑖 + 36𝑖 2
= 64 − 96𝑖 − 36
= 28 − 96𝑖
5a (1 + 2𝑖)(1 − 2𝑖)
= 12 − (2𝑖)2
= 1 − 4𝑖 2
=1+4
=5
5b (4 + 𝑖)(4 − 𝑖)
= 42 − 𝑖 2
= 16 + 1
= 17

5c (5 + 2𝑖)(5 − 2𝑖)
= 52 − (2𝑖)2
= 25 − 4𝑖 2
= 25 + 4
= 29
5d (−4 − 7𝑖)(−4 + 7𝑖)

= (−4)2 − (7𝑖)2
= 16 − 49𝑖 2
= 16 + 49
= 65
6a
1
𝑖
𝑖
=
𝑖×𝑖
𝑖
=
−1
= −𝑖
6b
2+𝑖
𝑖
(2 + 𝑖)𝑖
=
𝑖×𝑖
2𝑖 + 𝑖 2
=
𝑖2
2𝑖 − 1
=
−1
= −2𝑖 + 1
= 1 − 2𝑖

6c
5−𝑖
1−𝑖
(5 − 𝑖)(1 + 𝑖)
=
(1 − 𝑖)(1 + 𝑖)
5 + 5𝑖 − 𝑖 − 𝑖 2
=
1 − 𝑖2
5 + 5𝑖 − 𝑖 + 1
=
1+1
6 + 4𝑖
=
2
= 3 + 2𝑖
6d
6 − 7𝑖
4+𝑖
(6 − 7𝑖)(4 − 𝑖)
=
(4 + 𝑖)(4 − 𝑖)
24 − 6𝑖 − 28𝑖 + 7𝑖 2
=
42 − 𝑖 2
24 − 6𝑖 − 28𝑖 − 7
=
16 + 1
17 − 34𝑖
=
17
= 1 − 2𝑖
6e
−11 + 13𝑖
5 + 2𝑖
(−11 + 13𝑖)(5 − 2𝑖)
=
(5 + 2𝑖)(5 − 2𝑖)
−55 + 22𝑖 + 65𝑖 − 26𝑖 2
=
52 − (2𝑖)2
−55 + 22𝑖 + 65𝑖 − 26𝑖 2
=
52 − 4𝑖 2
−55 + 22𝑖 + 65𝑖 + 26
=
25 + 4
−29 + 87𝑖
=
29
= −1 + 3𝑖

6f
(1 + 𝑖)2
3−𝑖
1 + 2𝑖 + 𝑖 2
=
3−𝑖
1 + 2𝑖 − 1
=
3−𝑖
2𝑖
=
3−𝑖
2𝑖(3 + 𝑖)
=
(3 − 𝑖)(3 + 𝑖)
6𝑖 + 2𝑖 2
=
9 − 𝑖2
6𝑖 − 2
=
9+1
6𝑖 − 2
=
10
3 1
= 𝑖−
5 5
1 3
=− + 𝑖
5 5
7a (𝑖𝑧)
= (𝑖(1 + 2𝑖))
= 𝑖 + 2𝑖 2
=𝑖−2
=𝑖−2
= −𝑖 − 2
= −2 − 𝑖
7b 𝑤+𝑧
= (3 − 𝑖) + (1 + 2𝑖)
= 3 − 𝑖 + (1 − 2𝑖)
= 4 − 3𝑖

7c 2𝑧 + 𝑖𝑤
= 2(1 + 2𝑖) + 𝑖(3 − 𝑖)
= 2 + 4𝑖 + 3𝑖 − 𝑖 2
= 2 + 4𝑖 + 3𝑖 + 1
= 3 + 7𝑖
7d Im(5𝑖 − 𝑧)
= Im(5𝑖 − (1 + 2𝑖))
= Im(5𝑖 − 1 − 2𝑖)
= Im(3𝑖 − 1)
=3
7e 𝑧2
= (1 + 2𝑖)2
= 1 + 4𝑖 + (2𝑖)2
= 1 + 4𝑖 + 4𝑖 2
= 1 + 4𝑖 − 4
= −3 + 4𝑖
8a 𝑧−𝑤
= 8 + 𝑖 − (2 − 3𝑖)
= 8 − 𝑖 − 2 + 3𝑖
= 6 + 2𝑖
8b Im(3𝑖𝑧 + 2𝑤)
= Im(3𝑖(8 + 𝑖) + 2(2 − 3𝑖))
= Im(24𝑖 + 3𝑖 2 + 2(2 − 3𝑖))
= Im(24𝑖 − 3 + 4 − 6𝑖)
= Im(18𝑖 + 1)
= 18
8c 𝑧𝑤
= (8 + 𝑖)(2 − 3𝑖)
= 16 − 24𝑖 + 2𝑖 − 3𝑖 2
= 16 − 24𝑖 + 2𝑖 + 3
= 19 − 22𝑖

8d 65 ÷ 𝑧
65
=
𝑧
65
=
8+𝑖
65(8 − 𝑖)
=
(8 + 𝑖)(8 − 𝑖)
65(8 − 𝑖)
= 2
8 − 𝑖2
65(8 − 𝑖)
=
64 + 1
65(8 − 𝑖)
=
65
=8−𝑖
8e
𝑧
𝑤
8+𝑖
=
2 − 3𝑖
(8 + 𝑖)(2 + 3𝑖)
=
(2 − 3𝑖)(2 + 3𝑖)
16 + 24𝑖 + 2𝑖 + 3𝑖 2
=
22 − (3𝑖)2
16 + 24𝑖 + 2𝑖 − 3
=
22 − 9𝑖 2
16 + 24𝑖 + 2𝑖 − 3
=
4+9
16 + 26𝑖 − 3
=
4+9
13 + 26𝑖
=
13
= 1 + 2𝑖
9a −𝑧𝑤
= −(2 − 𝑖)(−5 − 12𝑖)
= (2 − 𝑖)(5 + 12𝑖)
= 10 + 24𝑖 − 5𝑖 − 12𝑖 2
= 10 + 24𝑖 − 5𝑖 + 12
= 22 + 19𝑖

9b (1 + 𝑖)𝑧 − 𝑤
= (1 + 𝑖)(2 − 𝑖) − (−5 − 12𝑖)
= (1 + 𝑖)(2 + 𝑖) − (−5 − 12𝑖)
= 2 + 2𝑖 + 𝑖 + 𝑖 2 + 5 + 12𝑖
= 2 + 2𝑖 + 𝑖 − 1 + 5 + 12𝑖
= 6 + 15𝑖
9c
10
𝑧
10
=
2−𝑖
10
=
2+𝑖
10(2 − 𝑖)
=
(2 − 𝑖)(2 + 𝑖)
20 − 10𝑖
=
4 − 𝑖2
20 − 10𝑖
=
4+1
20 − 10𝑖
=
5
= 4 − 2𝑖
9d
𝑤
2 − 3𝑖
−5 − 12𝑖
=
2 − 3𝑖
(−5 − 12𝑖)(2 + 3𝑖)
=
(2 − 3𝑖)(2 + 3𝑖)
−10 − 15𝑖 − 24𝑖 − 36𝑖 2
=
22 − (3𝑖)2
−10 − 15𝑖 − 24𝑖 + 36
=
4+9
26 − 39𝑖
=
13
= 2 − 3𝑖

9e Re((1 + 4𝑖)𝑧)
= Re((1 + 4𝑖)(2 − 𝑖))
= Re(2 − 𝑖 + 8𝑖 − 4𝑖 2 )
= Re(2 − 𝑖 + 8𝑖 + 4)
= Re(6 + 7𝑖)
=6

Solutions to Exercise 1B Foundation questions

1a 𝑧2 + 9 = 0
𝑧 2 − 9𝑖 2 = 0
𝑧 2 − (3𝑖)2 = 0
(𝑧 − 3𝑖)(𝑧 + 3𝑖) = 0
𝑧 = ±3𝑖
1b (𝑧 − 2)2 + 16 = 0
(𝑧 − 2)2 − 16𝑖 2 = 0
(𝑧 − 2)2 − (4𝑖)2 = 0
(𝑧 − 2 − 4𝑖)(𝑧 − 2 + 4𝑖) = 0
𝑧 = 2 ± 4𝑖
1c 𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 5 = 0
𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 1 + 4 = 0
(𝑧 + 1)2 + 4 = 0
(𝑧 + 1)2 − 4𝑖 2 = 0
(𝑧 + 1)2 − (2𝑖)2 = 0
(𝑧 + 1 − 2𝑖)(𝑧 + 1 + 2𝑖) = 0
𝑧 = −1 ± 2𝑖
1d 𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 10 = 0
𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 9 + 1 = 0
(𝑧 − 3)2 + 1 = 0
(𝑧 − 3)2 − 𝑖 2 = 0
(𝑧 − 3 − 𝑖)(𝑧 − 3 + 𝑖) = 0
𝑧 = 3±𝑖

1e 16𝑧 2 − 16𝑧 + 5 = 0
16𝑧 2 − 16𝑧 + 4 + 1 = 0
(4𝑧 − 2)2 + 1 = 0
(4𝑧 − 2)2 − 𝑖 2 = 0
(4𝑧 − 2 − 𝑖)(4𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖) = 0
4𝑧 = 2 ± 𝑖
1 1
𝑧= ± 𝑖
2 4
1f 4𝑧 2 + 12𝑧 + 25 = 0
4𝑧 2 + 12𝑧 + 9 + 16 = 0
(2𝑧 + 3)2 + 16 = 0
(2𝑧 + 3)2 − 16𝑖 2 = 0
(2𝑧 + 3 + 4𝑖)(2𝑧 + 3 − 4𝑖) = 0
2𝑧 = −3 ± 4𝑖
3
𝑧 = − ± 2𝑖
2
2a 𝑧 2 + 36
= 𝑧 2 − 36𝑖 2
= (𝑧 − 6𝑖)(𝑧 + 6𝑖)
2b 𝑧 2 − 8𝑖 2
2
= 𝑧 2 − (2√2𝑖)
= (𝑧 − 2√2𝑖)(𝑧 + 2√2𝑖)
2c 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 10
= 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 1 + 9
= (𝑧 − 1)2 − 9𝑖 2
= (𝑧 − 1 − 3𝑖)(𝑧 − 1 + 3𝑖)

2d 𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 + 5
= 𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 + 4 + 1
= (𝑧 + 2)2 + 𝑖 2
= (𝑧 + 2 + 𝑖)(𝑧 + 2 − 𝑖)
2e 𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 14
= 𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 9 + 5
= (𝑧 − 3)2 + 5
2
= (𝑧 − 3)2 − (√5𝑖)
= (𝑧 − 3 − √5𝑖)(𝑧 − 3 + √5𝑖)
2f 𝑧2 + 𝑧 + 1
1 3
= 𝑧2 + 𝑧 + +
4 4
2
1 3
= (𝑧 + ) +
2 4
2 2
1 √3𝑖
= (𝑧 + ) − ( )
2 2
1 √3 1 √3
= (𝑧 + + 𝑖) (𝑧 + − 𝑖)
2 2 2 2
3a (𝑧 − 𝑖√2)(𝑧 + 𝑖√2) = 0
2
𝑧 2 − (𝑖√2) = 0
𝑧2 + 2 = 0
3b (𝑧 − (1 − 𝑖))(𝑧 + (1 + 𝑖)) = 0
𝑧 2 − (1 − 𝑖 + 1 + 𝑖)𝑧 + (1 − 𝑖)(1 + 𝑖) = 0
𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + (12 − 𝑖 2 ) = 0
𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2 = 0

3c (𝑧 + 1 − 2𝑖)(𝑧 + 1 + 2𝑖) = 0
𝑧 2 + (1 − 2𝑖 + 1 + 2𝑖)𝑧 + (1 − 2𝑖)(1 + 2𝑖) = 0
𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + (12 − 4𝑖 2 ) = 0
𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + (1 + 4) = 0
𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 5 = 0
3d (𝑧 − (2 − 𝑖√3)) (𝑧 − (2 + 𝑖√3)) = 0
2
𝑧 2 − (2 + 𝑖√3 + 2 − 𝑖√3)𝑧 + (22 − (𝑖√3) ) = 0
𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + (22 + 3) = 0
𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 7 = 0
4a Let (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 2𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real.

𝑥 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 2𝑖
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑖
Equating real and imaginary parts gives:
𝑥2 − 𝑦2 = 0
2𝑥𝑦 = 2
By inspection, 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = 1 or 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑦 = −1.
So the roots are ±(1 + 𝑖).
4b Let (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 3 + 4𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real.

𝑥 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 3 + 4𝑖
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 = 3 + 4𝑖
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 3 and
2𝑥𝑦 = 4

4c Let (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = −8 − 6𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real.

𝑥 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = −8 − 6𝑖
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 = −8 − 6𝑖
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = −8 and
2𝑥𝑦 = −6
By inspection, 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑦 = 3 or 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = −3.
So the roots are ±(−1 + 3𝑖).
4d Let (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 35 + 12𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real.

𝑥 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 35 + 12𝑖
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 = 35 + 12𝑖
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 35 and
2𝑥𝑦 = 12
4e Let (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = −5 + 12𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real.

𝑥 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = −5 + 12𝑖
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 = −5 + 12𝑖
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = −5 and
2𝑥𝑦 = 12
So the roots are ±(2 + 3𝑖).

4f Let (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 24 − 10𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real.

𝑥 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 24 − 10𝑖
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 = 24 − 10𝑖
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 24 and
2𝑥𝑦 = −10
By inspection, 𝑥 = 5 and 𝑦 = −1 or 𝑥 = −5 and 𝑦 = +1.
So the roots are ±(5 − 𝑖).
4g Let (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = −15 − 8𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real.

𝑥 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = −15 − 8𝑖
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 = −15 − 8𝑖
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = −15 and
2𝑥𝑦 = −8
By inspection, 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = −4 or 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑦 = 4.
So the roots are ±(1 − 4𝑖).
4h Let (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 9 − 40𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real

𝑥 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 9 − 40𝑖
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 = 9 − 40𝑖
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 9 and
2𝑥𝑦 = −40
By inspection, 𝑥 = 5 and 𝑦 = −4 or 𝑥 = −5 and 𝑦 = 4.
So the roots are ±(5 − 4𝑖).

Solutions to Exercise 1C Foundation questions

1a 2 = 2 + 0𝑖
In Cartesian form, this is (2, 0).
1b 𝑖 =0+𝑖
In Cartesian form, this is (0, 1).
1c −3 + 5𝑖
In Cartesian form, this is (−3, 5).
1d 2 + 2𝑖 = 2 − 2𝑖
In Cartesian form, this is (2, −2).
1e −5(1 + 𝑖) = −5 − 5𝑖
In Cartesian form, this is (−5, −5).
1f (2 + 𝑖)𝑖 = 2𝑖 + 𝑖 2 = 2𝑖 − 1 = −1 + 2𝑖
In Cartesian form, this is (−1, 2).
2a Complex number that represents (−3, 0) is

−3 + 0𝑖 = −3
2b Complex number that represents (0, 3) is

0 + 3𝑖 = 3𝑖
2c Complex number that represents (7, −5) is

7 − 5𝑖

2d Complex number that represents (𝑎, 𝑏) is

𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖
3a Point 𝐴: 1 + 3𝑖
Point 𝐵: 𝑖(1 + 3𝑖) = 𝑖 + 3𝑖 2 = 𝑖 − 3 = −3 + 𝑖
Point 𝐶: 𝑖 2 (1 + 3𝑖) = −1(1 + 3𝑖) = −1 − 3𝑖
Point 𝐷: 𝑖 3 (1 + 3𝑖) = −𝑖(1 + 3𝑖) = −𝑖 − 3𝑖 2 = −𝑖 + 3 = 3 − 𝑖
3b A square
3c An anticlockwise rotation of 90° about the origin.
4a 𝑧 =3+𝑖
𝑖𝑧 = 𝑖(3 + 𝑖) = 3𝑖 + 𝑖 2 = 3𝑖 − 1 = −1 + 3𝑖
−𝑧 = −(3 + 𝑖) = −3 − 𝑖
−𝑖𝑧 = −𝑖(3 + 𝑖) = −3𝑖 − 𝑖 2 = −3𝑖 + 1 = 1 − 3𝑖

The points form a square.
4b 𝑤 = 1 + 2𝑖
𝑖𝑤 = 𝑖(1 + 2𝑖) = 𝑖 + 2𝑖 2 = 𝑖 − 2 = −2 + 𝑖
−𝑤 = −(1 + 2𝑖) = −1 − 2𝑖
−𝑖𝑤 = −𝑖(1 + 2𝑖) = −𝑖 − 2𝑖 2 = −𝑖 + 2 = 2 − 𝑖
The points form a square.
4c 𝑧 =3+𝑖
𝑧̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
3+𝑖=3−𝑖
𝑤 = 1 + 2𝑖
𝑤 = 1 + 2𝑖 = 1 − 2𝑖

Conjugate pairs are reflections in the real axis.
4d 𝑧 =3+𝑖
𝑤 = 1 + 2𝑖
𝑧 + 𝑤 = 3 + 𝑖 + 1 + 2𝑖 = 4 + 3𝑖
With 𝑂 at the origin, the points form a parallelogram.
4e 𝑧 =3+𝑖
𝑤 = 1 + 2𝑖
𝑧 − 𝑤 = 3 + 𝑖 − (1 + 2𝑖) = 2 − 𝑖

With 𝑂 at the origin, the points form a parallelogram. (For this particular choice
of 𝑧 and 𝑤, that parallelogram happens to be a square; for other values of 𝑧 and
𝑤, the points will still form a parallelogram, but not necessarily a square.)
4f 𝑧 =3+𝑖
𝑤 = 1 + 2𝑖
𝑤 − 𝑧 = (1 + 2𝑖) − (3 + 𝑖) = −2 + 𝑖
With 𝑂 at the origin, the points form a parallelogram.
5 For the following section, let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real.

5a Re(𝑧) = −3
Re(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = −3
𝑥 = −3

5b Im(𝑧) = 2
Im(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 2
𝑦=2
5c Im(𝑧) < 1
Im(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) < 1
𝑦<1

5d Re(𝑧) ≥ −2
Re(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) ≥ −2
𝑥 ≥ −2
5e Re(𝑧) = Im(𝑧)
Re(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = Im(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
𝑥=𝑦
𝑦=𝑥

5f 2Re(𝑧) = Im(𝑧)
2Re(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = Im(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
2𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑦 = 2𝑥
5g Re(𝑧) ≤ 2Im(𝑧)
Re(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) ≤ 2Im(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
𝑥 ≤ 2𝑦
1
𝑦 ≥ 2𝑥

5h Re(𝑧) > −Im(𝑧)

Re(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) > −Im(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
𝑥 > −𝑦
−𝑦 < 𝑥
𝑦 > −𝑥

Solutions to Exercise 1D Foundation questions

1a 𝑧 = 3 = 3 + 0𝑖
|𝑧| = √32 + 02
=3
1b 𝑧 = −5𝑖 = 0 − 5𝑖
|𝑧| = √02 + (−5)2
=5
1c 𝑧 =1−𝑖
|𝑧| = √12 + (−1)2
= √2
1d 𝑧 = −√3 − 𝑖
2
|𝑧| = √(−√3) + (−1)2
= √4
=2
1e 𝑧 = −3 + 4𝑖
|𝑧| = √(−3)2 + 42
= √9 + 16
= √25
=5

1f 𝑧 = 15 + 8𝑖
|𝑧| = √152 + 82
= √225 + 64
= √289
= 17
2 Note that −𝜋 < Arg(𝑧) ≤ 𝜋.

2a 𝑧 = −2 lies along the negative 𝑥-axis, hence Arg(𝑧) = 𝜋
𝜋
2b 𝑧 = 4𝑖 lies along the positive 𝑦-axis, hence Arg(𝑧) = 2
2c 𝑧 = 2 − 2𝑖 (fourth quadrant)
Arg(𝑧)
−2
= tan−1 ( )
2
= tan−1 (−1)
𝜋
=−
4
2d 𝑧 = 1 + √3𝑖 (first quadrant)

Arg(𝑧)
√3
= tan−1 ( )
1
= tan−1 √3
𝜋
=
3

2e 𝑧 = −3 + 3𝑖 (second quadrant)
Arg(z)
3
= tan−1 ( )
−3
= tan−1 (−1)
𝜋
=𝜋−
4
3𝜋
=
4
2f 𝑧 = −√3 − 𝑖 (third quadrant)

Arg(z)
1
= tan−1 ( )
√3
𝜋
= −𝜋 +
6
5𝜋
=−
6
3a For 2𝑖 = 0 + 2𝑖:
𝑟 = √02 + 22 = 2
𝜋
This lies along the positive 𝑦-axis, hence 𝜃 = 2 .
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
The complex number is 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) or 2 cis .
2 2 2
3b For − 4 = −4 + 0𝑖:
𝑟 = √(−4)2 + 02 = 4
This lies along the negative 𝑥-axis, hence 𝜃 = 𝜋.
The complex number is 4(cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋) or 4 cis 𝜋.

3c For 1 + 𝑖 (in first quadrant):
𝑟 = √12 + 12
= √2
1
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
1
= tan−1 1
𝜋
=
4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
The complex number is √2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) or √2 cis .
4 4 4
3d For √3 − 𝑖 (in fourth quadrant):
2
𝑟 = √(√3) + (−1)2
= √3 + 1
= √4
=2
1
𝜃 = tan−1 (− )
√3
𝜋
=−
6
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
The complex number is 2 (cos (− ) + 𝑖 sin (− )) or 2 cis (− ).
6 6 6
3e For − 1 + √3𝑖 (in second quadrant):
2
𝑟 = √(−1)2 + (√3)
= √1 + 3
= √4
=2
√3
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
−1

= tan−1 (−√3)
𝜋
=𝜋−
3
2𝜋
=
3
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
The complex number is 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) or 2 cis .
3 3 3
1 1
3f For − √2 − √2 𝑖 (in third quadrant):
√ 1 2 1 2
𝑟 = (− ) + (− )
√2 √2
1 1
=√ +
2 2
= √1
=1
1
−
√2)
𝜃 = tan−1 (
1
−
√2
= −𝜋 + tan−1 1
𝜋
= −𝜋 +
4
3𝜋
=−
4
3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋
The complex number is cos (− ) + 𝑖 sin (− ) or cis (− ).
4 4 4
4a For 3 + 4𝑖 (in first quadrant):
𝑟 = √32 + 42
= √25
=5

4
𝜃 = tan−1
3
≑ 0.93
The complex number is 5(cos(0.93) + 𝑖 sin(0.93)) or 5 cis (0.93).
4b For 12 − 5𝑖 (in fourth quadrant):
𝑟 = √122 + (−5)2
= √169
= 13
5
𝜃 = tan−1 (− )
12
5
= − tan−1 ( )
12
≑ −0.39
The complex number is 13(cos(−0.39) + 𝑖 sin(−0.39)) or 13 cis (−0.39).
4c For − 2 + 𝑖 (in second quadrant):
𝑟 = √22 + (−1)2
= √5
1
𝜃 = tan−1 (− )
2
1
= 𝜋 − tan−1 ( )
2
≑ 2.68
The complex number is √5(cos(2.68) + 𝑖 sin(2.68)) or √5 cis (2.68).
4d For − 1 − 3𝑖 (in third quadrant):
𝑟 = √(−1)2 + (−3)2
= √1 + 9
= √10

−3
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
−1
= −𝜋 + tan−1 3
≑ −1.89
The complex number is √10(cos(−1.89) + 𝑖 sin(−1.89)) or √10 cis (−1.89).
5a 3 cis 0
= 3(cos 0 + 𝑖 sin 0)
= 3(1 + 0𝑖 )
=3
𝜋
5b 5 cis (− 2 )
𝜋 𝜋
= 5 (cos (− ) + 𝑖 sin (− ))
2 2
= 5(0 + (−1)𝑖)
= −5𝑖
𝜋
5c 4 cis
4
𝜋 𝜋
= 4 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
4 4
1 1
= 4( + 𝑖)
√2 √2
4 4
= + 𝑖
√2 √2
= 2√2 + 2√2𝑖

𝜋
5d 6 cis (− 6 )
𝜋 𝜋
= 6 (cos (− ) + 𝑖 sin (− ))
6 6
√3 𝑖
= 6( − )
2 2
= 3√3 − 3𝑖
3𝜋
5e 2 cis 4
3𝜋 3𝜋
= 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
4 4
1 1
= 2 (− + 𝑖)
√2 √2
2 2
=− + 𝑖
√2 √2
= −√2 + √2𝑖
2𝜋
5f 2 cis (− )
3
2𝜋 2𝜋
= 2 (cos (− ) + 𝑖 sin (− ))
3 3
1 √3
= 2 (− − 𝑖)
2 2
= −1 − √3𝑖
6a 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖 (in fourth quadrant):
𝑟 = √(1)2 + (−1)2
= √1 + 1
= √2
−1
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
1
= tan−1 (−1)

𝜋
=−
4
𝜋
𝑧 = √2 cis (− )
4
6b 𝑧̅ = 1 + 𝑖 (in first quadrant):
𝑟 = √(1)2 + (1)2
= √1 + 1
= √2
1
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
1
= tan−1 1
𝜋
=
4
𝜋
𝑧̅ = √2 cis
4
Alternatively:
𝜋
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧̅ = √2 cis (− )
4
𝜋
= √2 cis (− (− ))
4
𝜋
= √2 cis
4
6c −𝑧 = −1 + 𝑖 (in second quadrant):
𝑟 = √(−1)2 + (1)2
= √1 + 1
= √2
1
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
−1
𝜋
=𝜋−
4

3𝜋
=
4
3𝜋
−𝑧 = √2 cis
4
6d 𝑖𝑧 = 𝑖 (1 − 𝑖) = 1 + 𝑖 (in first quadrant)
𝑟 = √(1)2 + (1)2
= √1 + 1
= √2
1
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
1
𝜋
=
4
𝜋
𝑖𝑧 = √2 cis
4
6e 𝑧 2 = (1 − 𝑖 )2
= 1 − 2𝑖 + 𝑖 2
= −2𝑖
𝑟 = √(0)2 + (−2)2
= √4
=2
𝜋
𝜃 = − 2 since − 2𝑖 lies on the negative 𝑦-axis
𝜋
𝑧 2 = 2 cis (− )
2
6f (𝑧̅)−1 = (1 + 𝑖)−1
1
=
1+𝑖
1 1−𝑖
= ×
1+𝑖 1−𝑖

1−𝑖
=
1 − 𝑖2
1−𝑖
= (in fourth quadrant)
2
√ 1 2 1 2
𝑟 = ( ) + (− )
2 2
1 1
=√ +
4 4
1
=√
2
1
=
√2
1
−2
−1 ( )
𝜃 = tan
1
2
𝜃 = tan−1 (−1)
𝜋
=−
4
1 𝜋
(𝑧̅)−1 = cis (− )
√2 4
7a
𝜋 𝜋
5 cis × 2 cis
12 4
𝜋 𝜋
= (5 × 2) cis ( + )
12 4
𝜋
= 10 cis
3
7b 3 cis 𝜃 × 3 cis 2𝜃
= (3 × 3) cis(𝜃 + 2𝜃)
= 9 cis 3𝜃

7c
𝜋 𝜋
6 cis ÷ 3 cis
2 6
𝜋 𝜋
= (6 ÷ 3) cis ( − )
2 6
𝜋
= 2 cis
3
7d
3 cis 5𝛼
2 cis 4𝛼
3
= cis(5𝛼 − 4𝛼 )
2
3
= cis 𝛼
2
7e
𝜋 2
(4 cis )
5
𝜋
= 42 cis ( × 2)
5
2𝜋
= 16 cis
5
7f
2𝜋 3
(2 cis )
7
2𝜋
= 23 cis (3 × )
7
6𝜋
= 8 cis
7

8a |𝑧 − 𝑤 |
= |1 + 3𝑖 − (−1 + 𝑖)|
= |2 + 2𝑖 |
= √22 + 22
= √4 + 4
= 2√2
8b |𝑧 − 𝑤 |
= |(1 − 𝑖) − (4 + 2𝑖 )|
= |−3 − 3𝑖 |
= √(−3)2 + (−3)2
= √9 + 9
= 3√2
8c |𝑧 − 𝑤 |
= |(4 − 2𝑖√3) − (1 + 𝑖√3)|
= |3 − 3𝑖√3|
2
= √32 + (3√3)
= √36
=6
8d |𝑧 − 𝑤 |
= |(3 + 3𝑖√3) − (−3 + 𝑖√3)|
= |6 + 2𝑖√3|
2
= √62 + (2√3)
= √48

= 4√3
8e |𝑧 − 𝑤 |
= |(2 + 𝑖) − (−1 − 3𝑖 )|
= |3 + 4𝑖 |
= √32 + 42
= √25
=5
8f |𝑧 − 𝑤 |
= |(−2 − 𝑖) − (−1 + 𝑖)|

= |−1 − 2𝑖 |
= √12 + 22
= √5
9a Arg(𝑧 − 𝑤)
= Arg(2 + 2𝑖 ) (in first quadrant)
2
= tan−1 ( )
2
𝜋
=
4
9b Arg(𝑧 − 𝑤)
= Arg(−3 − 3𝑖 ) (in third quadrant)
−3
= tan−1 ( )
−3
= −𝜋 + tan−1 1
𝜋
= −𝜋 +
4
3𝜋
=−
4
9c Arg(𝑧 − 𝑤)
= Arg(3 − 3𝑖√3) (in fourth quadrant)
−3√3
= tan−1 ( )
3
= tan−1 (−√3)
𝜋
=−
3
9d Arg(𝑧 − 𝑤)
= Arg(6 + 2𝑖√3) (in first quadrant)
2√3
= tan−1 ( )
6
√3
= tan−1 ( )
3
𝜋
=
6
9e Arg(𝑧 − 𝑤)
= Arg(3 + 4𝑖 ) (in first quadrant)
4
= tan−1 ( )
3
≑ 0.93
9f Arg(𝑧 − 𝑤)
= Arg(−1 − 2𝑖 ) (in third quadrant)
−2
= tan−1 ( )
−1
= −𝜋 + tan−1 2
≑ −2.03

10 Multiplying a complex number by 𝑤 produces a rotation of 𝜃 radians about the

origin, so 𝑤 = cis 𝜃.
10a
𝜋
𝑤 = cis
2
𝜋 𝜋
= cos + 𝑖 sin
2 2
=0+𝑖×1
=𝑖
10b
𝑤 = cis 𝜋
= cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋
= −1 + 𝑖 × 0
= −1
10c
𝜋
𝑤 = cis
3
𝜋 𝜋
= cos + 𝑖 sin
3 3
1 √3
= +𝑖×
2 2
1
= (1 + 𝑖√3)
2
10c
3𝜋
𝑤 = cis
4
3𝜋 3𝜋
= cos + 𝑖 sin
4 4
1 1
=− +𝑖×
√2 √2

1
= (−1 + 𝑖)
√2
10e
5𝜋
𝑤 = cis
6
5𝜋 5𝜋
= cos + 𝑖 sin
6 6
√3 1
=− +𝑖×
2 2
1
= (−√3 + 𝑖)
2
10f
𝜋
𝑤 = cis (− )
2
𝜋 𝜋
= cos (− ) + 𝑖 sin (− )
2 2
= 0 + 𝑖 × −1
= −𝑖
10g
𝜋
𝑤 = cis (− )
4
𝜋 𝜋
= cos (− ) + 𝑖 sin (− )
4 4
1 1
= +𝑖×−
√2 √2
1
= (1 − 𝑖)
√2

10h
2𝜋
𝑤 = cis (− )
3
2𝜋 2𝜋
= cos (− ) + 𝑖 sin (− )
3 3
1 √3
=− +𝑖×−
2 2
1
= − (1 + 𝑖√3)
2

Solutions to Exercise 1E Foundation questions

1a ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐴 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐶
= 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= (5 + 𝑖) + (2 + 3𝑖)
= 7 + 4𝑖
1b ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑂 + 𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐶
= −𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= −(5 + 𝑖) + (2 + 3𝑖)
= −3 + 2𝑖
1c ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐴 = −𝐴𝐶
= −(−3 + 2𝑖)
= 3 − 2𝑖
𝜋
2a ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑅 𝑂𝑃 × cis 2
𝜋 𝜋
= (4 + 3𝑖) (cos + 𝑖 sin )
2 2
= (4 + 3𝑖)(0 + 𝑖 × 1)
= (4 + 3𝑖)𝑖
= 4𝑖 + 3𝑖 2
= 4𝑖 − 3
= −3 + 4𝑖
2b ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝑃
𝑂𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝑅
= 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= (4 + 3𝑖) + (−3 + 4𝑖)

= 1 + 7𝑖

2c ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄𝑅 𝑃𝑂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= −𝑂𝑃
= −(4 + 3𝑖)
= −4 − 3𝑖
2d 𝑃𝑅 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑂 + 𝑂𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝑅
= −𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= −(4 + 3𝑖) + (−3 + 4𝑖)

= −7 + 𝑖
3 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵
𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐵
= 𝐴𝑂 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐵
= −𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= −(3 + 5𝑖) + (9 + 8𝑖)

= 6 + 3𝑖
𝜋
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝑃
𝑂𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × cis
2
𝜋
= (6 + 3𝑖) × 𝑖 (using cis = 𝑖 from question 2a)
2
= 6𝑖 + 3𝑖 2
= 6𝑖 − 3
= −3 + 6𝑖
4a ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶
𝜋
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 × cis
2
= (2 + 𝑖)𝑖
= 2𝑖 + 𝑖 2
= 2𝑖 − 1
= −1 + 2𝑖

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐴𝐵
= 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐶
= (2 + 𝑖) + (−1 + 2𝑖)
= 1 + 3𝑖
4b 𝐵 ′ = 𝐵 × cis 45°
1 1
= (1 + 3𝑖) × ( 𝑖) +
√2 √2
1 1 3 2 3
= + 𝑖+ 𝑖+ 𝑖
√2 √2 √2 √2
1 1 3 3
= + 𝑖+ 𝑖−
√2 √2 √2 √2
1 3 1 3
= ( − )+( + )𝑖
√2 √2 √2 √2
−2 4
= + 𝑖
√2 √2
= −√2 + 2√2𝑖
5a ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑂
𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐶
= −𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= −(5 + 3𝑖) + (9 + 6𝑖)

= 4 + 3𝑖
𝜋
5b ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × cis
𝐵𝐴 = 𝐵𝐶 2
= (4 + 3𝑖) × 𝑖
= 4𝑖 + 3𝑖 2
= 4𝑖 − 3
= −3 + 4𝑖

5c ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐵 𝐵𝐴
= (5 + 3𝑖) + (−3 + 4𝑖)
= 2 + 7𝑖
6a ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑂 + 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐵
= −𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= −(9 + 𝑖) + (4 + 13𝑖)
= −5 + 12𝑖
𝜋
6b ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 × cis 2
= (−5 + 12𝑖) × 𝑖
= −5𝑖 + 12𝑖 2
= −5𝑖 − 12
= −12 − 5𝑖
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 = 𝑂𝐷
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷
= (9 + 𝑖) + (−12 − 5𝑖)
= −3 − 4𝑖

Solutions to Exercise 1F Foundation questions

1a For |𝑧 + 3| = |𝑧 − 5|, the midpoint of −3 and 5 is 1. These three points lie on the
horizontal 𝑥-axis. Hence the perpendicular bisector must be vertical.
Hence the equation of the perpendicular bisector is 𝑥 = 1.
−1+𝑖
1b For |𝑧 − 𝑖| = |𝑧 + 1|, the midpoint of 𝑖 and −1 is which in Cartesian form is
2
1 1
(− 2 , 2).
0−1
The gradient of the line between the two points is −1−0 = 1 and hence the
1
gradient of the perpendicular line is 𝑚 = − 1 = −1.
For a straight line, the equation is 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏.

Hence 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 𝑏.
1 1 1 1
Substituting (− 2 , 2) gives 2 = − (− 2) + 𝑏 and so 𝑏 = 0.
Thus the equation of the perpendicular bisector is 𝑦 = −𝑥.

−2+2𝑖+0
1c For |𝑧 + 2 − 2𝑖| = |𝑧|, the midpoint of −2 + 2𝑖 and 0 is = −1 + 𝑖 which
2
in Cartesian form is (−1, 1).
2−0 2
The gradient of the line between the two points is −2−0 = −2 = −1 and hence the
1
gradient of the perpendicular line is 𝑚 = − −1 = 1.

Hence 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑏.
Substituting in (−1, 1) gives 1 = −1 + 𝑏 and hence 𝑏 = 2.
Thus the equation of the perpendicular bisector is 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2.
1d For |𝑧 − 𝑖| = |𝑧 − 4 + 𝑖|, the midpoint of 𝑖 and 4 − 𝑖 is 2 which in Cartesian form

is (2, 0).
−1−1 2 1
The gradient of the line between 𝑖 and 4 − 𝑖 is = − 4 = − 2 and hence the
4−0
1
gradient of the perpendicular line is 𝑚 = − 1 = 2.
(− )
2

Hence 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 𝑏.
Substituting in (2, 0) gives
0 = 2(2) + 𝑏
𝑏 = −4
Thus the equation of the perpendicular bisector is 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4.

3𝜋
2a From Box 29, arg(𝑧 − 4) = is a line originating at the point 4, which in
4
3𝜋
Cartesian form is (4, 0), where the angle made with the horizontal is .
4
𝜋
2b From Box 29, arg(𝑧 + 1) = is a line originating at the point −1, which in
4
𝜋
Cartesian form is (−1, 0), where the angle made with the horizontal is 4 .

𝜋
2c From Box 29, arg(𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖√3) = 3 is a line originating at the point 1 + 𝑖√3,
𝜋
which in Cartesian form is (1, √3), where the angle made with the horizontal is 3 .
3a From Box 31, |𝑧 + 1 − 𝑖| = 1 is a circle with radius 1 unit and centre (−1 + 𝑖),
which is (−1, 1) in Cartesian form.
3b From Box 31, |𝑧 − 3 − 2𝑖| = 2 is a circle with radius 2 units and centre (3 + 2𝑖),
which is (3, 2) in Cartesian form.

3c From Box 31, |𝑧 − 1 + 𝑖| = √2 is a circle with radius √2 units and centre (1 − 𝑖),
which is (1, −1) in Cartesian form.
4+8𝑖
4a For the boundary |𝑧 − 8𝑖| = |𝑧 − 4|, the midpoint of 4 and 8𝑖 is = 2 + 4𝑖
2
which in Cartesian form is (2, 4).
8−0
The gradient of the line between the two points is 0−4 = −2 and hence the
1 1
gradient of the perpendicular line is 𝑚 = − −2 = 2.

1
Hence 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 + 𝑏.
1
Substituting (2, 4) gives 4 = 2 × 2 + 𝑏 and so 𝑏 = 3.
1
Thus the equation of the boundary is 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 + 3.
At (0, 0), |−8𝑖| = 8 and |−4| = 4 so |−8𝑖| > |−4|.

Therefore the region |𝑧 − 8𝑖| ≥ |𝑧 − 4| includes (0, 0) so shade to the right of the
boundary. The boundary is included.
Alternatively:
|𝑧 − 8𝑖| ≥ |𝑧 − 4|
|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 8𝑖| ≥ |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 4|
|𝑥 + (𝑦 − 8)𝑖| ≥ |(𝑥 − 4) + 𝑖𝑦|
√𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 8)2 ≥ √(𝑥 − 4)2 + 𝑦 2
𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 8)2 ≥ (𝑥 − 4)2 + 𝑦 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 16𝑦 + 64 ≥ 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16 + 𝑦 2
−16𝑦 + 64 ≥ −8𝑥 + 16

−16𝑦 + 8𝑥 + 48 ≥ 0
−2𝑦 + 𝑥 + 6 ≥ 0
1
𝑦≤ 𝑥+3
2
At (0, 0), 0 < 3 so the region contains the point (0, 0).
4b For the boundary |𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖| = |𝑧 − 4 + 𝑖|, the midpoint of 2 − 𝑖 and 4 − 𝑖 is

6−2𝑖
= 3 − 𝑖 which in Cartesian form is (3, −1).
2
−1−(−1)
The gradient of the line between the two points is = 0 and hence the
4−2
perpendicular line is vertical, passing through (3, −1).
Thus the equation of the boundary is 𝑥 = 3.
At (0, 0), |−2 + 𝑖| = √5 and |−4 + 𝑖| = √17 so |−2 + 𝑖| < |−4 + 𝑖|.
Therefore the region |𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖| ≤ |𝑧 − 4 + 𝑖| includes (0, 0) so shade to the left
of the boundary. The boundary is included.
Alternatively:
|𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖| ≤ |𝑧 − 4 + 𝑖|
|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 2 + 𝑖| ≤ |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 4 + 𝑖|
|(𝑥 − 2) + (𝑦 + 1)𝑖| ≤ |(𝑥 − 4) + (𝑦 + 1)𝑖|
√(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 ≤ √(𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2

(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 ≤ (𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1 ≤ 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1
−4𝑥 + 4 + 2𝑦 + 1 ≤ −8𝑥 + 16 + 2𝑦 + 1
4𝑥 ≤ 12

𝑥≤3
4c For the boundary |𝑧 + 1 − 𝑖| = |𝑧 − 3 + 𝑖|, the midpoint of −1 + 𝑖 and 3 − 𝑖 is

2+0𝑖
= 1 which in Cartesian form is (1, 0).
2
−1−1 1
The gradient of the line between the two points is 3−(−1) = − 2 and hence the
1
gradient of the perpendicular line is 𝑚 = − 1 = 2.
−
2

Hence 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 𝑏.
Substituting (1, 0) gives 0 = 2 × 1 + 𝑏 and so 𝑏 = −2.
Thus the equation of the boundary is 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 2.
At (0, 0), |1 − 𝑖| = √2 and |−3 + 𝑖| = √10 so |1 − 𝑖| < |−3 + 𝑖|.

Therefore the region |𝑧 + 1 − 𝑖| ≥ |𝑧 − 3 + 𝑖| does not include (0, 0) so shade to
the right of the boundary. The boundary is included.
Alternatively:
|𝑧 + 1 − 𝑖| ≥ |𝑧 − 3 + 𝑖|
|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 1 − 𝑖| ≥ |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 3 + 𝑖|
|(𝑥 + 1) + (𝑦 − 1)𝑖| ≥ |(𝑥 − 3) + (𝑦 + 1)𝑖|
√(𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 ≥ √(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2

(𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 ≥ (𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1 ≥ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1
2𝑥 + 1 − 2𝑦 + 1 ≥ −6𝑥 + 9 + 2𝑦 + 1
8𝑥 − 4𝑦 ≥ 8
2𝑥 − 𝑦 ≥ 2
𝑦 ≤ 2𝑥 − 2
At (0, 0), 0 > −2 so the region does not contains the point (0, 0).
3𝜋
4d The boundaries are arg(𝑧) = 0 and arg(𝑧) = 4
arg(𝑧) = 0 is a line originating at the origin, where the angle made with the
horizontal is 0.
3𝜋
arg(𝑧) = is a line originating at the origin, where the angle made with the
4
3𝜋
horizontal is .
4
3𝜋
For 0 ≤ arg(𝑧) ≤ , shade the region between the two boundaries. The
4
boundaries are included, except for 𝑧 = 0 where the argument is undefined.

𝜋 𝜋
4e The boundaries are arg(𝑧) = − 3 and arg(𝑧) = 6
𝜋
arg(𝑧) = − 3 is a line originating at the origin, where the angle made with the
𝜋 𝜋
horizontal is − 3 . That is, 3 in a clockwise direction from the positive 𝑥-axis.
𝜋
arg(𝑧) = 6 is a line originating at the origin, where the angle made with the
𝜋
horizontal is 6 .
𝜋 𝜋
For − 3 < arg(𝑧) < 6 , shade the region between the two boundaries. The
boundaries are not included.
𝜋 𝜋
4f The boundaries are arg(𝑧 + 2 + 𝑖) = − 4 and arg(𝑧 + 2 + 𝑖) = 4
𝜋
arg(𝑧 + 2 + 𝑖) = − 4 is a line originating at the point −2 − 𝑖, which in Cartesian
𝜋 𝜋
form is (−2, −1), where the angle made with the horizontal is − 4 . That is, 4 in a
clockwise direction from the horizontal.
𝜋
arg(𝑧 + 2 + 𝑖) = is a line originating at the point −2 − 𝑖, which in Cartesian
4
𝜋 𝜋
form is (−2, −1), where the angle made with the horizontal is 4 . That is, 4 in an
anticlockwise direction from the horizontal.
𝜋 𝜋
For − 4 ≤ arg(𝑧 + 2 + 𝑖) < 4 , shade the region between the two boundaries.
𝜋
The boundary of arg(𝑧 + 2 + 𝑖) = − 4 is included but the boundary
𝜋
arg(𝑧 + 2 + 𝑖) = is not.
4

4g The boundary is |𝑧| = 2 which is a circle with radius 2 and centre at (0, 0).
At (0, 0), |0| = 0 and 0 < 2.
Therefore the region |𝑧| > 2 does not include (0, 0) so shade outside the circular
boundary. The boundary is not included.
Alternatively:
|𝑧| > 2
|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦| > 2
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 > 2
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 > 4
Boundary is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4, which is a circle with centre at (0, 0) and radius of
2 units.
At (0, 0), 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 0 + 0 = 0 and 0 < 4 so the region does not contain the point
(0, 0). The boundary is not included.

4h The boundary |𝑧 + 2𝑖| = 1 is a circle with radius 1 and centre at −2𝑖, which is
(0, −2) in Cartesian form.
At (0, 0), |2𝑖| = 2 and 2 > 1.
Therefore the region |𝑧 + 2𝑖| ≤ 1 does not include (0, 0) so shade inside the
circular boundary. The boundary is included.
Alternatively:
|𝑧 + 2𝑖| ≤ 1
|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 2𝑖| ≤ 1
|𝑥 + (𝑦 + 2)𝑖| ≤ 1
√𝑥 2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 ≤ 1
𝑥 2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 ≤ 1
Boundary is 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = 1, which is a circle with centre at (0, −2) and radius
of 1 unit.
At (0, 0), 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = 0 + 22 = 4 and 4 > 1 so the region does not contain
the point (0, 0). The boundary is included.
4i The boundary |𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖| = 1 is a circle with radius 1 unit and centre (2 − 𝑖),

The boundary |𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖| = 2 is a circle with radius 2 units and centre (2 − 𝑖),
For the region 1 < |𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖| ≤ 2, shade between the two boundaries. The
boundary of |𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖| = 2 is included but the boundary |𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖| = 1 is not.
Alternatively:
1 < |𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖| ≤ 2

1 < |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 2 + 𝑖| ≤ 2
1 < |(𝑥 − 2) + (𝑦 + 1)𝑖| ≤ 2
1 < √(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 ≤ 2
1 < (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 ≤ 4
One boundary is (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 = 1, which is a circle with centre at (2, −1)
and radius of 1 unit. This boundary is not included in the region.
The other boundary is (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 = 4, which is a circle with centre at
(2, −1) and radius of 2 units. This boundary is included in the region.

Solutions to Exercise 1G Foundation questions

1a 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 + 4
The factors of 4 are ±1, ±2, ±4.
Substituting each value for 𝑥 into the equation to find when 𝑃(𝑥) = 0 gives
𝑃(2) = 0 and hence 𝑥 − 2 is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 + 4.
Dividing 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 + 4 by (𝑥 − 2) gives 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 2.
Thus
𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 2)
= (𝑥 − 2)((𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) − 3)
= (𝑥 − 2)((𝑥 + 1)2 − 3) (completing the square)
= (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1 − √3)(𝑥 + 1 + √3) (difference of two squares)
1b 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 2
The factors of 2 are ±1, ±2.
𝑃(1) = 0 and hence 𝑥 − 1 is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 2.
Dividing 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 2 by (𝑥 − 1) gives 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2.
Thus
𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2)
= (𝑥 − 1)((𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4) − 2)
= (𝑥 − 1)((𝑥 + 2)2 − 2)
= (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2 − √2)(𝑥 + 2 + √2)
1c 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4
The factors of 4 are ±1, ±2, ±4.
𝑃(1) = 0 and hence 𝑥 − 1 is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4.
Dividing 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4 by (𝑥 − 1) gives 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 4.
Thus

𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 4)
= (𝑥 − 1)((𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) − 5)
= (𝑥 − 1)((𝑥 − 1)2 − 5)
= (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1 − √5)(𝑥 − 1 + √5)
2a Since the coefficients of the polynomial are real, all complex roots must also have
their conjugate as a root. Complex zeroes occur in conjugate pairs.
2b 1 + 𝑖 and 1 − 𝑖 are zeroes of 𝑃(𝑥).

Let the third zero of the polynomial be 𝑎, then by the sum of the roots:
−8
𝑎+1+𝑖+1−𝑖 = −
1
𝑎+2=8
𝑎=6
Hence the other root is 6.
3a Since the coefficients of the equation are real, the complex conjugate of 1 − 2𝑖
which is 1 + 2𝑖 must also be a root.
3b Since 1 + 2𝑖 and 1 − 2𝑖 are both roots, it follows that (𝑥 − (1 + 2𝑖)) and

(𝑥 − (1 − 2𝑖)) must be factors of 𝑃(𝑥).
(𝑥 − (1 + 2𝑖))(𝑥 − (1 − 2𝑖))
= 𝑥 2 − (1 + 2𝑖 + 1 − 2𝑖)𝑥 + (1 + 2𝑖)(1 − 2𝑖)

= 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 − 4𝑖 2
= 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5
Hence 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5 must also be a factor of 𝑃(𝑥).

3c Let the third root be 𝑎. Using the sum of the roots:

0
𝑎 + 1 + 2𝑖 + 1 − 2𝑖 = −
1
𝑎+2=0
𝑎 = −2
So (𝑥 + 2) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥).
Thus
𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5)
4a Since the coefficients of the equation are real, the complex conjugate of −3𝑖
which is 3𝑖 must also be a root.
4b Since 3𝑖 and −3𝑖 are both roots, it follows that (𝑧 − 3𝑖) and (𝑧 + 3𝑖) must be
factors of 𝑃(𝑧).
(𝑧 − 3𝑖)(𝑧 + 3𝑖)
= 𝑧 2 − 9𝑖 2
= 𝑧2 + 9
Hence 𝑧 2 + 9 is a quadratic factor of 𝑃(𝑧).
4c Let the third root be 𝑎. Using the sum of the roots:

3
𝑎 + 3𝑖 + (−3𝑖) = −
2
3
𝑎=−
2
3
So (𝑧 + 2) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑧) or (2𝑧 + 3) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑧).
Hence 𝑃(𝑧) as a product of factors with real coefficients can be written as:
𝑃(𝑧) = (2𝑧 + 3)(𝑧 2 + 9)

5a 𝑃(3 + 𝑖)
= 2(3 + 𝑖)3 − 13(3 + 𝑖)2 + 26(3 + 𝑖) − 10
= 2(9 + 6𝑖 + 𝑖 2 )(3 + 𝑖) − 13(9 + 6𝑖 + 𝑖 2 ) + 78 + 26𝑖 − 10
= 2(9 + 6𝑖 − 1)(3 + 𝑖) − 13(9 + 6𝑖 − 1) + 78 + 26𝑖 − 10
= 2(8 + 6𝑖)(3 + 𝑖) − 13(8 + 6𝑖) + 78 + 26𝑖 − 10
= 2(24 + 8𝑖 + 18𝑖 + 6𝑖 2 ) − 13(8 + 6𝑖) + 78 + 26𝑖 − 10
= 2(24 + 26𝑖 − 6) − 13(8 + 6𝑖) + 78 + 26𝑖 − 10
= 2(18 + 26𝑖) − 13(8 + 6𝑖) + 78 + 26𝑖 − 10
= 36 + 52𝑖 − 104 − 78𝑖 + 78 + 26𝑖 − 10
= 0 + 0𝑖
=0
5b Since 3 + 𝑖 is a root of 𝑃(𝑧), and since 𝑃(𝑧) has real coefficients, the complex
conjugate of 3 + 𝑖 which is 3 − 𝑖 must also be a root of 𝑃(𝑧).
Hence 𝑃(3 − 𝑖) = 0.
5c i Let the third root be 𝑎. Using the sum of the roots of 𝑃(𝑧):
−13
𝑎+3+𝑖+3−𝑖 = −
2
13
𝑎+6=
2
1
𝑎=
2
1
So (𝑧 − 2) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑧) or (2𝑧 − 1) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑧).
Hence 𝑃(𝑧) as a product of linear factors can be written as:
𝑃(𝑧) = (2𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − (3 + 𝑖))(𝑧 − (3 − 𝑖))
= (2𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 3 − 𝑖)(𝑧 − 3 + 𝑖)

5c ii 𝑃(𝑧) = (2𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 3 − 𝑖)(𝑧 − 3 + 𝑖) (from question 5c i)

= (2𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 + 𝑧𝑖 − 3𝑧 + 9 − 3𝑖 − 𝑧𝑖 + 3𝑖 − 𝑖 2 )
= (2𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 10)
So 𝑃(𝑧) as a product of a linear factor and a quadratic factor, with real
coefficients, can be written as:
𝑃(𝑧) = (2𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 10)

Chapter 2 worked solutions – Proof

1a equality
1b implication
1c equivalence
1d for all
1e there exists
2a If a triangle has two equal angles, then it has two equal sides. True.
2b If the square of a number is odd, then the number is odd. True.
2c If I have four legs, then I am a horse. False.
2d If a number is even, then it ends with the digit 6. False.
2e Every rhombus is a square. False.
2f If 𝑛 ≥ 0, then √𝑛 ∈ 𝑅. True.
3a True
3b False
3c False

3d False
3e True
3f True
4a Not all cars are red. Alternatively, some cars are not red.
4b 𝑎≤𝑏
4c Hillary does not like both steak and pizza, i.e. she doesn’t like steak or she doesn’t
like pizza.
4d Bill and Dave are both incorrect.
4e I live in Tasmania but not in Australia.
4f Nikhil doesn’t study and he passes.
4g 𝑥 < −3 or 𝑥 > 8
4h −5 ≤ 𝑥 < 0
5a If my plants don’t grow, then I haven’t watered them.
5b If you live in Melbourne, then you live in Australia.
5c If a triangle doesn’t have three equal angles, then it doesn’t have three equal
sides.

5d If I like motorists, then I don’t like cycling.
5e If a number is not odd (i.e. it is even) then the previous number is not even (i.e. it
is odd).
1 1
5f If 𝑎 ≥ 𝑏 then 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 or at least one of 𝑎 and 𝑏 is negative.
6a If a number is divisible by both 3 and 5 then it is divisible by 15. Conversely, if a

number is divisible by 15 then it is divisible by both 3 and 5.
6b If a triangle has two equal sides, then it has two equal angles. Conversely, if a
triangle has two equal angles, then it has two equal sides.
6c If the only divisors of an integer 𝑛 greater than 1 are 1 and 𝑛, then 𝑛 is prime.
Conversely, if 𝑛 is prime (and implicitly, greater than 1) then its only divisors are
1 and 𝑛.
6d If a quadrilateral has a pair of opposite sides that are equal and parallel, then it is
a parallelogram. Conversely, if a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then it has a
pair of opposite sides that are equal and parallel.

Solutions to Exercise 2A Development questions

7a True.
7b False. 3𝑥 < 𝑥 whenever 𝑥 < 0, e.g. if 𝑥 = −1.
7c True.
1
7d False. 𝑥 > 𝑥 2 whenever 0 < 𝑥 < 1, e.g. if 𝑥 = 2.
7e False. When 𝑥 < 0, |−𝑥| = −𝑥 ≠ 𝑥, e.g. if 𝑥 = −1.
7f True.
8a False. For example, 2 > −3 but 22 < (−3)2.
8b False. For example, (−3)2 > 22 but −3 < 2.
8c True. We can divide this problem into cases based on the signs of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
Case 1: If 𝑎 > 𝑏 and 𝑎, 𝑏 are both non-negative
Then:
|𝑎| > |𝑏|
𝑎2 > 𝑏 2
𝑎 × 𝑎2 > 𝑏 × 𝑏 2 (since all terms on LHS are positive and all terms on RHS are
non-negative)
𝑎3 > 𝑏 3
Case 2: If 𝑎 > 𝑏 and 𝑎, 𝑏 are both non-positive
Then:
𝑏<𝑎≤0

Therefore:
|𝑏| > |𝑎|
𝑎 = −|𝑎|
𝑎3 = −|𝑎|3
𝑏<0
𝑏 = −|𝑏|
𝑏 3 = −|𝑏|3
Since |𝑏| > |𝑎|
−|𝑏|3 < −|𝑎|3
Therefore 𝑎3 > 𝑏 3 .
Case 3: If 𝑎 > 𝑏 and 𝑎 > 0 but 𝑏 < 0
Then 𝑎3 > 0 and 𝑏 3 < 0
Therefore 𝑎3 > 𝑏 3
So in all possible cases, 𝑎3 > 𝑏 3 .
1 1 1 1
8d True. If 𝑎 < 𝑏 < 0, then 𝑏 < 𝑎 < 0 so 𝑎 > 𝑏.
8e False. If 𝑎 and 𝑏 have opposite signs then |𝑎 + 𝑏| < |𝑎| + |𝑏|.

For instance, |2 + (−1)| = 1 which is less than |2| + |−1|.
8f True. We can divide this problem into cases based on the signs of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
Case 1: 𝑎 and 𝑏 both non-negative.
Then:
|𝑎| − |𝑏| = 𝑎 − 𝑏
||𝑎| − |𝑏|| = |𝑎 − 𝑏|
So RHS equals LHS.

Case 2: 𝑎 and 𝑏 both negative.
Then:

|𝑎| − |𝑏| = −𝑎 + 𝑏
||𝑎| − |𝑏|| = |−𝑎 + 𝑏|
= |𝑎 − 𝑏|
So RHS equals LHS.
Case 3: 𝑎 negative, 𝑏 non-negative.
Then:
|𝑎 − 𝑏| = |−|𝑎| − |𝑏||
= |𝑎| + |𝑏|
= ||𝑎| + |𝑏||
||𝑎| − |𝑏|| ≤ ||𝑎| + |𝑏||
So LHS ≥ RHS.
Case 4: 𝑎 non-negative, 𝑏 negative.
Then:
|𝑎 − 𝑏| = ||𝑎| + |𝑏||
||𝑎| − |𝑏|| ≤ ||𝑎| + |𝑏||
So LHS ≥ RHS.
So the result is true for all possible cases.
9a Rain only happens when there are clouds, but clouds can exist without rain, so
this is an “implies” statement: ⇒.
9b If 3𝑎 = 6 then 𝑎 = 2 so 5𝑎 must always equal 10.

Similarly, if 5𝑎 = 10 then 𝑎 = 2 so 3𝑎 must always equal 6.
Therefore the two sides are equivalent: ⇔.
9c If 𝑎 > 𝑏 then −𝑏 is always greater than −𝑎, and vice versa.


9d If 𝑥 = 5 then 𝑥 2 = 25.
But 𝑥 2 = 25 doesn’t guarantee that 𝑥 = 5, as 𝑥 = −5 is also possible.
Therefore this is an “implies” statement: ⇒.
9e If 𝑥 = 5 then 𝑥 3 = 125, and if 𝑥 3 = 125 then 𝑥 must equal 5, assuming 𝑥 is real.

9f If 𝑎 is an integer then 𝑎2 is an integer.

But if (for example) 𝑎2 = 2, then 𝑎 is not an integer.
Therefore this is an “implies” statement: ⇒.
5𝜋 1 𝜋
10a False. If 𝜃 = then sin 𝜃 = 2 but 𝜃 ≠ 6 .
6
𝜋 1
10b False. If 𝜃 = 4 then tan 𝜃 = ±1 but sin 𝜃 ≠ − .
√2
10c True.
10d True.
11a If Jack does Extension 2 Mathematics then he is crazy.
11b Jack does Extension 2 Mathematics and he is not crazy.
11c If Jack does not do Extension 2 Mathematics then he is crazy.
11d If Jack is not crazy then he does Extension 2 Mathematics.
11e If Jack does not do Extension 2 Mathematics then he is not crazy.

11f Jack does Extension 2 Mathematics and he is not crazy.
12a For every integer, there exists an integer which is larger.
12b Any positive number added to its reciprocal gives at least two.
13a True, because the premise is false, or alternately because the conclusion is true.
(Either is enough to prove the implication true.)
13b False, because the premise is true but the conclusion is not.
13c True, because the premise is false.
13d True, because the premise is true and the conclusion is true.
14a If a number is less than zero, then by definition it is a negative number, and vice
versa.
14b If 1 < 0 then 1 is a negative number. This statement is true, because “1 < 0” is
false.
15a Yes. “If I do not do my homework, then I will fail” is equivalent to “If I do not fail,
then I have done my homework”.
15b Cannot be determined. While studying hard implies passing, passing doesn’t
necessarily imply studying hard.

CambridgeMaths Extension 2 Year 12 Chapter 2 Enrichment Worked Solutions 1

1a Since both are even, let 𝑎 = 2𝑚 and 𝑏 = 2𝑛.
Then 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 2𝑚 + 2𝑛
= 2(𝑚 + 𝑛)
Therefore 𝑎 + 𝑏 is even.
1b Since both are odd, let 𝑎 = 2𝑚 + 1 and 𝑏 = 2𝑛 + 1.

Then 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 2𝑚 + 1 + 2𝑛 + 1
= 2(𝑚 + 𝑛 + 1)
Therefore 𝑎 + 𝑏 is even.
1c Since 𝑎 is even and 𝑏 is odd, let 𝑎 = 2𝑚 and 𝑏 = 2𝑛 + 1.

Then 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 2𝑚 + 2𝑛 + 1
= 2(𝑚 + 𝑛) + 1
Therefore 𝑎 + 𝑏 is odd.
2a Since both are even, let 𝑎 = 2𝑚 and 𝑏 = 2𝑛.

Then 𝑎𝑏 = 2𝑚 × 2𝑛
= 2(2𝑚𝑛)
Therefore 𝑎𝑏 is even.
2b Since both are odd, let 𝑎 = 2𝑚 + 1 and 𝑏 = 2𝑛 + 1.

Then 𝑎𝑏 = 4𝑚𝑛 + 2𝑚 + 2𝑛 + 1
= 2(2𝑚𝑛 + 𝑚 + 𝑛) + 1
Therefore 𝑎𝑏 is odd.

2c Since 𝑎 is even and 𝑏 is odd, let 𝑎 = 2𝑚 and 𝑏 = 2𝑛 + 1.

Then 𝑎𝑏 = 2𝑚(2𝑛 + 1)
= 2(2𝑚𝑛 + 𝑚)
Therefore 𝑎𝑏 is even.
3a If 𝑎 is even, let 𝑎 = 2𝑚
Therefore 𝑎2 = 4𝑚2
= 2(2𝑚2 )
Therefore 𝑎2 is even.
3b If 𝑎 is odd, let 𝑎 = 2𝑚 + 1
Therefore 𝑎2 = 4𝑚2 + 4𝑚 + 1
= 2(2𝑚2 + 2𝑚) + 1
Therefore 𝑎2 is odd.
4a If 𝑏 and 𝑏 + 𝑐 are both divisible by 𝑎 then let 𝑏 = 𝑘𝑎 and 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑙𝑎.

(𝑏 + 𝑐) − 𝑏 = 𝑙𝑎 − 𝑘𝑎
𝑐 = (𝑙 − 𝑘)𝑎
Therefore 𝑐 is divisible by 𝑎.
4a If 𝑏 and 𝑏 − 𝑐 are both divisible by 𝑎 then let 𝑏 = 𝑘𝑎 and 𝑏 − 𝑐 = 𝑙𝑎.

𝑏 − (𝑏 − 𝑐) = 𝑘𝑎 − 𝑙𝑎
𝑐 = (𝑘 − 𝑙)𝑎
Therefore 𝑐 is divisible by 𝑎.
5 If 𝑏 and 𝑐 are both divisible by 𝑎 then let 𝑏 = 𝑘𝑎 and 𝑐 = 𝑙𝑎.

𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 = 𝑘𝑎𝑥 + 𝑙𝑎𝑦
= 𝑎(𝑘𝑥 + 𝑙𝑦)
Therefore 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 is divisible by 𝑎.

6 Note that 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 1, 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 2, 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 3.
6a Substituting these identities:
𝑎+𝑑 =𝑎+𝑎+3
= 2𝑎 + 3
𝑏+𝑐 =𝑎+1+𝑎+2
= 2𝑎 + 3
Therefore 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 𝑏 + 𝑐.
6b Substituting again:
𝑎𝑑 = 𝑎(𝑎 + 3)
= 𝑎2 + 3𝑎
𝑏𝑐 − 2 = (𝑎 + 1)(𝑎 + 2) − 2
= 𝑎2 + 3𝑎 + 2 − 2
= 𝑎2 + 3𝑎
Therefore 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐 − 2.
6c Substituting again:
𝑎2 + 𝑑2 = 𝑎2 + (𝑎 + 3)2
= 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 + 6𝑎 + 9
= 2𝑎2 + 6𝑎 + 9
𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 4 = (𝑎 + 1)2 + (𝑎 + 2)2 + 4
= 𝑎2 + 2𝑎 + 1 + 𝑎2 + 4𝑎 + 4 + 4
= 2𝑎2 + 6𝑎 + 9
Therefore 𝑎2 + 𝑑 2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 4.

Solutions to Exercise 2B Development questions

7 Since 𝑎 − 𝑏 is even, it can be expressed as 2𝑚 for some integer 𝑚.
𝑎2 − 𝑏2
= (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏)
= (𝑎 − 𝑏)((𝑎 − 𝑏) + 2𝑏)
= 2𝑚(2𝑚 + 2𝑏)
= 4𝑚(𝑚 + 𝑏)
which must be a multiple of 4.
8 Let:
2𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑐𝑛 (1)
3𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 𝑑𝑛 (2)
for integers 𝑐, 𝑑.
4𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 2𝑐𝑛 (3) (multiplying (1) by 2)
Subtracting (2) from (3):
𝑎 = 𝑐𝑛 − 𝑑𝑛
𝑎 = (𝑐 − 𝑑)𝑛 (4)
2𝑎 = 2(𝑐 − 𝑑)𝑛 (5)
2𝑎 + 𝑏 − 2𝑎 = 𝑐𝑛 − 2(𝑐 − 𝑑)𝑛
𝑏 = (2𝑑 − 𝑐)𝑛
Hence 𝑎 and 𝑏 are both multiples of 𝑛.
9 Let:
𝑎2 + 𝑎 = 4𝑐 (1)
𝑎2 − 𝑎 = 4𝑑 (2)
2𝑎 = 4𝑐 − 4𝑑

𝑎 = 2(𝑐 − 𝑑)
Therefore 𝑎 is even.
10 𝑎3 − 𝑎
= 𝑎(𝑎2 − 1)
= (𝑎 − 1)𝑎(𝑎 + 1)
Since (𝑎 − 1) and 𝑎 are consecutive, one of them must be a multiple of 2.
Since (𝑎 − 1), 𝑎, and (𝑎 + 1) are consecutive integers, one of them must be a
multiple of 3.
Therefore 𝑎3 − 𝑎 is a multiple of 2 and of 3, making it a multiple of 6.
11 If 𝑎 is even, then there is an integer 𝑛 such that 𝑎 = 2𝑛.

𝑎3 + 2𝑎2
= (2𝑛)3 + 2(2𝑛)2
= 8𝑛3 + 8𝑛2
= 8(𝑛3 + 𝑛2 )
So 𝑎3 + 2𝑎2 must be a multiple of 8.
12 Part 1:
Suppose a number 𝑎 is divisible by 6.
This means there is an integer 𝑏 such that 𝑎 = 6𝑏.
We can rewrite this as 𝑎 = 2(3𝑏) showing that 𝑎 is divisible by 2.
We can also rewrite this as 𝑎 = 3(2𝑏) showing that 𝑎 is divisible by 3.
Therefore if 𝑎 is divisible by 6, it is divisible by both 2 and 3.
Part 2:
Now suppose a number 𝑎 is divisible by both 2 and 3.
This means there is an integer 𝑚 such that 𝑎 = 2𝑚, and also that 2𝑚 is divisible
by 3.
Since 3 is a prime number, either 3 divides 2 or 3 divides 𝑚.

Since 3 doesn’t divide 2, it must divide 𝑚.

Therefore there is an integer 𝑛 such that 𝑚 = 3𝑛.
Therefore 𝑎 = 2(3𝑛)
𝑎 = 6𝑛
Therefore 𝑎 is divisible by 6.
We have now proved that if a number is divisible by 6, it is divisible by 2 and 3,
and we have also proved that if a number is divisible by 2 and 3, it is divisible by
6.
Therefore a number is divisible by 6 if and only if it is divisible by both 2 and 3.
13 Part 1:
Suppose an integer 𝑎 is the sum of 7 consecutive numbers. That is:
𝑎 = 𝑛 + (𝑛 + 1) + (𝑛 + 2) + ⋯ + (𝑛 + 6)
for some integer 𝑛.
Therefore,
𝑎 = 7𝑛 + 1 + 2 + ⋯ + 6
= 7𝑛 + 21
= 7(𝑛 + 3)
Therefore 𝑎 is divisible by 7.
Part 2:
Suppose an integer 𝑎 is divisible by 7. That is:
𝑎 = 7𝑚 for some integer 𝑚.
Therefore,
𝑎 = 7𝑚 + (−3) + (−2) + (−1) + 0 + (1) + (2) + (3)
= (𝑚 − 3) + (𝑚 − 2) + (𝑚 − 1) + 𝑚 + (𝑚 + 1) + (𝑚 + 2) + (𝑚 + 3)
𝑎
So 𝑎 is the sum of 7 consecutive numbers, beginning at 7 − 3.
We have now proved that if an integer is the sum of 7 consecutive integers, then
it is a multiple of 7, and we have also proved that it is a multiple of 7 then it is the
sum of 7 consecutive integers.

Therefore an integer is the sum of 7 consecutive integers if and only if it is

divisible by 7.
14a If 𝑛 is odd, there exists an integer 𝑚 such that 𝑛 = 2𝑚 + 1.

Consider the sum of 𝑛 consecutive numbers: 𝑎 + (𝑎 + 1) + (𝑎 + 2) + ⋯ +
(𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1) where 𝑎 is the first number in the sequence.
This sum is equal to
𝑎𝑛 + 1 + 2 + ⋯ + (𝑛 − 1)
(𝑛 − 1)𝑛
= 𝑎𝑛 +
2
(𝑛 − 1)
= 𝑛 (𝑎 + )
2
(2𝑚 + 1 − 1)
= 𝑛 (𝑎 + )
2
= 𝑛(𝑎 + 𝑚)
Therefore when 𝑛 is odd, the sum is divisible by 𝑛.
14b By the same proof as above, the sum of 𝑛 consecutive integers is equal to
(𝑛 − 1)
𝑛 (𝑎 + )
2
𝑛 1
= 𝑛 (𝑎 + − )
2 2
𝑛 𝑛 1
In this case, since 𝑛 is even, 2 is an integer, so (𝑎 + 2 − 2) cannot be an integer.
𝑛
There is a remainder of 2.
Therefore the sum cannot be divisible by 𝑛 when 𝑛 is even.
15 Let the digits of a 4-digit number 𝑛 be 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑.

That is,
𝑛 = 1000𝑎 + 100𝑏 + 10𝑐 + 𝑑
= (999𝑎 + 99𝑏 + 9𝑐) + (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑)
= 3(333𝑎 + 33𝑏 + 3𝑐) + (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑)

Part 1:
If 𝑛 is divisible by 3, then 𝑛 = 3𝑚 for some integer 𝑚.
Therefore:
3𝑚 = 3(333𝑎 + 33𝑏 + 3𝑐) + (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑)
(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑) = 3(𝑚 − 333𝑎 − 33𝑏 − 3𝑐)
Therefore the sum of the digits (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑) is a multiple of 3.
Part 2:
If the sum of the digits is a multiple of 3, then (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑) = 3𝑘 for some
integer 𝑘.
Therefore:
𝑛 = 3(333𝑎 + 33𝑏 + 3𝑐) + 3𝑘
= 3(333𝑎 + 33𝑏 + 3𝑐 + 𝑘)
Therefore 𝑛 is divisible by 3.
We have now proved the result in both directions, so a 4-digit number is divisible
by 3 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
16a If 𝑛 is divisible by 13, then 10𝑥 + 𝑦 = 13𝑚 for some integer 𝑚.

Multiplying this by 4 gives:
40𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 13(4𝑚)
39𝑥 + 𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 13(4𝑚)
13(3𝑥) + 𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 13(4𝑚)
𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 13(4𝑚 − 3𝑥)
Therefore 𝑥 + 4𝑦 is divisible by 13.
16b If 𝑥 + 4𝑦 is divisible by 13, then 𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 13𝑘 for some integer 𝑘.

Multiplying by 10:
10𝑥 + 40𝑦 = 13(10𝑘)
10𝑥 + 𝑦 + 39𝑦 = 13(10𝑘)
10𝑥 + 𝑦 + 13(3𝑦) = 13(10𝑘)

10𝑥 + 𝑦 = 13(10𝑘 − 3𝑦)

Therefore 10𝑥 + 𝑦 is divisible by 13.
16c ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ+ : [∃𝑚 ∈ ℤ: 10𝑥 + 𝑦 = 13𝑚] ⇔ [∃𝑘 ∈ ℤ: 𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 13𝑘]
16d From part a, if 10𝑥 + 𝑦 is divisible by 13, then so is 𝑥 + 4𝑦.

So, if 8112 = 10 × 811 + 2 is divisible by 13,
then so is 811 + 4 × 2 = 819.
If 819 = 10 × 81 + 9 is divisible by 13,
then so is 81 + 4 × 9 = 117.
If 117 = 10 × 11 + 7 is divisible by 13,
then so is 11 + 4 × 7 = 39, which 𝑖𝑠 divisible by 13.
We can reverse the above argument because we proved in part b
that the converse of part a is true.
So, because 39 is divisible by 13, so is 8112.
17a (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑥 𝑛−2 + 𝑥 𝑛−3 + ⋯ + 𝑥 + 1)

= 𝑥 𝑛−1 (𝑥 − 1) + 𝑥 𝑛−2 (𝑥 − 1) + 𝑥 𝑛−3 (𝑥 − 1) + ⋯ + 𝑥(𝑥 − 1) + 1(𝑥 − 1)
= 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑥 𝑛−1 − 𝑥 𝑛−2 + 𝑥 𝑛−2 − ⋯ − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 1
= 𝑥𝑛 + 0 + 0 + ⋯ + 0 + 0 − 1
= 𝑥𝑛 − 1
17b i From part a:

7𝑛 − 1
= (7 − 1)(7𝑛−1 + 7𝑛−2 + 7𝑛−3 + ⋯ + 7 + 1)
= 6(7𝑛−1 + 7𝑛−2 + 7𝑛−3 + ⋯ + 7 + 1)
Therefore 7𝑛 − 1 is a multiple of 6.
17b ii Note: we must also assume that 𝑎 is positive here. Otherwise a counterexample is
𝑎 = −2, 𝑛 = 2.
From part a:
𝑎𝑛 − 1 = (𝑎 − 1)(𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑛−3 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + 1)

(𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑛−3 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + 1) ≥ 𝑎 + 1 ≥ 2

If 𝑎𝑛 − 1 is prime, then its divisors can only be itself and 1.
Since (𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑛−3 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + 1) ≠ 1, its other divisor (𝑎 − 1) must
equal 1.
Therefore 𝑎 = 2.
18a Any factor of 𝑛 must be of the form 𝑝𝑖 𝑞 𝑗 where 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑎 and 0 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑏.

This gives 𝑎 + 1 possible values for 𝑖 and 𝑏 + 1 possible values for 𝑗.
Multiplying these together, there are (𝑎 + 1)(𝑏 + 1) possible choices to make a
factor of 𝑛.
18b 80 000 = 27 × 54
Therefore there are (7 + 1)(4 + 1) = 40 different factors of 80 000.
19 If 𝑎 − 𝑐 is a divisor of 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐𝑑, there is an integer 𝑛 such that 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐𝑑 = 𝑛(𝑎 − 𝑐)

(𝑎 − 𝑐)(𝑏 − 𝑑)
= 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐𝑑 − 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
= (𝑎 − 𝑐)𝑛 − (𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)
𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐
= (𝑎 − 𝑐)𝑛 + (𝑎 − 𝑐)(𝑑 − 𝑏)
= (𝑎 − 𝑐)(𝑛 + 𝑑 − 𝑏)
Therefore 𝑎 − 𝑐 is a divisor of 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐.


𝑚
1 Suppose that log 7 13 is rational, so log 7 13 = where 𝑚, 𝑛 are integers with no
𝑛
common factors other than 1, and 𝑛 is positive.
𝑚
Therefore 7 𝑛 = 13
7𝑚 = 13𝑛
Since 𝑛 ≥ 1 it follows that 13 is a factor of the RHS. But clearly 13 is not a factor
of the LHS, so there is a contradiction.
Hence log 7 13 is irrational.
𝑚
2 Suppose that √5 is irrational, so √5 = where 𝑚, 𝑛 are integers with no
𝑛
common factors other than 1, and 𝑛 is positive.
𝑚2
Therefore 5 = 𝑛2
5𝑛2 = 𝑚2
Therefore 𝑚2 is a multiple of 5, and since 5 is prime, 𝑚 must be a multiple of 5.
Let 𝑚 = 5𝑘
Therefore 5𝑛2 = 𝑚2 = 25𝑘 2
𝑛2 = 5𝑘 2
Therefore 𝑛2 is also a multiple of 5, and since 5 is prime, 𝑛 must be a multiple of
5.
But this contradicts the assumption that 𝑚, 𝑛 have no common factors.
Hence √5 is irrational.
3a “If 𝑎 is even then 𝑎2 is even”.
3b Let 𝑎 = 2𝑛
Then 𝑎2 = 4𝑛2 = 2(2𝑛)
So 𝑎2 is even.
By proving the contrapositive, we have proved that if 𝑎2 is odd then 𝑎 is odd.

4 Suppose 𝑚 is even. Let 𝑚 = 2𝑘.

Therefore 𝑚2 + 4𝑚 + 7 = 4𝑘 2 + 8𝑘 + 7
= 2(2𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 3) + 1
which must be odd.
Therefore, if 𝑚 is even, 𝑚2 + 4𝑚 + 7 is odd.
Since we have proved the contrapositive, if 𝑚2 + 4𝑚 + 7 is even, then 𝑚 is odd.
5 Suppose that 𝑎 and 𝑏 are both odd. Let 𝑎 = 2𝑚 + 1, 𝑏 = 2𝑛 + 1.

Therefore 𝑎𝑏 = (2𝑚 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
= 4𝑚𝑛 + 2𝑚 + 2𝑛 + 1
= 2(2𝑚𝑛 + 𝑚 + 𝑛) + 1
which must be odd.
Hence, since we have proved the contrapositive, if 𝑎𝑏 is even then 𝑎 and 𝑏 cannot
both be odd, i.e. at least one of them is even.

Solutions to Exercise 2C Development questions

6a Proof by contradiction:
𝑚
Suppose ∃𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ such that = log 3 5.
𝑛
𝑚
= log 3 5
𝑛
𝑚
3𝑛 = 5
3𝑚 = 5𝑛
But this contradicts the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, since it would
imply that 3𝑚 has two different prime factorisations.
Therefore no such 𝑚, 𝑛 exist.
Therefore log 3 5 is irrational.
6b log 3 15
= log 3 (5 × 3)
= log 3 5 + log 3 3
= log 3 5 + 1
Since log 3 5 is irrational, log 3 5 + 1 must also be irrational.
Therefore log 3 15 is irrational.
𝑚
Suppose ∃𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ such that = √11 and the HCF of 𝑚 and 𝑛 is 1.
𝑛
𝑚2
= 11
𝑛2
11
𝑚2 =
𝑛2
Therefore 11 divides 𝑚2 .
Since 11 is prime, if 𝑚 is not divisible by 11 then 𝑚2 would not be divisible by 11.
Therefore 11 must divide 𝑚, so we can write 𝑚 = 11𝑘.
(11𝑘)2
Therefore = 11
𝑛2

11 × 11𝑘 2
= 11
𝑛2
11𝑘 2
=1
𝑛2
𝑛2 = 11𝑘 2
Thus 𝑛2 is divisible by 11.
Since 11 is prime, if 𝑛 is not divisible by 11 then 𝑛2 would not be divisible by 11.
Therefore 𝑛 is divisible by 11.
That is, 11 is a common factor of 𝑚 and 𝑛. But the HCF is 1, so there is a
contradiction.
7b √44 = √4 × 11
= 2√11
Since √11 is irrational, 2√11 is also irrational.
8 Proof by contradiction:
Suppose 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 are both greater than or equal to √𝑛.
Since they cannot be equal to one another, at least one must be greater than √𝑛.
Therefore 𝑝1 𝑝2 > √𝑛 × √𝑛
Therefore 𝑛 > √𝑛 × √𝑛
But √𝑛 × √𝑛 = 𝑛 so this leads to a contradiction.
Therefore at least one of 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 is less than √𝑛.
If 𝑛 is odd, 𝑛2 must be odd.
Therefore 𝑛2 + 2 must also be odd, and cannot be divisible by 4.
This leads to a contradiction.
Therefore 𝑛 must be even.

9b Since 𝑛 is even, we know 𝑛 = 2𝑚 for some integer 𝑚.

Therefore 𝑛2 + 2 = (2𝑚)2 + 2
= 4𝑚2 + 2
But this must have remainder 2 when divided by 4, leading to a contradiction.
Hence 𝑛 cannot be either even or odd, leading to a contradiction.
Therefore no such number exists.
10a Every odd number 𝑎 can be written in the form 2𝑛 + 1.

If 𝑛 is odd, then 𝑛 = 2𝑚 + 1 for some 𝑚.
Therefore:
𝑎 = 2(2𝑚 + 1) + 1
= 4𝑚 + 3
= 4𝑚 + 4 − 1
= 4(𝑚 + 1) − 1
which is 1 less than a multiple of 4.
If 𝑛 is even, then 𝑛 = 2𝑚 for some 𝑚.
Therefore:
𝑎 = 2(2𝑚) + 1
= 4𝑚 + 1
which is 1 more than a multiple of 4.
Therefore, 𝑎 is either 1 more or 1 less than a multiple of 4.
10b Suppose the integers are 4𝑛 + 1 and 4𝑚 + 1.

Then their product is
(4𝑚 + 1)(4𝑛 + 1)
= 16𝑚𝑛 + 4𝑚 + 4𝑛 + 1
= 4(4𝑚𝑛 + 𝑚 + 𝑛) + 1
= 4𝑘 + 1
where 𝑘 = 4𝑚𝑛 + 𝑚 + 𝑛.

10c Proof by contradiction:

Suppose a composite number 𝑎 of the form 4𝑛 − 1 has no prime factors of the
form 4𝑛 − 1.
Since 4𝑛 − 1 is odd, all prime factors must be odd.
From part a, any odd number must be of the form 4𝑛 + 1 or 4𝑛 − 1.
Since 𝑎 has no prime factors of the form 4𝑛 − 1, all its prime factors must be of
the form 4𝑛 + 1.
However, from part b, every time we multiply two numbers of the form 4𝑛 + 1
we get another number of the form 4𝑛 + 1.
Therefore, multiplying out all the prime factors of 𝑎 results in a number of the
form 4𝑛 + 1.
Therefore 𝑎 is of the form 4𝑛 + 1.
A number cannot be both one greater and one less than a multiple of 4.
Therefore 𝑎 cannot also be of the form 4𝑛 − 1.
This creates a contradiction, proving that any composite number of the form
4𝑛 − 1 must have at least one prime factor of the form 4𝑛 − 1.
Suppose √4𝑛 − 2 is rational.
Since 𝑛 ≥ 1, √4𝑛 − 2 > 0

𝑎
Therefore √4𝑛 − 2 = 𝑏 for some 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ+ with HCF 1
𝑎2
4𝑛 − 2 = 2
𝑏
𝑎2
LHS is an integer, therefore 𝑏2 is an integer.
Therefore 𝑏2 divides 𝑎2 .
But 𝑎 and 𝑏 have no common factors, so 𝑏 must equal 1.
Therefore:
√4𝑛 − 2 = 𝑎
4𝑛 − 2 = 𝑎2
If 𝑎 is odd, then 𝑎2 must be odd, but 4𝑛 − 2 is even so this is impossible.

If 𝑎 is even, then we can write 𝑎 = 2𝑐 for some 𝑐 ∈ ℤ+ .

Therefore:
4𝑛 − 2 = 4𝑐 2
1
𝑐2 = 𝑛 −
2
But the LHS must be an integer, and the RHS cannot be an integer, so this is also
impossible.
Hence, assuming that √4𝑛 − 2 is rational leads to a contradiction.
Therefore √4𝑛 − 2 is irrational.
Suppose √3 + 1 is rational.
𝑚
Therefore √3 is rational and can be written as for some 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ with HCF 1
𝑛
𝑚
√3 =
𝑛
𝑚2
3=
𝑛2
3𝑛2 = 𝑚2
Therefore 3 divides 𝑚2 and hence 𝑚.
Therefore we can write 𝑚 = 3𝑘 for some 𝑘 ∈ ℤ+ .
Therefore:
3𝑛2 = (3𝑘)2
3𝑛2 = 9𝑘2
𝑛2 = 3 𝑘2
Therefore 3 divides 𝑛2 and hence 𝑛.

But this contradicts the assumption that 𝑚 and 𝑛 have no common factors.
Assuming √3 + 1 is rational leads to a contradiction, therefore it is irrational.

Suppose √6 is rational.
𝑚
Therefore √6 can be written as for some 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ with HCF 1
𝑛
𝑚
√6 =
𝑛
𝑚2
6=
𝑛2
6𝑛2 = 𝑚2
Therefore 2 and 3 both divide 𝑚2 .
Since each is prime, it follows that each divides 𝑚.
Therefore 6 divides 𝑚.
Therefore we can write 𝑚 = 6𝑘 for some 𝑘 ∈ ℤ+ .
Therefore:
6𝑛2 = (6𝑘)2
6𝑛2 = 36𝑘 2
𝑛2 = 6𝑘 2
Therefore 2 divides 𝑛2 and hence 2 divides 𝑛.
But this contradicts the assumption that 𝑚 and 𝑛 have no common factors.
Assuming √6 is rational leads to a contradiction, therefore it is irrational.
13b Proof by contradiction:
Suppose √3 + √2 is rational.
𝑚
Then √3 + √2 = for some 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ with HCF 1
𝑛
Therefore:
2 𝑚 2
(√3 + √2) = ( )
𝑛
𝑚2
3 + 2√6 + 2 = 2
𝑛
𝑚2
2√6 = −5
𝑛2

𝑚2 − 5𝑛2
√6 =
2𝑛2
which is rational, since all terms on the RHS are integers.
But we know from part a that √6 is irrational.
The assumption that √3 + √2 is rational leads to a contradiction.
Therefore √3 + √2 is irrational.
14 The contrapositive statement is: if 𝑛 is not prime, then 2𝑛 − 1 is not prime.

If 𝑛 is not prime, we can write 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑏 for some 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ+ , with both greater than
1.
Then
2𝑛 − 1
= 2𝑎𝑏 − 1
= (2𝑎 )𝑏 − 1𝑏
= (2𝑎 − 1)((2𝑎 )𝑏−1 + (2𝑎 )𝑏−2 + (2𝑎 )𝑏−3 + ⋯ + (2𝑎 )1 + (2𝑎 )0 )
(using difference of powers)
Since 𝑎 > 1, 𝑎 ≥ 2.
Therefore 2𝑎 − 1 is an integer greater than or equal to 22 − 1 = 3.
Since 𝑏 > 1, 𝑏 ≥ 2.
Therefore:
((2𝑎 )𝑏−1 + (2𝑎 )𝑏−2 + (2𝑎 )𝑏−3 + ⋯ + (2𝑎 )1 + (2𝑎 )0 )
≥ (2𝑎 )1 + (2𝑎 )0
= 2𝑎 + 1
≥ 22 + 1
And ((2𝑎 )𝑏−1 + (2𝑎 )𝑏−2 + (2𝑎 )𝑏−3 + ⋯ + (2𝑎 )1 + (2𝑎 )0 ) must be an integer
since each term of the sum is an integer.
Therefore 2𝑛 − 1 is the product of two integers, each greater than 1, so it cannot
be prime.
By proving the contrapositive, we have proved the original statement.

Suppose there are only finitely many prime numbers.
Therefore there must be a largest prime number, 𝑝.
Note that 𝑝! is divisible by every number up to and including 𝑝, including all the
prime numbers (since 𝑝 is the largest prime number).
𝑝!
Hence, for every prime number 𝑞, there exists an integer 𝑚 such that = 𝑚.
𝑞
𝑝! + 1 1
Therefore =𝑚+
𝑞 𝑞
This cannot be an integer.
Therefore 𝑝! + 1 is not divisible by any prime number between 1 and 𝑝.
If 𝑝! + 1 can be factorised, then each of its prime factors must be larger than 𝑝.
If it cannot be factorised, then it is itself a prime number, larger than 𝑝.
Either way, 𝑝 cannot be the largest prime number, so we have a contradiction.
Therefore there are infinitely many prime numbers.


1 Let 𝑎 = 1 + ℎ, ℎ > 0.
Therefore 𝑎2 − 1 = (1 + ℎ)2 − 1
= 2ℎ + ℎ2
Since 2ℎ and ℎ2 are both greater than 0, 𝑎2 − 1 > 0 and therefore 𝑎2 > 1.
Alternative proof:
𝑎2 − 1 = (𝑎 + 1)(𝑎 − 1)
Since 𝑎 > 1, 𝑎 + 1 > 0 and 𝑎 − 1 > 0
Therefore 𝑎2 − 1 is the product of two positive quantities and so must be
positive. From there, the result follows as above.
2a LHS − RHS
= 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏
= (𝑎 − 𝑏)2
≥0
Therefore LHS ≥ RHS.
2b LHS − RHS
𝑎2 𝑏 2
= + −2
𝑏 2 𝑎2
𝑎 𝑏 2
=( − )
𝑏 𝑎
≥0

2c LHS − RHS
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 𝑎+𝑏 2
= −( )
2 2
2𝑎2 + 2𝑏 2 − 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏 2
=
4
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏
=
4
(𝑎 − 𝑏)2
=
4
≥0
3 Since 𝑎 > 0, let 𝑎 = 𝑏 2

1
𝑎+ −2
𝑎
1
= 𝑏2 − 2 +
𝑏2
1 2
= (𝑏 − )
𝑏
≥0
1
Therefore 𝑎 + ≥ 2.
𝑎
4a Since 𝑎, 𝑏 > 0, let 𝑎 = 𝑝2 , 𝑏 = 𝑞 2 with 𝑝, 𝑞 > 0.

1
(𝑎 + 𝑏) − √𝑎𝑏
2
𝑝2 + 𝑞 2
= − 𝑝𝑞
2
1 2
= (𝑝 − 2𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞 2 )
2
1
= (𝑝 − 𝑞)2
2
≥0

1
Therefore 2 (𝑎 + 𝑏) ≥ √𝑎𝑏
4b Let 𝑎 = 𝑝2 , 𝑏 = 𝑞 2 with 𝑝, 𝑞 > 0

1 3
𝑎 + 𝑏 − √𝑎𝑏
3 4
𝑝2 3𝑞 2
= + − √𝑝2 𝑞 2
3 4
1 2 3 2
= 𝑝 + 𝑞 − 𝑝𝑞
3 4
1
= (4𝑝2 − 12𝑝𝑞 + 9𝑞 2 )
12
1
= (2𝑝 − 3𝑞)2
12
≥0
1 3
Therefore 3 𝑎 + 4 𝑏 ≥ √𝑎𝑏.
5a Let 𝑎 = 𝑏 + ℎ, ℎ > 0 and 𝑏 > 0

Then (𝑎2 − 𝑏) − (𝑏 2 − 𝑎)
= (𝑏 2 + 2𝑏ℎ + ℎ2 − 𝑏) − (𝑏 2 − 𝑏 − ℎ)
= 2𝑏ℎ + ℎ2 + ℎ
Since 𝑏 and ℎ are positive, and therefore 2𝑏ℎ and ℎ2 are also positive,
(𝑎2 − 𝑏) > (𝑏 2 − 𝑎)
5b 𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 − (𝑎2 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 2 )
= 𝑎3 − 𝑎2 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 2 − 𝑏 3
= (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )
Since 𝑎 > 𝑏, 𝑎 − 𝑏 > 0
Since 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏, 𝑎 and 𝑏 cannot both equal zero.
Therefore at least one of 𝑎2 , 𝑏 2 is greater than zero and the other is greater than
or equal to zero.
Therefore 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 > 0

Therefore (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ) > 0.

Therefore 𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 > (𝑎2 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 2 ).
6a Let 𝑥 = 𝑎2 , 𝑦 = 𝑏 2 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ≥ 0
𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2√𝑥𝑦
= 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏
= (𝑎 − 𝑏)2
≥0
Therefore 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≥ 2√𝑥𝑦.
6b From part a, we have 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≥ 2√𝑥𝑦 and we know 2√𝑥𝑦 ≥ 0.
Similarly 𝑥 + 𝑧 ≥ 2√𝑥𝑧 ≥ 0
and 𝑦 + 𝑧 ≥ 2√𝑦𝑧 ≥ 0.
Therefore
(𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑧)(𝑦 + 𝑧) ≥ (2√𝑥𝑦)(2√𝑥𝑧)(2√𝑦𝑧)
(𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑧)(𝑦 + 𝑧) ≥ 8√𝑥𝑦 × 𝑥𝑧 × 𝑦𝑧
(𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑧)(𝑦 + 𝑧) ≥ 8√𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 2

(𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑧)(𝑦 + 𝑧) ≥ 8𝑥𝑦𝑧

Solutions to Exercise 2D Development questions

7a 𝑝−𝑞 ≠0
Therefore:
(𝑝 − 𝑞)2 > 0
𝑝2 − 2𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞2 > 0
𝑝2 + 𝑞2 > 2𝑝𝑞
7b 𝑝2 + 𝑞2 > 2𝑝𝑞 (1)

𝑞 2 + 𝑟2 > 2𝑞𝑟 (2) by the same proof as above
𝑟 2 + 𝑝2 > 2𝑟𝑝 (3) by the same proof as above
Adding (1), (2) and (3) together:
𝑝2 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞 2 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟 2 + 𝑝2 > 2𝑝𝑞 + 2𝑞𝑟 + 2𝑟𝑝
2𝑝2 + 2𝑞2 + 2𝑟2 > 2𝑝𝑞 + 2𝑞𝑟 + 2𝑟𝑝
𝑝2 + 𝑞2 + 𝑟2 > 𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞𝑟 + 𝑟𝑝
7c (𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟)2 = 1
𝑝2 + 𝑞2 + 𝑟2 + 2𝑝𝑞 + 2𝑞𝑟 + 2𝑟𝑝 = 1 (1)
From part b, 𝑝2 + 𝑞2 + 𝑟2 > 𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞𝑟 + 𝑟𝑝
Substituting this into (1):
2𝑝𝑞 + 2𝑞𝑟 + 2𝑟𝑝 + 𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞𝑟 + 𝑟𝑝 < 1
3𝑝𝑞 + 3𝑞𝑟 + 3𝑟𝑝 < 1
1
𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞𝑟 + 𝑟𝑝 <
3
8a (𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )2 ≥ 0
𝑎4 − 2𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑏4 ≥ 0
𝑎4 + 𝑏4 ≥ 2𝑎2 𝑏2 (1)
Similarly:
𝑏 4 + 𝑐 4 ≥ 2𝑏2 𝑐 2 (2)

𝑐 4 + 𝑎4 ≥ 2𝑐 2 𝑎2 (3)
2𝑎4 + 2𝑏4 + 2𝑐 4 ≥ 2𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 2𝑏2 𝑐 2 + 2𝑐 2 𝑎2
𝑎 4 + 𝑏 4 + 𝑐 4 ≥ 𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 𝑏 2 𝑐 2 + 𝑐 2 𝑎2
8b (𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏𝑐)2 ≥ 0
𝑎2 𝑏2 − 2𝑎𝑏2 𝑐 + 𝑏2 𝑐 2 ≥ 0
𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑏2 𝑐 2 ≥ 2𝑎𝑏2 𝑐 (1)
Similarly:
𝑏 2 𝑐 2 + 𝑐 2 𝑎2 ≥ 2𝑏𝑐 2 𝑎 (2)
𝑐 2 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 ≥ 2𝑐𝑎2 𝑏 (3)
2𝑎2 𝑏2 + 2𝑏2 𝑐 2 + 2𝑐 2 𝑎2 ≥ 2𝑎𝑏2 𝑐 + 2𝑏𝑐 2 𝑎 + 2𝑐𝑎2 𝑏
𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑏2 𝑐 2 + 𝑐 2 𝑎2 ≥ 𝑎2 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑏2 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑐 2 𝑎𝑏
8c 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)
= 𝑎2 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑏2 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑐 2 𝑎𝑏
From parts a and b above,
𝑎4 + 𝑏4 + 𝑐 4 ≥ 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑏2 𝑐 2 + 𝑐 2 𝑎2 ≥ 𝑎2 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑏2 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑐 2 𝑎𝑏
Therefore:
𝑎4 + 𝑏4 + 𝑐 4 ≥ 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑
9a (𝑎 − 𝑏)2 ≥ 0
𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 ≥ 0
𝑎2 + 𝑏2 ≥ 2𝑎𝑏

9b 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 ≥ 2𝑎𝑏 (1)
Similarly:
𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 ≥ 2𝑏𝑐 (2)
𝑐 2 + 𝑎2 ≥ 2𝑐𝑎 (3)
2𝑎2 + 2𝑏2 + 2𝑐 2 ≥ 2𝑎𝑏 + 2𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑐𝑎
𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 ≥ 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎
9c From 9b, 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 ≥ 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎
Therefore:
𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑐𝑎 ≥ 0
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 > 0 since all three are positive.
Therefore (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)(𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑐𝑎) ≥ 0 as the product of two
non-negative terms
Therefore 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 + 𝑐 3 − 3𝑎𝑏𝑐 ≥ 0
𝑎3 + 𝑏3 + 𝑐 3 ≥ 3𝑎𝑏𝑐
3 3 3
9d Let 𝑎 = √𝑥, 𝑏 = √ 𝑦 , 𝑐 = √𝑧
Substituting into the result from part c above:

3 3 3
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 ≥ 3 √𝑥 × √ 𝑦 × √𝑧
3
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 ≥ 3√ 𝑥𝑦𝑧
1
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 ≥ 3(𝑥𝑦𝑧)3
10a Using the result from part a above, substitute 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = √𝑥 to get the required
result.

10b 1 + 𝑥 ≥ 2√𝑥 (1) (from part a)

Similarly:
1 + 𝑦 ≥ 2√𝑦 (2)
1 + 𝑧 ≥ 2 √𝑧 (3)
Multiplying (1), (2) and (3), and noting that all terms are positive:
(1 + 𝑥)(1 + 𝑦)(1 + 𝑧) ≥ (2√𝑥)(2√𝑦)(2√𝑧)
(1 + 𝑥)(1 + 𝑦)(1 + 𝑧) ≥ 8√𝑥𝑦𝑧
Substituting (1 + 𝑥)(1 + 𝑦)(1 + 𝑧) = 8:
8 ≥ 8√𝑥𝑦𝑧
1 ≥ √𝑥𝑦𝑧
11a
𝑎 𝑏 4 𝑎 4 𝑎 3 𝑏 𝑎 2 𝑏 2 𝑎 𝑏 3 𝑏 4
( − ) = ( ) − 4( ) ( ) + 6( ) ( ) − 4( )( ) + ( )
𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎 4 𝑎 2 𝑏 2 𝑏 4
= ( ) − 4( ) + 6 − 4( ) + ( )
𝑏 𝑏 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎4 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑏4
= 4−4 2+6−4 2+ 4
𝑏 𝑏 𝑎 𝑎
11b
𝑎 𝑏 4
( − ) ≥0
𝑏 𝑎
Using the equivalency from part a,
𝑎4 𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑏4
−4 2+6−4 2+ 4 ≥0
𝑏4 𝑏 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎4 𝑏4 𝑎2 𝑏2
+ + 6 ≥ 4 + 4
𝑏 4 𝑎4 𝑏2 𝑎2

11c Since 𝑥, 𝑦 > 0 we can write 𝑥 = 𝑎2 , 𝑦 = 𝑏2 .

Substituting into the result from part b then gives:
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥 𝑦
2
+ 2 + 6 ≥ 4( + )
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥
12a By the arithmetic mean – geometric mean inequality:

𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
√𝑎 2 𝑏 2 ≤
2
Therefore:
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
𝑎𝑏 ≤ (1)
2
Likewise:
𝑐 2 + 𝑑2
𝑐𝑑 ≤ (2)
2
And applying the AM/GM inequality again:
𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐𝑑
√𝑎𝑏 × 𝑐𝑑 ≤ (3)
2
Substituting (1) and (2) into (3) gives:
𝑎2 + 𝑏2 𝑐 2 + 𝑑 2
+
√𝑎𝑏 × 𝑐𝑑 ≤ 2 2
2
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑 2
√𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 ≤
4
12b Write 𝑤 = 𝑎2 , 𝑥 = 𝑏2 , 𝑦 = 𝑐 2 , 𝑧 = 𝑑 2 and then substitute into the inequality

proved in part a:
𝑤+𝑥+𝑦+𝑧
√√𝑤 √𝑥√𝑦√𝑧 ≤
4
4
𝑤+𝑥+𝑦+𝑧
√𝑤𝑥𝑦𝑧 ≤
4
13a See proof for question 9a.

13b See proof for question 9b to show that 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 ≥ 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎, and then
subtract 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎 from both sides.
13c (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 + 2(𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎)

(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)2 ≥ 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎 + 2(𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎) (substituting result from part b)
(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)2 ≥ 3(𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎)
13d i By the triangle inequality,

𝑏 ≤𝑎+𝑐
𝑏−𝑐 ≤𝑎
and similarly:
𝑐−𝑏 ≤𝑎
Therefore
|𝑏 − 𝑐| ≤ |𝑎|
(𝑏 − 𝑐)2 ≤ 𝑎2
13d ii From part i:

(𝑏 − 𝑐)2 ≤ 𝑎2
𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 ≤ 2𝑏𝑐 (1)
Similarly:
𝑎2 + 𝑏2 − 𝑐 2 ≤ 2𝑎𝑏 (2)
𝑐 2 + 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 ≤ 2𝑐𝑎 (3)
𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 ≤ 2𝑎𝑏 + 2𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑐𝑎 (4)
(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 2𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑐𝑎 (5)
Substituting (4) into (5):
(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)2 ≤ 2𝑎𝑏 + 2𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑐𝑎 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 2𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑐𝑎
(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)2 ≤ 4(𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎)

14a From question 9, we know 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 ≥ 2𝑎𝑏.

Dividing by 𝑎𝑏 then gives
𝑎 𝑏
+ ≥2
𝑏 𝑎
1 1 1
14b (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ( + + )
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑐 𝑐
= 1+ + + +1+ + + +1
𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑐 𝑐 𝑎
= 3+( + )+( + )+( + )
𝑏 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑎 𝑐
𝑎 𝑏
From question 14a, + ≥ 2.
𝑏 𝑎
𝑏 𝑐 𝑐 𝑎
Similarly, + ≥ 2 and + ≥ 2.
𝑐 𝑏 𝑎 𝑐
Therefore:
1 1 1
(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ( + + ) ≥ 3 + 2 + 2 + 2
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
1 1 1
(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ( + + ) ≥ 9
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
14c i Subtracting RHS from LHS gives:

𝑎 𝑏
𝑎3 + 𝑏3 − ( + ) 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑐 𝑐
= 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 − (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑎𝑏
= 𝑎3 − 𝑎2 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏2 + 𝑏 3
= (𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )(𝑎 − 𝑏)
= (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏)2
(𝑎 − 𝑏)2 ≥ 0
Since 𝑎 and 𝑏 are positive, (𝑎 + 𝑏) > 0.
Therefore LHS − RHS is non-negative and so LHS ≥ RHS.
𝑎 𝑏
This proves that 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 ≥ ( + ) 𝑎𝑏𝑐 (1)
𝑐 𝑐

Similarly:
𝑏 𝑐
𝑏 3 + 𝑐 3 ≥ ( + ) 𝑎𝑏𝑐 (2)
𝑎 𝑎
𝑐 𝑎
𝑐 3 + 𝑎3 ≥ ( + ) 𝑎𝑏𝑐 (3)
𝑏 𝑏
14c ii Adding (1), (2) and (3) from above:

2𝑎3 + 2𝑏3 + 2𝑐 3 ≥ ( + + + + + ) 𝑎𝑏𝑐
2𝑎3 + 2𝑏3 + 2𝑐 3 ≥ (2 + 2 + 2)𝑎𝑏𝑐 (using the result from part a)
𝑎3 + 𝑏3 + 𝑐 3 ≥ 3𝑎𝑏𝑐
14c iii Let:

3 𝑎
𝑥=√
𝑏
3 𝑏
𝑦=√
𝑐
3 𝑐
𝑧=√
𝑎
From the result of part c ii:
𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 𝑧 3 ≥ 3𝑥𝑦𝑧
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 3 𝑎𝑏𝑐
+ + ≥ 3√
𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏𝑐𝑎
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
+ + ≥3
𝑏 𝑐 𝑎

15
+ + + + + ≥2+2+2
+ + + + + ≥ 6 (rearranging and simplifying)
𝑐 𝑐 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏
𝑎+𝑏 𝑏+𝑐 𝑐+𝑎
( )+( )+( )≥6
𝑐 𝑎 𝑏
Multiplying by 𝑎𝑏𝑐:
𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑏𝑐(𝑏 + 𝑐) + 𝑐𝑎(𝑐 + 𝑎) ≥ 6𝑎𝑏𝑐
16a 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≥ 2𝑥𝑦 (as proved in question 9a)

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ≥ 4𝑥𝑦
(𝑥 + 𝑦)2 ≥ 4𝑥𝑦
𝑥+𝑦 4
≥
𝑥𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
1 1 4
+ ≥
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
16b i
𝑥 𝑦
+ ≥2 (see proof for question 14a)
𝑦 𝑥
Dividing by 𝑥𝑦:
1 1 2
2
+ 2≥
𝑦 𝑥 𝑥𝑦
16b ii
1 1 4
+ ≥ (from part a)
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
Squaring:
1 2 1 16
2
+ + 2≥
𝑥 𝑥𝑦 𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑦)2
From part b i,

2 1 1
≤ 2+ 2
𝑥𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
Therefore:
1 1 1 1 16
+ + + ≥
𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑦 2 (𝑥 + 𝑦)2
2 2 16
+ ≥
𝑥 2 𝑦 2 (𝑥 + 𝑦)2
1 1 8
2
+ 2≥
𝑥 𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑦)2
17 LHS 2 − RHS 2 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)2 − (|𝑥| − |𝑦|)2

= 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 − |𝑥|2 + 2|𝑥||𝑦| − |𝑦|2
= 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 + 2|𝑥𝑦| − 𝑦 2
= 2|𝑥𝑦| − 2𝑥𝑦
Since |𝑥𝑦| ≥ 𝑥𝑦,
LHS 2 − RHS 2 ≥ 0
LHS 2 ≥ RHS 2
(𝑥 − 𝑦)2 ≥ (|𝑥| − |𝑦|)2
Since both sides are non-negative, we can take the square root while preserving
the inequality:
|𝑥 − 𝑦| ≥ ||𝑥| − |𝑦||
2
18a (Re(𝑧)) − |𝑧|2 = 𝑥 2 − (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
2
(Re(𝑧)) − |𝑧|2 = −𝑦 2
2
(Re(𝑧)) − |𝑧|2 ≤ 0
Therefore:
2
(Re(𝑧)) ≤ |𝑧|2
Since |𝑧| is positive, we can take square roots of both sides while preserving the
inequality:
Re(𝑧) ≤ |𝑧|

18b Squaring the LHS:

|𝑧 + 𝑤|2
= (𝑧 + 𝑤)(𝑧 + 𝑤)
= 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑧𝑤 + 𝑧𝑤 + 𝑤𝑤
= |𝑧|2 + |𝑤|2 + 𝑧𝑤 + 𝑧𝑤
Let 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) and let 𝑤 = 𝑠(cos 𝜙 + 𝑖 sin 𝜙)
with 𝑟, 𝑠 ≥ 0.
Then LHS 2
= |𝑧|2 + |𝑤|2 + 𝑟𝑠(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)(cos 𝜙 − 𝑖 sin 𝜙)
+ 𝑟𝑠(cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃)(cos 𝜙 + 𝑖 sin 𝜙)
= |𝑧|2 + |𝑤|2 + 2𝑟𝑠(cos 𝜃 cos 𝜙 + sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙)
= |𝑧|2 + |𝑤|2 + 2𝑟𝑠 cos(𝜃 − 𝜙)
= |𝑧|2 + |𝑤|2 + 2|𝑧||𝑤| cos(𝜃 − 𝜙)
Squaring the RHS:
(|𝑧| + |𝑤|)2 = |𝑧|2 + |𝑤|2 + 2|𝑧||𝑤|
Therefore RHS 2 − LHS 2 = 2|𝑧||𝑤|(1 − cos(𝜃 − 𝜙))
If 𝑧 = 0 or 𝑤 = 0 or cos(𝜃 − 𝜙) = 1:
RHS 2 − LHS 2 = 0
RHS 2 = LHS 2
RHS = LHS (since both are non-negative)
If none of these three conditions hold:
2|𝑧||𝑤|(1 − cos(𝜃 − 𝜙)) > 0
Therefore:
RHS 2 > LHS2
RHS > LHS (since both are non-negative)
Therefore |𝑧 + 𝑤| ≤ |𝑧| + |𝑤|.
18c In the working for part b, we saw that equality holds only when one of 𝑧 and 𝑤 is
zero, or when cos(𝜃 − 𝜙) = 1. That is, 𝑧 = 𝑘𝑤 for some real 𝑘 > 0.


1a A. When 𝑛 = 1,
LHS = 1
1
= 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
2
= RHS
so the result is true for 𝑛 = 1.
B. Assume the statement is true for the positive integer 𝑛 = 𝑘.

That is, assume that
𝑘
1
∑𝑟 = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
2
𝑟=1
Now prove the statement for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. That is, prove that

𝑘+1
1
∑𝑟 = (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
2
𝑟=1
By the induction hypothesis:

𝑘
1
∑𝑟 = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
2
𝑟=1
Therefore
𝑘+1 𝑘
∑ 𝑟 = (∑ 𝑟) + 𝑘 + 1
𝑟=1 𝑟=1
1
= 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) + 𝑘 + 1
2
1
= (𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 2𝑘 + 2)
2
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
2
as required.

C. It follows from parts A and B by mathematical induction that the result is true
for all integers 𝑛 ≥ 1.
1b A. When 𝑛 = 1,
LHS = 1(2)
=2
1
= 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)
3

𝑘
1
∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
3
𝑟=1

𝑘+1
1
∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) = (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3)
3
𝑟=1

𝑘+1 𝑘
∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) = (∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 1)) + (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)

𝑟=1 𝑟=1
1
= 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) + (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
3
1
= (𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) + 3(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2))
3
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3)
3
as required.

1c A. When 𝑛 = 1,
LHS = 12
=1
1
= 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
6

𝑘
1
∑ 𝑟2 = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1)
6
𝑟=1

𝑘+1
1
∑ 𝑟 2 = (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(2(𝑘 + 1) + 1)
6
𝑟=1
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(2𝑘 + 3)
6
𝑘+1 𝑘
∑ 𝑟 = (∑ 𝑟 2 ) + (𝑘 + 1)2
2
𝑟=1 𝑟=1
1
= 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)2
6
1
= (𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1) + 6(𝑘 + 1)2 )
6
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 6(𝑘 + 1))
6
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 2 + 7𝑘 + 6)
6
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(2𝑘 + 3)
6
as required.

1d A. When 𝑛 = 1,
LHS = 1
1
= 𝑛(2𝑛 − 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
3
= RHS

𝑘
1
∑(2𝑟 − 1)2 = 𝑘(2𝑘 − 1)(2𝑘 + 1)
3
𝑟=1

𝑘+1
1
∑(2𝑟 − 1)2 = (𝑘 + 1)(2(𝑘 + 1) − 1)(2(𝑘 + 1) + 1)
3
𝑟=1
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 3)
3
1
= (4𝑘 3 + 12𝑘 2 + 11𝑘 + 3)
3
𝑘
1
∑(2𝑟 − 1)2 = 𝑘 (2𝑘 − 1)(2𝑘 + 1)
3
𝑟=1
Therefore
𝑘+1 𝑘
∑(2𝑟 − 1)2 = (∑(2𝑟 − 1)2 ) + (2(𝑘 + 1) − 1)2

𝑟=1 𝑟=1
1
= 𝑘(2𝑘 − 1)(2𝑘 + 1) + (2𝑘 + 1)2
3
1
= (𝑘(2𝑘 − 1)(2𝑘 + 1)) + 4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1
3

1
= (4𝑘 3 − 𝑘 + 12𝑘 2 + 12𝑘 + 3)
3
1
= (4𝑘 3 + 12𝑘 2 + 11𝑘 + 3)
3
as required.
1e A. When 𝑛 = 1,
1
LHS =
2
𝑛
=
𝑛+1
= RHS

𝑘
1 𝑘
∑ =
𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 𝑘 + 1
𝑟=1

𝑘+1
1 𝑘+1
∑ =
𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 𝑘 + 2
𝑟=1

𝑘+1 𝑘
1 1 1
∑ = (∑ )+
𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
𝑟=1 𝑟=1
𝑘 1
= +
𝑘 + 1 (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
𝑘(𝑘 + 2) + 1
=
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)

𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1
=
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
(𝑘 + 1)2
=
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
𝑘+1
=
𝑘+2
as required.
1f A. When 𝑛 = 1,
1
LHS =
(2 − 1)(2 + 1)
1
=
3
𝑛
=
2𝑛 + 1
= RHS

𝑘
1 𝑘
∑ =
(2𝑟 − 1)(2𝑟 + 1) 2𝑘 + 1
𝑟=1

𝑘+1
1 𝑘+1
∑ =
(2𝑟 − 1)(2𝑟 + 1) 2(𝑘 + 1) + 1
𝑟=1
𝑘+1
=
2𝑘 + 3

𝑘+1 𝑘
1 1 1
∑ = (∑ )+
(2𝑟 − 1)(2𝑟 + 1) (2𝑟 − 1)(2𝑟 + 1) (2(𝑘 + 1) − 1)(2(𝑘 + 1) + 1)
𝑟=1 𝑟=1
𝑘 1
= +
2𝑘 + 1 (2𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 3)
𝑘(2𝑘 + 3) + 1
=
(2𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 3)
2𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 1
=
(2𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 3)
(2𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1)
=
(2𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 3)
𝑘+1
=
2𝑘 + 3
as required.
2a A. When 𝑛 = 1, 5𝑛 + 3 = 8 = 2(4)

That is, assume that 5𝑘 + 3 = 4𝑎 for some integer 𝑎.
5𝑘+1 + 3
is a multiple of 4.
5𝑘 + 3 = 4𝑎
5𝑘 = 4𝑎 − 3
5𝑘+1 = 5(4𝑎 − 3)
= 20𝑎 − 15
5𝑘+1 + 3 = 20𝑎 − 12
= 4(5𝑎 − 3)
which is a multiple of 4, as required.
2b A. When 𝑛 = 1, 23𝑛 + 6 = 8 + 6 = 14

That is, assume that 23𝑘 + 6 = 7𝑎 for some integer 𝑎.
23(𝑘+1) + 6 is a multiple of 7.
23𝑘 + 6 = 7𝑎
23𝑘 = 7𝑎 − 6
23𝑘+3 = 23𝑘 × 23
= 23𝑘 × 8
= 8(7𝑎 − 6)
= 56𝑎 − 48
23(𝑘+1) + 6 = 56𝑎 − 48 + 6
= 56𝑎 − 42
= 7(8𝑎 − 6)

2c A. When 𝑛 = 1, 5𝑛 + 2𝑛+1 = 5 + 4 = 9
which is a multiple of 3, so the result is true for 𝑛 = 1.

5𝑘 + 2𝑘+1 = 3𝑎 for some integer 𝑎
5𝑘+1 + 2𝑘+2 is a multiple of 3.
5𝑘 + 2𝑘+1 = 3𝑎
5(5𝑘 + 2𝑘+1 ) = 15𝑎
5𝑘+1 + 2 × 2𝑘+1 + 3 × 2𝑘+1 = 15𝑎
5𝑘+1 + 2𝑘+2 = 15𝑎 − 3(2𝑘+1) )
= 3(5𝑎 − 2𝑘+1 )
2d A. When 𝑛 = 1,
9𝑛+2 − 4𝑛 = 93 − 4
= 729 − 4
= 725

That is, assume that 9𝑘+2 − 4𝑘 = 5𝑎 for some integer 𝑎.
9𝑘+3 − 4𝑘+1 is a multiple of 5.


9𝑘+2 − 4𝑘 = 5𝑎
Therefore
9(9𝑘+2 − 4𝑘 ) = 45𝑎
9 × 9𝑘+2 − 9 × 4𝑘 = 45𝑎
9𝑘+3 − 4 × 4𝑘 − 5 × 4𝑘 = 45𝑎
9𝑘+3 − 4𝑘+1 = 45𝑎 + 5 × 4𝑘
= 5(9𝑎 + 4𝑘 )
2e A. When 𝑛 = 1, 6𝑛 − 5𝑛 + 4 = 6 − 5 + 4 = 5

That is, assume that 6𝑘 − 5𝑘 + 4 = 5𝑎 for some integer 𝑎.
6𝑘+1 − 5(𝑘 + 1) + 4
is a multiple of 5.
6𝑘 − 5𝑘 + 4 = 5𝑎
6(6𝑘 − 5𝑘 + 4) = 30𝑎
6 × 6𝑘 − 30𝑘 + 24 = 30𝑎
6𝑘+1 − 5𝑘 − 5 − 25𝑘 + 29 = 30𝑎
6𝑘+1 − 5(𝑘 + 1) + 4 − 25𝑘 + 25 = 30𝑎
6𝑘+1 − 5(𝑘 + 1) + 4 = 30𝑎 + 25𝑘 − 25
6𝑘+1 − 5(𝑘 + 1) + 4 = 5(6𝑎 + 5𝑘 − 5)

2f A. When 𝑛 = 1,
4𝑛 + 6𝑛 − 1 = 4 + 6 − 1 = 9

That is, assume that 4𝑘 + 6𝑘 − 1 = 9𝑎 for some integer 𝑎.
4𝑘+1 + 6(𝑘 + 1) − 1 is a multiple of 9.
4𝑘 + 6𝑘 − 1 = 9𝑎
4(4𝑘 + 6𝑘 − 1) = 36𝑎
4 × 4𝑘 + 24𝑘 − 4 = 36𝑎
4𝑘+1 + 6𝑘 + 18𝑘 + 6 − 10 = 36𝑎
4𝑘+1 + 6(𝑘 + 1) + 18𝑘 − 1 − 9 = 36𝑎
4𝑘+1 + 6(𝑘 + 1) − 1 = 36𝑎 − 18𝑘 + 9
= 9(4𝑎 − 2𝑘 + 1)

Solutions to Exercise 2E Development questions

3a A. When 𝑛 = 1, LHS = 1
1
RHS = × 1 × (1 + 1)(1 + 2)
6
=1
So the result is true for 𝑛 = 1.

1
1 + (1 + 2) + (1 + 2 + 3) + ⋯ + (1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑘) = 6 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
1 + (1 + 2) + (1 + 2 + 3) + ⋯ + (1 + 2 + ⋯ + (𝑘 + 1))
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3)
6
From the inductive assumption:
1
LHS = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) + (1 + 2 + ⋯ + (𝑘 + 1))
6
1 (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
= 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) + (using the result from question 1a)
6 2
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3)
6
= RHS
3b A. When 𝑛 = 1, LHS = 1 = RHS



13 + 23 + ⋯ + 𝑘 3 = (1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑘)2
2
13 + 23 + ⋯ + 𝑘 3 + (𝑘 + 1)3 = (1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑘 + (𝑘 + 1))

LHS = (1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑘)2 + (𝑘 + 1)3
LHS − RHS
2
= (1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑘)2 + (𝑘 + 1)3 − (1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑘 + (𝑘 + 1))
2 2
𝑘(𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
=( ) + (𝑘 + 1)3 − ( )
2 2
(using the result from part a)

1
= ((𝑘 2 + 𝑘)2 + 4𝑘 3 + 12𝑘 2 + 12𝑘 + 4 − (𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 2)2 )
4
1 4
= (𝑘 + 2𝑘 3 + 𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 3 + 12𝑘 2 + 12𝑘 + 4 − 𝑘 4 − 6𝑘 3 − 13𝑘 2 − 12𝑘 − 4)
4
=0
Therefore LHS = RHS.
4a A. When 𝑛 = 0, 𝑛2 + 2𝑛 = 0
B. Assume the statement is true for the positive even integer 𝑛 = 2𝑘.
(2𝑘)2 + 2(2𝑘) = 8𝑙 for some integer 𝑙.
Now prove the statement for 𝑛 = 2(𝑘 + 1). That is, prove that
(2𝑘 + 2)2 + 2(2𝑘 + 2) is a multiple of 8.
(2𝑘 + 2)2 + 2(2𝑘 + 2)
= (2𝑘)2 + 2 × 2 × 2𝑘 + 22 + 2(2𝑘) + 4

= (2𝑘)2 + 2(2𝑘) + 8𝑘 + 8
= 8𝑙 + 8𝑘 + 8 (from the inductive assumption)
= 8(𝑙 + 𝑘 + 1)
Therefore (2𝑘 + 2)2 + 2(2𝑘 + 2) is a multiple of 8.
for all even integers 𝑛 ≥ 0.
4b A. When 𝑛 = 0, 𝑛3 + 2𝑛 = 0
B. Assume the statement is true for the even integer 𝑛 = 2𝑘.

(2𝑘)3 + 2(2𝑘) = 12𝑙 for some integer 𝑙.
Now prove the statement for 𝑛 = 2(𝑘 + 1). That is, prove that
(2𝑘 + 2)3 + 2(2𝑘 + 2) is a multiple of 12.
(2𝑘 + 2)3 + 2(2𝑘 + 2)
= (2𝑘)3 + 3 × 2 × (2𝑘)2 + 3 × 22 × 2𝑘 + 23 + 2(2𝑘) + 4
= (2𝑘)3 + 2(2𝑘) + 24𝑘 2 + 24𝑘 + 12
= 12𝑙 + 24𝑘 2 + 24𝑘 + 12 (from the inductive assumption)
= 12(𝑙 + 2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1)
Therefore (2𝑘 + 2)3 + 2(2𝑘 + 2) is a multiple of 12.

5a A. When 𝑛 = 1, 7𝑛 + 2𝑛 = 9
B. Assume the statement is true for the odd integer 𝑛 = 𝑘.

7𝑘 + 2𝑘 = 9𝑙 for some integer 𝑙.
7𝑘+2 + 2𝑘+2 is a multiple of 9.
7𝑘+2 + 2𝑘+2
= 49 × 7𝑘 + 4 × 2𝑘
= (45 + 4) × 7𝑘 + 4 × 2𝑘
= 45 × 7𝑘 + 4(7𝑘 + 2𝑘 )
= 9(5 × 7𝑘 ) + 4(9𝑙) (from the inductive assumption)
= 9(5 × 7𝑘 + 4𝑙)
Therefore 7𝑘+2 + 2𝑘+2 is a multiple of 9.
for all odd integers 𝑛 ≥ 1.
5b A. When 𝑛 = 1, 7𝑛 + 13𝑛 + 19𝑛 = 39 which is a multiple of 13.

B. Assume the statement is true for the odd integer 𝑛 = 𝑘.

7𝑘 + 13𝑘 + 19𝑘 = 13𝑙 for some integer 𝑙.
7𝑘+2 + 13𝑘+2 + 19𝑘+2 is a multiple of 13.
7𝑘+2 + 13𝑘+2 + 19𝑘+2
= 49 × 7𝑘 + 169 × 13𝑘 + 361 × 19𝑘

= 49 × 7𝑘 + (49 + 120) × 13𝑘 + (49 + 312) × 19𝑘

= 49 × (7𝑘 + 13𝑘 + 19𝑘 ) + 120 × 13𝑘 + 312 × 19𝑘
= 49 × 13𝑙 + 120 × 13𝑘 + 13 × 24 × 19𝑘 (from the inductive assumption)
= 13(49𝑙 + 120 × 13𝑘−1 + 24 × 19𝑘 )
Therefore 7𝑘+2 + 13𝑘+2 + 19𝑘+2 is a multiple of 13, noting that 𝑘 − 1 ≥ 2 so
13𝑘−1 is an integer.
6a A. When 𝑛 = 1, LHS = 1 and RHS = 1.

B. Assume the statement is true for integer 𝑛 = 𝑘 ≥ 1.

𝑘 2 ≥ 3𝑘 − 2
Therefore
𝑘 2 − 3𝑘 + 2 ≥ 0
(𝑘 + 1)2 ≥ 3(𝑘 + 1) − 2
LHS − RHS
= 𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1 − 3𝑘 − 3 + 2
= (𝑘 2 − 3𝑘 + 2) + 2𝑘 − 2
From the inductive assumption, 𝑘 2 − 3𝑘 + 2 ≥ 0.
Since 𝑘 ≥ 1, 2𝑘 − 2 ≥ 0.
Therefore LHS − RHS ≥ 0
So (𝑘 + 1)2 ≥ 3(𝑘 + 1) − 2

6b A. When 𝑛 = 4, LHS = 16 and RHS = 13.


2𝑘 ≥ 1 + 3𝑘
Therefore
2𝑘 − 1 − 3𝑘 ≥ 0
2𝑘+1 ≥ 1 + 3(𝑘 + 1)
LHS − RHS
= 2𝑘+1 − 1 − 3(𝑘 + 1)
= 2𝑘 + 2𝑘 − 1 − 3𝑘 − 3
= (2𝑘 − 1 − 3𝑘) + 2𝑘 − 3
From the inductive assumption, (2𝑘 − 1 − 3𝑘) ≥ 0.
Since 𝑘 ≥ 4, 2𝑘 − 3 ≥ 0.
Therefore LHS − RHS ≥ 0
So
2𝑘+1 ≥ 1 + 3(𝑘 + 1)
7a A. When 𝑛 = 2, (1 + 𝑐)𝑛 = 1 + 2𝑐 + 𝑐 2
Since 𝑐 is non-zero, 𝑐 2 > 0
Therefore:
(1 + 𝑐)𝑛 > 1 + 2𝑐
(1 + 𝑐)𝑛 > 1 + 𝑐𝑛


(1 + 𝑐)𝑘 > 1 + 𝑐𝑘
(1 + 𝑐)𝑘+1 > 1 + 𝑐(𝑘 + 1)
(1 + 𝑐)𝑘+1
= (1 + 𝑐)(1 + 𝑐)𝑘
> (1 + 𝑐)(1 + 𝑐𝑘) (from the inductive assumption)
= 1 + 𝑐(𝑘 + 1) + 𝑘𝑐 2
> 1 + 𝑐(𝑘 + 1)
Therefore:
(1 + 𝑐)𝑘+1 > 1 + 𝑐(𝑘 + 1)
1
7b Let 𝑐 = − 2𝑛.
1
Since 𝑛 ≥ 2, 𝑐 ≥ − 4
Therefore we can use the result from part a:

(1 + 𝑐)𝑛 > 1 + 𝑐𝑛
1 𝑛 𝑛
(1 − ) >1−
2𝑛 2𝑛
1 𝑛 1
(1 − ) > 1 −
2𝑛 2
1 𝑛 1
(1 − ) >
2𝑛 2

8a 𝑥 2 > 2𝑥 + 1
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 > 0
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 > 2
(𝑥 − 1)2 > 2
𝑥 − 1 > √2 or 𝑥 − 1 < −√2
𝑥 > 1 + √2 or 𝑥 < 1 − √2
8b A. When 𝑛 = 5, 2𝑛 = 32 and 𝑛2 = 25.


2𝑘 > 𝑘 2
2𝑘 − 𝑘 2 > 0
2𝑘+1 > (𝑘 + 1)2
Note that 𝑘 ≥ 5 > 1 + √2.

Therefore 𝑘 2 > 2𝑘 + 1 from part a.
2𝑘+1 − (𝑘 + 1)2
= 2(2𝑘 ) − 𝑘 2 − 2𝑘 − 1
> 2(2𝑘 ) − 𝑘 2 − 𝑘 2
= 2(2𝑘 − 𝑘 2 )
> 0 from the inductive assumption
Therefore
2𝑘+1 > (𝑘 + 1)2.

1
9a A. When 𝑛 = 1, 𝑇1 = 1 = 2 𝑛(𝑛 + 1).

1
𝑇𝑘 = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
2
1
𝑇𝑘+1 = (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
2
1
From the inductive assumption, 𝑇𝑘 = 2 𝑘(𝑘 + 1).
𝑇𝑘+1
= 𝑇𝑘 + 𝑘 + 1
1
= 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) + 𝑘 + 1
2
1 2
= (𝑘 + 𝑘 + 2𝑘 + 2)
2
1 2
= (𝑘 + 3𝑘 + 2)
2
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 21)
2
9b A. When = 1, 𝑇1 = 1 = 21 − 1.

𝑇𝑘 = 2𝑘 − 1


𝑇𝑘+1 = 2𝑘+1 − 1.
By definition,
𝑇𝑘+1
= 2𝑇𝑘 + 1
= 2(2𝑘 − 1) + 1 (from the inductive assumption)
= 2(2𝑘 ) − 2 + 1
= 2𝑘+1 − 1
9c A. When 𝑛 = 1, 𝑇1 = 5 = 6 × 21−1 − 1.

𝑇𝑘 = 6 × 2𝑘−1 − 1
𝑇𝑘+1 = 6 × 2𝑘 − 1
By definition,
𝑇𝑘+1
= 2𝑇𝑘 + 1
= 2(6 × 2𝑘−1 − 1) + 1 (from the inductive assumption)
= 6 × 2 × 2𝑘−1 − 2 + 1
= 6 × 2𝑘 − 1

𝑛
9d A. When 𝑛 = 1, 𝑇1 = 1 = 2𝑛−1.

𝑘
𝑇𝑘 =
2𝑘 − 1
𝑇𝑘+1
𝑘+1
=
2(𝑘 + 1) − 1
𝑘+1
=
2𝑘 + 1
By definition,
𝑇𝑘+1
3𝑇𝑘 − 1
=
4𝑇𝑘 − 1
𝑘
3 −1
= 2𝑘 −1
𝑘
4 −1
2𝑘 − 1
3𝑘 − (2𝑘 − 1)
=
4𝑘 − (2𝑘 − 1)
𝑘+1
=
2𝑘 + 1

10a
𝑑 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑥
(𝑥) = lim
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
=1
10b A. When 𝑛 = 1,
𝑑
(𝑥) = 1 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
(𝑥 𝑘 ) = 𝑘𝑥 𝑘−1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(𝑥 𝑘+1 ) = (𝑘 + 1)𝑥 𝑘
𝑑𝑥
We start with the identity
𝑥 𝑘+1 = 𝑥 × 𝑥 𝑘
Therefore, from the product rule,
𝑑
(𝑥 𝑘+1 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
=𝑥 (𝑥 𝑘 ) + 𝑥 𝑘 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥𝑘𝑥 𝑘−1 + 𝑥 𝑘 (from the inductive assumption and the result in part a)
= 𝑘𝑥 𝑘 + 𝑥 𝑘
= (𝑘 + 1)𝑥 𝑘

11 A. When 𝑛 = 3, the polygon is a triangle with interior angles adding to 180.

180° = (𝑛 − 2) × 180°

That is, assume that the interior angle sum of a polygon with 𝑘 sides is
(𝑘 − 2) × 180°
Now prove the statement for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. That is, prove that the interior angle sum
of a polygon with 𝑘 + 1 sides is (𝑘 − 2 + 1) × 180°.
To show this, choose any two vertices of the polygon that are separated by just
one other vertex, and draw a line between them:
This divides the (𝑘 + 1)-sided polygon into a triangle and a 𝑘-sided polygon.
The sum of internal angles of the (𝑘 + 1)-sided polygon equals the sum of
internal angles of the triangle, and the sum of internal angles of the 𝑘-sided
polygon.
From the inductive assumption, the internal angles of the 𝑘-sided polygon total
(𝑘 − 2) × 180°. Adding this to the 180° from the triangle gives
(𝑘 − 2 + 1) × 180° as required.
for all integers 𝑛 ≥ 3. Since all polygons have at least three sides, this completes
the proof.

12 A. When 𝑛 = 3, we have a triangle with no diagonals.

1
3(3 − 3) = 0.
2

1
That is, assume that a 𝑘-sided polygon has 2 𝑘(𝑘 − 3) diagonals.
Now prove the statement for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. That is, prove that a (𝑘 + 1)-sided
1
polygon has 2 (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 − 2) diagonals.
Consider a (𝑘 + 1)-sided polygon 𝑃, with vertices labelled 𝑉1 to 𝑉𝑘+1 in clockwise

order around the polygon.
Let 𝑃′ be the 𝑘-sided polygon with vertices 𝑉1 to 𝑉𝑘 in clockwise order around
the polygon, but not 𝑉𝑘+1 .
1
By the inductive hypothesis, 𝑃′ has 2 𝑘(𝑘 − 3) diagonals. Note that each of these
diagonals of 𝑃′ is also a diagonal of 𝑃.
The other diagonals of 𝑃 are:
One diagonal between 𝑉𝑘 and 𝑉1 (this wasn’t counted in the diagonals of 𝑃′
because it is an edge of 𝑃′ ).
Diagonals between 𝑉𝑘+1 and 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 , … , 𝑉𝑘−1 (but not 𝑉1 or 𝑉𝑘 since these are edges
of 𝑃). There are 𝑘 − 2 such diagonals.
1
Adding these together, 𝑃 has a total of 𝑘(𝑘 − 3) + 1 + 𝑘 − 2 diagonals.
2
1
𝑘(𝑘 − 3) + 1 + 𝑘 − 2
2
1 2
= (𝑘 − 3𝑘 + 2𝑘 − 2)
2
1 2
= (𝑘 − 𝑘 − 2)
2
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
2
as required.
for all integers 𝑛 ≥ 3, and hence for all non-trivial polygons.

13 A. When 𝑛 = 0, the plane forms a single region.

1 2
(𝑛 + 𝑛 + 2) = 1
2

That is, assume that 𝑘 lines in the plane, with no two being parallel and no three
1
concurrent, divide the plane into (𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 2) regions.
2

𝑘 + 1 lines in the plane, with no two being parallel and no three concurrent,
1 1
divide the plane into 2 ((𝑘 + 1)2 + (𝑘 + 1) + 2) = 2 (𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 4) regions.
From the inductive assumption, the first 𝑘 lines divide the plane into
1
(𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 2) regions.
2
The (𝑘 + 1)th line crosses each of the other 𝑘 lines, each at a separate point.
Therefore it passes through 𝑘 + 1 of the regions formed by the first 𝑘 lines,
dividing each in two.
Therefore the total number of regions formed by 𝑘 + 1 lines is
1
(𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 2) + 𝑘 + 1
2
1 2
= (𝑘 + 𝑘 + 2 + 2𝑘 + 2)
2
1
= (𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 4)
2
as required.
14 A. When 𝑛 = 0, 2𝑛 = 1.
Every set with 0 members has 1 subset (the empty set) so the result is true for
𝑛 = 0.


That is, assume that every set with 𝑘 members has 2𝑘 subsets.
Now prove the statement for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. That is, prove that every set with 𝑘 + 1
members has 2𝑘+1 subsets.
We have assumed that a set with 𝑘 elements has 2𝑘 subsets.
If we add a new element to the set, we get 2𝑘 new subsets by adding the new
element to each of the subsets of the original 𝑘-element set.
So, the new set has 2𝑘 subsets that contain the new element as well as the
original 2𝑘 subsets that don’t contain the new element.
So, a (𝑘 + 1)-element set has 2𝑘 + 2𝑘 = 2 × 2𝑘 = 2𝑘+1 subsets.
15a A. When 𝑛 = 1:
1
LHS = =1
12
1
RHS = 2 − =1
1

1 1 1 1
2
+ 2 + ⋯+ 2 ≤ 2 −
1 2 𝑘 𝑘
1 1 1 1 1
2
+ 2 + ⋯+ 2 + 2
≤ 2−
1 2 𝑘 (𝑘 + 1) 𝑘+1
1 1 1 1
+ + ⋯ + ≤ 2 −
12 22 𝑘2 𝑘
Therefore:

1 1 1 1
2
+ 2 + ⋯+ 2 +
1 2 𝑘 (𝑘 + 1)2
1 1
≤2− +
𝑘 (𝑘 + 1)2
1 1
≤2− +
𝑘 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
1 − (𝑘 + 1)
= 2+
𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
𝑘
= 2−
𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
1
= 2−
𝑘+1
as required.
15b A. When 𝑛 = 1:
1
LHS = 2 = RHS

1 × 3 × … × (2𝑘 − 1) 1
≥
2 × 4 × … × 2𝑘 2𝑘
1 × 3 × … × (2𝑘 − 1) × (2𝑘 + 1) 1
≥
2 × 4 × … × 2𝑘 × (2𝑘 + 2) 2𝑘 + 2
1 × 3 × … × (2𝑘 − 1) 1
≥
2 × 4 × … × 2𝑘 2𝑘
Therefore:

1 × 3 × … × (2𝑘 − 1) 2𝑘 + 1 1 2𝑘 + 1
× ≥ ×
2 × 4 × … × 2𝑘 2𝑘 + 2 2𝑘 2𝑘 + 2
1 × 3 × … × (2𝑘 − 1) × (2𝑘 + 1) 2𝑘 + 1 1
≥ ×
2 × 4 × … × 2𝑘 × (2𝑘 + 2) 2𝑘 2𝑘 + 2
1 × 3 × … × (2𝑘 − 1) × (2𝑘 + 1) 1 1
≥ (1 + ) ×
2 × 4 × … × 2𝑘 × (2𝑘 + 2) 2𝑘 2𝑘 + 2
1 × 3 × … × (2𝑘 − 1) × (2𝑘 + 1) 1
≥
2 × 4 × … × 2𝑘 × (2𝑘 + 2) 2𝑘 + 2
as required.
16 A. When 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛3 − 𝑛 = 0 which is divisible by 24.

B. Assume the statement is true for odd integer 𝑛 = 2𝑘 − 1, 𝑘 ≥ 1.

(2𝑘 − 1)3 − (2𝑘 − 1) = 24𝑙 for some integer 𝑙.
That is,
8𝑘 3 − 12𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 = 24𝑙
Now prove the statement for 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1. That is, prove that
(2𝑘 + 1)3 − (2𝑘 + 1) is a multiple of 24.
(2𝑘 + 1)3 − (2𝑘 + 1)
= 8𝑘 3 + 12𝑘 2 + 4𝑘
= (8𝑘 3 − 12𝑘 2 + 4𝑘) + 24𝑘 2
= 24𝑙 + 24𝑘 2 from the inductive assumption
= 24(𝑙 + 𝑘 2 )
which is a multiple of 24.

17a A. When 𝑛 = 1,
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑇1 = 𝑎 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑.

𝑇𝑘 = 𝑎 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑑
𝑇𝑘+1 = 𝑎 + (𝑘 − 1 + 1)𝑑
= 𝑎 + 𝑘𝑑
From the inductive assumption,
𝑇𝑘 = 𝑎 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑑
By definition,
𝑇𝑘+1
= 𝑇𝑘 + 𝑑
= 𝑎 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑑 + 𝑑 from the inductive assumption
= 𝑎 + 𝑘𝑑
as required.
17b A. When 𝑛 = 1,
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑇1 = 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟 1−1.


𝑇𝑘 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑘−1
𝑇𝑘+1 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑘−1+1
= 𝑎𝑟 𝑘
𝑇𝑘 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑘−1.
By definition,
𝑇𝑘+1
= 𝑟𝑇𝑘
= 𝑟 × 𝑎𝑟 𝑘−1
= 𝑎𝑟 𝑘
as required.
17c A. When 𝑛 = 1,
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆1 = 𝑎
1
𝑛(2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
1
= (2𝑎 + 0)
2
=𝑎

1
𝑆𝑘 = 𝑘(2𝑎 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑑)
2


1
𝑆𝑘+1 = (𝑘 + 1)(2𝑎 + (𝑘 + 1 − 1)𝑑)
2
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(2𝑎 + 𝑘𝑑)
2
1
𝑆𝑘 = 𝑘(2𝑎 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑑)
2
𝑆𝑘+1
= 𝑆𝑘 + 𝑎 + (𝑘 + 1 − 1)𝑑
1
= 𝑘(2𝑎 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑑) + 𝑎 + 𝑘𝑑
2
1
= (2𝑘𝑎 + 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)𝑑 + 2𝑎 + 2𝑘𝑑)
2
1
= (2𝑘𝑎 + 2𝑎 + 𝑘 2 𝑑 + 𝑘𝑑)
2
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(2𝑎 + 𝑘𝑑)
2
as required.
17d A. When 𝑛 = 1,
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆1 = 𝑎
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑟−1
𝑎(𝑟 − 1)
=
𝑟−1
=𝑎 (assuming 𝑟 ≠ 1)


𝑎(𝑟 𝑘 − 1)
𝑆𝑘 =
𝑟−1
𝑎(𝑟 𝑘+1 − 1)
𝑆𝑘+1 =
𝑟−1
𝑎(𝑟 𝑘 − 1)
𝑆𝑘 =
𝑟−1
By definition:
𝑆𝑘+1
= 𝑆𝑘 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑘
𝑎(𝑟 𝑘 − 1)
= + 𝑎𝑟 𝑘
𝑟−1
𝑎(𝑟 𝑘 − 1) + 𝑎𝑟 𝑘 (𝑟 − 1)
=
𝑟−1
𝑎𝑟 𝑘 − 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑘+1 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑘
=
𝑟−1
𝑎𝑟 𝑘+1 − 𝑎
=
𝑟−1
𝑎(𝑟 𝑘+1 − 1)
=
𝑟−1
as required.
18a 𝑎𝑛+1 + 𝑏𝑛+1 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 − 𝑏𝑛 𝑎

= (𝑎𝑛 − 𝑏𝑛 )(𝑎 − 𝑏)
= (𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑛−3 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑏𝑛−2 + 𝑏𝑛−1 )(𝑎 − 𝑏)2

Given that 𝑎, 𝑏 > 0,

𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑛−3 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑏𝑛−2 + 𝑏𝑛−1 > 0
and (𝑎 − 𝑏)2 ≥ 0
Therefore:
(𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑛−3 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑏𝑛−2 + 𝑏𝑛−1 )(𝑎 − 𝑏)2 ≥ 0
𝑎𝑛+1 + 𝑏𝑛+1 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 − 𝑏 𝑛 𝑎 ≥ 0
𝑎𝑛+1 + 𝑏𝑛+1 ≥ 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑎
18b A. When 𝑛 = 1,
𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑛
( ) =
2 2

𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑘 𝑎𝑘 + 𝑏 𝑘
( ) ≤
2 2
𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑘+1 𝑎𝑘+1 + 𝑏𝑘+1

( ) ≤
2 2
𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑘 𝑎𝑘 + 𝑏 𝑘
( ) ≤
2 2
𝑎+𝑏 𝑘 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎𝑘 + 𝑏 𝑘 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎+𝑏
( ) ×( )≤ ×( ) (since > 0)
2 2 2 2 2
𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑘+1 1 (𝑎𝑘 + 𝑏𝑘 )(𝑎 + 𝑏)
( ) ≤ ×
2 2 2
𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑘+1 1 𝑎𝑘+1 + 𝑏𝑘+1 + 𝑎𝑘 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏𝑘
( ) ≤ ×
2 2 2

Using the result from part a:
𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑘+1 1 𝑎𝑘+1 + 𝑏𝑘+1 + 𝑎𝑘+1 + 𝑏𝑘+1

( ) ≤ ×
2 2 2
𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑘+1 𝑎𝑘+1 + 𝑏𝑘+1
( ) ≤
2 2
as required.
19a √𝑛 + 1 − √𝑛
(√𝑛 + 1 − √𝑛)(√𝑛 + 1 + √𝑛)

=
√𝑛 + 1 + √𝑛
𝑛+1−𝑛
=
√𝑛 + 1 + √𝑛
1
=
√𝑛 + 1 + √𝑛
1
>
√𝑛 + 1 + √𝑛 + 1
1
=
2√𝑛 + 1
Therefore
1
√𝑛 + 1 − √𝑛 >
2√𝑛 + 1
19b A. When 𝑛 = 7,
1 1 363
1+ +⋯+ =
2 𝑛 140
363 2 131769
( ) =
140 19600
which is less than 7

Therefore
1 1
1+ + ⋯ + < √7
2 𝑛

1 1
1+ + ⋯ + < √𝑘
2 𝑘
1 1 1
1+ +⋯+ + < √𝑘 + 1
2 𝑘 𝑘+1
1 1 1 1
1+ +⋯+ + < √𝑘 + (1)
2 𝑘 𝑘+1 𝑘+1
From the result in part a,
1
√𝑘 + 1 − √𝑘 >
2√𝑘 + 1
1
√𝑘 + 1 > √𝑘 + (2)
2√𝑘 + 1
Since 𝑘 ≥ 7, √𝑘 + 1 > 2
Therefore
𝑘 + 1 > 2√𝑘 + 1
1 1
<
𝑘 + 1 2√𝑘 + 1
Combining with (2) gives:
1
√𝑘 + 1 > √𝑘 +
𝑘+1
Combining with (1) then gives
1 1 1
√𝑘 + 1 > 1 + + ⋯ + +
2 𝑘 𝑘+1
as required.

20a sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) − sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)

= sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
= 2 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
20b A. When 𝑛 = 1,
1
LHS =
2
𝜃
sin 2 1
RHS = =
𝜃 2
2 sin 2

1
1 sin (𝑘 − 2) 𝜃
+ cos 𝜃 + cos 2𝜃 + ⋯ + cos(𝑘 − 1)𝜃 =
2 1
2 sin 2 𝜃
That is:
1 1 1
2 sin 𝜃 ( + cos 𝜃 + cos 2𝜃 + ⋯ + cos(𝑘 − 1)𝜃) = sin (𝑘 − ) 𝜃
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 sin 𝜃 ( + cos 𝜃 + cos 2𝜃 + ⋯ + cos(𝑘 − 1)𝜃 + cos 𝑘𝜃) = sin (𝑘 + ) 𝜃
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 cos 𝑘𝜃 sin 𝜃 = sin (𝑘 + ) 𝜃 − sin (𝑘 − ) 𝜃
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 sin 𝜃 ( + cos 𝜃 + cos 2𝜃 + ⋯ + cos(𝑘 − 1)𝜃) = sin (𝑘 − ) 𝜃
2 2 2

Adding these two identities together:

1 1 1
2 sin 𝜃 ( + cos 𝜃 + cos 2𝜃 + ⋯ + cos(𝑘 − 1)𝜃) + 2 cos 𝑘𝜃 sin 𝜃
2 2 2
1 1 1
= sin (𝑘 − ) 𝜃 + sin (𝑘 + ) 𝜃 − sin (𝑘 − ) 𝜃
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 sin 𝜃 ( + cos 𝜃 + cos 2𝜃 + ⋯ + cos(𝑘 − 1)𝜃 + cos 𝑘𝜃) = sin (𝑘 + ) 𝜃
2 2 2
as required.
21a (𝑥 − 𝑦)2 ≥ 0
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ≥ 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≥ 2𝑥𝑦
𝑥 𝑦
+ ≥ 2 (dividing by 𝑥𝑦)
𝑦 𝑥
21b A. When 𝑛 = 1,
𝑎1
LHS = =1
𝑎1
RHS = 12 = 1

1 1 1
(𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘 ) ( + + ⋯ + ) ≥ 𝑘 2
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎𝑘
1 1 1 1
(𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘 + 𝑎𝑘+1 ) ( + + ⋯+ + ) ≥ (𝑘 + 1)2
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎𝑘 𝑎𝑘+1
1 1 1 1
(𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘 + 𝑎𝑘+1 ) ( + + ⋯+ + )

1 1 1 1 1 1
= (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘 ) ( + + ⋯ + ) + 𝑎𝑘+1 ( + + ⋯ + )
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎𝑘 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎𝑘
1 𝑎𝑘+1
+ (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘 ) +
𝑎𝑘+1 𝑎𝑘+1
1 1 1 1
≥ 𝑘 2 + 𝑎𝑘+1 ( + + ⋯ + ) + (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘 ) +1
(from the inductive assumption)
𝑎𝑘+1 𝑎1 𝑎𝑘+1 𝑎2 𝑎𝑘+1 𝑎𝑘
= 𝑘2 + ( + )+( + ) + ⋯+ ( + )+1
𝑎1 𝑎𝑘+1 𝑎2 𝑎𝑘+1 𝑎𝑘 𝑎𝑘+1
≥ 𝑘2 + 2 + 2 + ⋯ + 2 + 1 (using the result from part a)
= 𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1
= (𝑘 + 1)2
Therefore
1 1 1 1
(𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘 + 𝑎𝑘+1 ) ( + + ⋯+ + ) ≥ (𝑘 + 1)2
as required.
21c From part b:

1 1 1
(𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 ) ( + + ⋯ + ) ≥ 𝑛2
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎𝑛
Let 𝑛 = 3, 𝑎1 = sin2 𝜃, 𝑎2 = cos2 𝜃, 𝑎3 = tan2 𝜃.
1 1 1
(𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 ) ( + + ) ≥ 32
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
1 1 1
(sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 + tan2 𝜃) ( 2 + + ) ≥ 32
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 tan2 𝜃
2
(1 + tan2 𝜃)(cosec 2 𝜃 + sec 2 𝜃 + cot 2 𝜃) ≥ 9

sec 2 𝜃 (cosec 2 𝜃 + sec 2 𝜃 + cot 2 𝜃) ≥ 9
9
cosec 2 𝜃 + sec 2 𝜃 + cot 2 𝜃 ≥
sec 2 𝜃
cosec 2 𝜃 + sec 2 𝜃 + cot 2 𝜃 ≥ 9 cos2 𝜃 as required.


1a Consider triangle 𝐴𝑂𝐵, as shown in the diagram.
360°
Angle 𝐴𝑂𝐵 = = 30°
12
Therefore
1
Area of 𝐴𝑂𝐵 = 2 |𝑂𝐴||𝑂𝐵| sin 30°
1
= cm2
4
Since the inscribed dodecagon is made up of twelve such triangles, its area is
1
12 × 4 cm2 = 3 cm2 .
1b i Let 𝑡 = tan 15°.

From the double-angle formula,
2𝑡
tan 30° =
1 − 𝑡2
1 2𝑡
=
√3 1 − 𝑡2
1 − 𝑡 2 = 2𝑡√3
𝑡 2 + 2𝑡√3 − 1 = 0
−2√3 ± √12 + 4
𝑡=
2
= −√3 ± 2
In the first quadrant, tan must be positive.
Therefore 𝑡 = 2 − √3 so tan 15° = 2 − √3.

1b ii Let 𝑀 be the point where 𝐻𝐺 touches the circle.

Angle 𝑀𝑂𝐻 = 15° and |𝑂𝑀| = 1 cm
Therefore |𝑀𝐻| = (2 − √3) cm
Therefore
1
Area of ∆𝑂𝐺𝐻 = 2 × 2 × 1 cm × (2 − √3) cm
= (2 − √3) cm2
Therefore area of the circumscribed dodecagon is 12(2 − √3) cm2 .
1c Since the circle lies entirely within the circumscribed dodecagon, and the
inscribed dodecagon lies entirely within the circle, the circle’s area must be
between the two dodecagons.
Therefore 3 cm2 < 𝜋 cm2 < 12(2 − √3) cm2
3 < 𝜋 < 12(2 − √3) ≑ 3.22
𝜋 𝜋
2a Let 𝑥0 = 0, 𝑥1 = 6 , 𝑥2 = 3
By Simpson’s rule,
𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋
Area ≑ × (0 + 4 × sin + sin )
6 3 6 3
𝜋
= (4 + √3)
36
2b We can find the exact area by integration:

𝜋
3
∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
= [− cos 𝑥]03
1
= − − (−1)
2
1
=
2

Therefore
𝜋 1
(4 + √3) ≑
36 2
18
𝜋≑
4 + √3
18(4 − √3)
=
(4 + √3)(4 − √3)
18(4 − √3)
=
16 − 3
18
= (4 − √3) as required.
13
Note that:
18
(4 − √3) = 3.140 237 … ≑ 3.14
13
3 Area 𝐴𝐵𝐷𝐶
|𝐴𝐶| + |𝐵𝐷|
= |𝐶𝐷|
2
1
(1 + 2)
= ×1
2
3
(2)
=
2
3
= square units
4
3
Let 𝑄 = (2 , 0) be the foot of the perpendicular drawn from 𝑃 to the 𝑥-axis.
Construct the horizontal line that passes through 𝑃. Let 𝐸 be the point where this
line crosses 𝑀𝐶 and let 𝐹 be the point where this line crosses the continuation of
𝑁𝐷.
1
|𝐸𝑃| = |𝑃𝐹| =
2
∠𝑀𝑃𝐸 = ∠𝑁𝑃𝐹
∠𝑀𝐸𝑃 = ∠𝑁𝐹𝑃 = 90°

Therefore ∆𝑀𝐸𝑃 ≡ ∆𝑁𝐹𝑃 (angle-side-angle)

Therefore |𝑀𝐸| = |𝑁𝐹|
Therefore |𝑀𝐶| + |𝑁𝐷| = |𝐸𝐶| + |𝐹𝐷| = 2|𝑃𝑄|
Area 𝑀𝑁𝐷𝐶
|𝑀𝐶| + |𝑁𝐷|
= |𝐶𝐷|
2
2|𝑃𝑄|
= |𝐶𝐷|
2
= |𝑃𝑄||𝐶𝐷|
2
= ×1
3
2
= square units
3
3b The exact area under the curve between 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 2 can be found by
integration:
2
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
1
= [ln 𝑥]12
= ln 2 − ln 1
= ln 2
Since this area is completely covered by trapezium 𝐴𝐵𝐷𝐶, and completely covers
𝑀𝑁𝐷𝐶, it follows that:
area 𝑀𝑁𝐷𝐶 < ln 2 < area 𝐴𝐵𝐷𝐶
2 3
That is, < ln 2 <
3 4

4a The exact area is:

0
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−1
= [𝑒 𝑥 ]0−1
= (1 − 𝑒 −1 ) square units
4b Area of 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶
|𝐴𝑂| + |𝐵𝐶|
= |𝑂𝐶|
2
1 + 𝑒 −1
= ×1
2
1
= 2 (1 + 𝑒 −1 ) square units
4c Construct the horizontal line that passes through 𝑃. Let 𝐸 be the point where this
line crosses 𝑀𝑂 and let 𝐹 be the point where this line crosses the continuation of
𝑁𝐶.
1
|𝐸𝑃| = |𝑃𝐹| =
2
∠𝑀𝑃𝐸 = ∠𝑁𝑃𝐹
∠𝑀𝐸𝑃 = ∠𝑁𝐹𝑃 = 90°
Therefore ∆𝑀𝐸𝑃 ≡ ∆𝑁𝐹𝑃 (angle-side-angle)
Therefore |𝑀𝐸| = |𝑁𝐹|
Therefore |𝑀𝑂| + |𝑁𝐶| = |𝐸𝑂| + |𝐹𝐶| = 2|𝑃𝑄|
Area 𝑂𝑀𝑁𝐶
|𝑀𝑂| + |𝑁𝐶|
= |𝐶𝑂|
2
2|𝑃𝑄|
= |𝐶𝑂|
2
= |𝑃𝑄||𝐶𝑂|
1
= 𝑒 −2 × 1

1
= 𝑒 −2 square units
4d The area under the curve is completely covered by 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶, and completely covers
𝑀𝑁𝐶𝑂.
Therefore
area 𝑀𝑁𝐶𝑂 < 1 − 𝑒 −1 < area 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶
1 1
𝑒 −2 < 1 − 𝑒 −1 < (1 + 𝑒 −1 )
2
Looking at the right-hand inequality:
1
1 − 𝑒 −1 < (1 + 𝑒 −1 )
2
2𝑒 − 2 < 𝑒 + 1 (multiplying both sides by 2𝑒)
𝑒<3
Looking at the left-hand inequality:
1
𝑒 −2 < 1 − 𝑒 −1
1
Let 𝑘 = 𝑒 −2
Therefore 𝑘 < 1 − 𝑘 2
𝑘2 + 𝑘 − 1 < 0
1 5
𝑘2 + 𝑘 + <
4 4
2
1 2 √5
(𝑘 + ) < ( )
2 2
1 √5
𝑘+ < (using the fact that both sides are positive)
2 2
1 1 √5
𝑒 −2 + <
2 2
1 √5 − 1
𝑒 −2 <
2
2
√5 − 1
𝑒 −1 <( )
2

6 − 2√5
𝑒 −1 <
4
3 − √5
𝑒 −1 <
2
2
𝑒> (taking reciprocal of both sides, noting that both are positive)
3 − √5
2(3 + √5)
𝑒>
(3 + √5)(3 − √5)
2(3 + √5)
𝑒>
9−5
3 + √5
𝑒>
2
Therefore:
1
(3 + √5) < 𝑒 < 3
2
5 Construct points 𝑃 = (𝑎, 𝑀), 𝑄 = (𝑏, 𝑀), 𝑅 = (𝑎, 𝑚), 𝑆 = (𝑏, 𝑚):
Since 𝑚 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑀 in the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, it follows that

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑚 𝑑𝑥 ≤ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ≤ ∫ 𝑀 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏
∫ 𝑚 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑚𝑥]𝑏𝑎 = 𝑚(𝑏 − 𝑎)
𝑎

∫ 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑀𝑥]𝑏𝑎 = 𝑀(𝑏 − 𝑎)
𝑎
Therefore
𝑏
𝑚(𝑏 − 𝑎) ≤ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ≤ 𝑀(𝑏 − 𝑎)

𝑎

Solutions to Exercise 2F Development questions

6a Consider the area under the curve, between 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 𝑛 + 1.
𝑛
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = [log 𝑥]1𝑛+1
𝑥
1
= log(𝑛 + 1) − log 1
= log(𝑛 + 1)
The area under the curve must be less than or equal to the sum of upper rectangles
over the same range.
1
Since the height of the upper rectangle beginning at 𝑥 = 𝑛 is 𝑛, the sum of upper
rectangles between 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 𝑛 + 1 is
1 1
1+ +⋯+
2 𝑛
Therefore:
1 1
1+ + ⋯ + ≥ log(𝑛 + 1)
2 𝑛
6b Since there is no upper limit to log(𝑛 + 1), the infinite series becomes infinitely
large.
𝑑 1
7a ln 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 1
2
ln 𝑥 = − 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
This is negative for all positive 𝑥 and so the graph is concave down.

7b
2 2
7c 𝑃 = (𝑎 + 3 (𝑏 − 𝑎), ln 𝑎 + 3 (ln 𝑏 − ln 𝑎))
𝑎 + 2𝑏 ln 𝑎 + 2 ln 𝑏
=( , )
3 3
𝑎+2𝑏
7d Since the graph of ln 𝑥 is concave down, the value of the function at 𝑥 = 3
must be greater than the 𝑦-value at 𝑃.
That is:
𝑎 + 2𝑏 ln 𝑎 + 2 ln 𝑏
ln ( )>
3 3
8a
𝑑𝑓 𝑑 −𝑥 𝑑 𝑛
= 𝑥𝑛 (𝑒 ) + 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= −𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑥
= 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑛 − 𝑥)

8b When 𝑥 = 𝑛, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛𝑛 𝑒 −𝑛
For 𝑥 > 0, 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑥 < 0.
When 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑛, 𝑛 − 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑑𝑓
Therefore 𝑑𝑥 > 0 here,
When 𝑥 > 𝑛, 𝑛 − 𝑥 < 0

𝑑𝑓
Therefore 𝑑𝑥 < 0 here.
So the gradient is zero or increasing for all points to the left of 𝑥 = 𝑛, and
decreasing for all points to the right, with zero gradient at 𝑥 = 𝑛.
Hence (𝑛, 𝑛𝑛 𝑒 −𝑛 ) is a maximum turning point.
Alternately:
𝑑𝑓
When 𝑥 = 𝑛, 𝑛 − 𝑥 = 0 so 𝑑𝑥 = 0.
𝑑𝑓
= 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑛 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑2𝑓
= 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑛 − 1 − 𝑥) − 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑛 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2
= 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑛(𝑛 − 1 − 𝑥) − 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥 2 )
= 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑛 + 𝑛2 − 𝑛)
At 𝑥 = 𝑛,
𝑑2𝑓
= 𝑛𝑛−2 𝑒 −𝑛 (𝑛2 − 2𝑛2 + 𝑛2 − 𝑛)
𝑑𝑥 2
= −𝑛𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑛
<0
since 𝑒 −𝑛 > 0 and −𝑛𝑛−1 < 0.
So at this point the gradient is zero and the second derivative is negative, making
it a maximum turning point.

8c For 𝑥 > 𝑛, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0

Therefore 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑓(𝑛)
𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑛𝑛 𝑒 −𝑛
8d Let 𝑥 = 𝑛 + 1
From part c, it then follows that
(𝑛 + 1)𝑛 𝑒 −(𝑛+1) < 𝑛𝑛 𝑒 −𝑛
(𝑛 + 1)𝑛
< 𝑒 −𝑛 𝑒 𝑛+1
𝑛𝑛
𝑛+1 𝑛
( ) < 𝑒1
𝑛
1 𝑛
(1 + ) < 𝑒
𝑛
2𝑥
9a 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1 − 1+𝑥 2
Note that (1 − 𝑥)2 ≥ 0

with equality only when 𝑥 = 1
1 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ≥ 0
1 + 𝑥 2 ≥ 2𝑥

Therefore
2𝑥
≤1
1 + 𝑥2
2𝑥
1− ≥0
1 + 𝑥2
So 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ≥ 0
with equality only when 𝑥 = 1
9b 𝑓(0) = 0 − log 𝑒 (1 + 02 )
=0−0
=0
From part a, the gradient is positive for 𝑥 between 0 and 1, hence the function is
increasing in this domain and so 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 for 0 < 𝑥 < 1.
At 𝑥 = 1, 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − log 𝑒 2
𝑓(𝑥) > 0
For 𝑥 > 1 the gradient is positive again, so the function is increasing in this range
and so 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(1) > 0
So 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 for all 𝑥 > 0.
9c For positive 𝑥,
𝑥 − log 𝑒 (1 + 𝑥 2 ) > 0
𝑥 > log 𝑒 (1 + 𝑥 2 )
2)
𝑒 𝑥 > 𝑒 log𝑒(1+𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 > 1 + 𝑥2

𝑥 10
10a 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (1 − 10)
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 10 𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 𝑥 10
= (1 − ) (𝑒 ) + 𝑒 𝑥 (1 − )
𝑑𝑥 10 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 10
𝑥 10 1 𝑥 9
= 𝑒 𝑥 (1 − ) + 𝑒 𝑥 × 10 × − × (1 − )
10 10 10
𝑥 9 𝑥
= 𝑒 𝑥 (1 − ) (1 − − 1)
10 10
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 9
=− 𝑒 (1 − )
10 10
𝑑𝑦
Therefore 𝑑𝑥 = 0 if 𝑥 = 0 or 𝑥 = 10.
Turning points are (0,1) and (10,0).
10b As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑒 𝑥 → ∞.
𝑥
1− → −∞
10
𝑥 10
(1 − ) →∞
10
𝑥 10
So 𝑒 𝑥 (1 − 10) →∞
As 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 𝑛 tends to zero for any 𝑛 and so

𝑥 10
𝑒 𝑥 (1 − ) →0
10
𝑥 10
since (1 − 10) expands to a sum of powers of 𝑛.

10c
10d From the graph, 𝑦 ≤ 1 for 𝑥 < 10

Therefore, for 𝑥 < 10,
𝑥 10
𝑒 𝑥 (1 − ) ≤1
10
𝑥 −10
𝑒 𝑥 ≤ (1 − )
10
𝑥
(noting that 1 − 10 > 0 for 𝑥 < 10)
10e Letting 𝑥 = 1,
1
1 −10
𝑒 ≤ (1 − )
10
9 −10
𝑒≤( )
10
10 10
𝑒≤( )
9
Letting 𝑥 = −1,
−1
1 −10
𝑒 ≤ (1 + )
10
−1
11 −10
𝑒 ≤( )
10
11 10
( ) ≤𝑒
10

11a By the cosine rule,

𝑎2 = 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴
cos 𝐴 ≥ −1
Therefore
𝑎2 ≤ 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 + 2𝑏𝑐
𝑎2 ≤ (𝑏 + 𝑐)2
𝑎 ≤𝑏+𝑐
Also:
cos 𝐴 ≤ 1
Therefore
𝑎2 ≥ 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐
𝑎2 ≥ (𝑏 − 𝑐)2
𝑎 ≥ √(𝑏 − 𝑐)2
𝑎 ≥ |𝑏 − 𝑐|
Note that 𝑎 = |𝑏 − 𝑐| if and only if 𝑏 = 0 or 𝑐 = 0 or cos 𝐴 = 1. This result will be
used in part c.
11b Consider the triangle in the complex plane formed by 𝑧, 𝑤, and the origin 𝑂.
Let 𝑎 be the distance between 𝑧 and 𝑤, i.e. |𝑧 − 𝑤|.
Let 𝑏 be the length of the line from 𝑂 to 𝑧, i.e. |𝑧|.
Let 𝑐 be the length of the line from 𝑂 to 𝑤, i.e. |𝑤|.
|𝑏 − 𝑐| ≤ 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 + 𝑐
||𝑧| − |𝑤|| ≤ |𝑧 − 𝑤| ≤ |𝑧| + |𝑤|
By replacing 𝑤 in the above inequality with −𝑤, we get:
||𝑧| − |−𝑤|| ≤ |𝑧 − (−𝑤)| ≤ |𝑧| + |−𝑤|
||𝑧| − |𝑤|| ≤ |𝑧 + 𝑤| ≤ |𝑧| + |𝑤|
Combining these two results:
||𝑧| − |𝑤|| ≤ |𝑧 ± 𝑤| ≤ |𝑧| + |𝑤|

11c Let 𝑎 = |𝑧 − (−𝑤)|.

Let 𝑏 = |𝑧|.
Let 𝑐 = |−𝑤|.
Let 𝐴 be the angle between the line from the origin to 𝑧, and the line from the
origin to 𝑤, in the complex plane.
From the result in part a:
𝑎 = |𝑏 − 𝑐| if and only if 𝑏 = 0 or 𝑐 = 0 or cos 𝐴 = 1
|𝑧 − (−𝑤)| = ||𝑧| − |−𝑤|| if and only if |𝑧| = 0 or |𝑤| = 0 or cos 𝐴 = 1
|𝑧 + 𝑤| = ||𝑧| − |𝑤|| if and only if |𝑧| = 0 or |𝑤| = 0 or cos 𝐴 = 1
That is, |𝑧| = 0 or |𝑤| = 0, or 𝑧 and −𝑤 have the same argument, or 𝑧 = 𝑘𝑤 for
some negative 𝑘.
12a i 66 = 46656, 3 × 56 = 46 875
12a ii 5 × 66 = 233 280, 2 × 76 = 235 298
12b i 66 < 3 × 56
6 6
3>( )
5
1 6
36 >
5
1 5
3 −6 <
6
1 1
1 − 3−6 > (1)
6
Gradient of 𝐴𝐵 equals
1
1 − 3−6
1
0+6
1
= 6 (1 − 3−6 )

1
> 6( ) substituting from (1)
6
So the gradient of 𝐴𝐵 is greater than 1.

5 × 66 < 2 × 76
5 7 6
<( )
2 6
1
5 6 7
( ) <
2 6
Gradient of 𝐵𝐶 equals
1
5 6
(2 ) − 1
1
6
1
5 6
= 6 (( ) − 1)
2
7
< 6 ( − 1)
6
1
= 6( )
6
=1
So gradient of 𝐵𝐶 is less than 1.
12b ii Gradient of 𝐴𝐵 is greater than 1. Since the curve is concave up, gradient of 𝑦 = 3𝑥
at 𝑥 = 0 (i.e. 𝐵) is greater than the gradient of 𝐴𝐵, so must be greater than 1.
5 𝑥
Gradient of 𝐵𝐶 is less than 1. Since the curve is concave up, gradient of 𝑦 = (2)
at 𝑥 = 0 (i.e. 𝐵) is less than the gradient of 𝐵𝐶, so must be less than 1.
Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 .
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑓
= ln 𝑎 × 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥

At 𝑥 = 0,
𝑑𝑓
= ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
Gradient of 𝑦 = 3𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0 is greater than 1. Therefore:
ln 3 > 1
3>𝑒
5 𝑥
Gradient of 𝑦 = (2) at 𝑥 = 0 is less than 1. Therefore:
5
ln <1
2
5
<𝑒
2
13a Let 𝑢 = 𝑡 2 , noting that 0 ≤ 𝑢 < 1

1 + 𝑡 2 + 𝑡 4 + ⋯ + 𝑡 2𝑁
= 1 + 𝑢 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑁
1 − 𝑢𝑁+1
=
1−𝑢
1 − 𝑢𝑁+1
=
1−𝑢
1
< (since numerator and denominator are both positive)
1−𝑢
1
=
1 − 𝑡2
Therefore
1
1 + 𝑡 2 + 𝑡 4 + ⋯ + 𝑡 2𝑁 <
1 − 𝑡2
13b As shown above,

1 + 𝑡 2 + 𝑡 4 + ⋯ + 𝑡 2𝑁
1 − 𝑢𝑁+1
=
1−𝑢

1 − 𝑡 2𝑁+2
=
1 − 𝑡2
Therefore
1
2
− (1 + 𝑡 2 + 𝑡 4 + ⋯ + 𝑡 2𝑁 )
1−𝑡
1 1 − 𝑡 2𝑁+2
= −
1 − 𝑡2 1 − 𝑡2
𝑡 2𝑁+2
=
1 − 𝑡2
13c
1
1 − 𝑡2
1
=
(1 + 𝑡)(1 − 𝑡)
1 1
= +
2(1 − 𝑡) 2(1 + 𝑡)
𝑥 𝑥
1
∫ (1 + 𝑡 2 + 𝑡 4 + ⋯ + 𝑡 2𝑁 )𝑑𝑡 < ∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 0 1 − 𝑡2
𝑥
1 𝑥 1 1
∫ (1 + 𝑡 2 + 𝑡 4 + ⋯ + 𝑡 2𝑁 )𝑑𝑡 < ∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑡
0 2 0 (1 − 𝑡) (1 + 𝑡)
𝑥
𝑡3 𝑡5 𝑡 2𝑁+1 1
[𝑡 + + + ⋯ + ] < [log(1 + 𝑡) − log(1 − 𝑡)]0𝑥
3 5 2𝑁 + 1 0 2
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 2𝑁+1 1
𝑥+ + + ⋯+ − 0 < (log(1 + 𝑥) − log(1 − 𝑥) − 0 + 0)
3 5 2𝑁 + 1 2
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 2𝑁+1 1 1+𝑥
𝑥 + + + ⋯+ < log ( )
3 5 2𝑁 + 1 2 1−𝑥
13d Over the interval, 𝑡 ≤ 𝑥

Therefore 𝑡 2𝑁+2 ≤ 𝑥 2𝑁+2
Furthermore,
1 − 𝑡2 > 0

Therefore
𝑡 2𝑁+2 𝑥 2𝑁+2
≤
1 − 𝑡2 1 − 𝑡2
Therefore, since the LHS term is less than or equal to the RHS term everywhere
in the interval of integration and the upper limit of integration is greater than the
lower limit:
𝑥 𝑥 2𝑁+2
𝑡 2𝑁+2 𝑥
∫ 2
≤ ∫ 2
0 1−𝑡 0 1−𝑡
13e From part b:

1 2 4 2𝑁
𝑡 2𝑁+2
= 1 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑡 +
1 − 𝑡2 1 − 𝑡2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 2𝑁+2
1 2 4 2𝑁
𝑡
∫ 2
𝑑𝑡 = ∫ (1 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑡 )𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 2
𝑑𝑡
0 1−𝑡 0 0 1−𝑡
Using the result from part d:

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 2𝑁+2
1 2 4 2𝑁
𝑥
∫ 2
𝑑𝑡 ≤ ∫ (1 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑡 )𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 2
𝑑𝑡
0 1−𝑡 0 0 1−𝑡
𝑥
1 1+𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 2𝑁+1 1
log ( ) ≤ (𝑥 + + + ⋯ + ) + 𝑥 2𝑁+2 ∫ 2
𝑑𝑡
2 1−𝑥 3 5 2𝑁 + 1 0 1−𝑡
1 1+𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 2𝑁+1 𝑥 2𝑁+2 1+𝑥

log ( ) ≤ (𝑥 + + + ⋯ + )+ log ( )
2 1−𝑥 3 5 2𝑁 + 1 2 1−𝑥
And using the result from part c:

𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 2𝑁+1 1 1+𝑥
(𝑥 + + + ⋯ + ) ≤ log ( )
3 5 2𝑁 + 1 2 1−𝑥
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 2𝑁+1 𝑥 2𝑁+2 1+𝑥
≤ (𝑥 + + + ⋯ + )+ log ( )
3 5 2𝑁 + 1 2 1−𝑥
Therefore
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 2𝑁+1 1 1+𝑥 𝑥 2𝑁+2 1+𝑥
|(𝑥 + + + ⋯ + ) − log ( )| ≤ log ( )
3 5 2𝑁 + 1 2 1−𝑥 2 1−𝑥
As 𝑁 → ∞, 𝑥 2𝑁+2 → 0 since 0 < 𝑥 < 1

Therefore, as 𝑁 → ∞,
𝑥 2𝑁+2 1+𝑥
log ( )→0
2 1−𝑥
Therefore
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 2𝑁+1 1 1+𝑥
lim (𝑥 + + + ⋯+ ) − log ( )=0
𝑁→∞ 3 5 2𝑁 + 1 2 1−𝑥
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 2𝑁+1 1 1+𝑥
lim (𝑥 + + + ⋯+ ) = log ( )
𝑁→∞ 3 5 2𝑁 + 1 2 1−𝑥
1
13f Substitute 𝑥 = 3
From part e:
1 3 1 5 1 2𝑁+1
(3 + 3 + ⋯ + 3)
1 ) ( ) (
lim ( + )
𝑁→∞ 3 3 5 2𝑁 + 1
1
1 1+3
= log ( )
2 1
1−3
1 3+1
= log ( )
2 3−1
1
= log(2)
2
Therefore
1 3 1 5 1 2𝑁+1
1 (3) (3 ) (3 )
log(2) = 2 × lim ( + + + ⋯+ )
𝑁→∞ 3 3 5 2𝑁 + 1
Summing a few terms of this series gives:

log(2) ≑ 0.693
𝛼
14a For 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑥 2 ,
𝛼 1
𝑥 −2 ≤ ≤1
𝑡
Therefore:
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2
𝛼 1
∫ 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑡 ≤ ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ≤ ∫ 1 𝑑𝑡
1 1 𝑡 1

𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
𝑥 − 2 [𝑡]1𝑥 2 ≤ [log 𝑡]1𝑥 2 ≤ [𝑡]1𝑥 2
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 2 − 1) ≤ log (𝑥 2 ) − log(1) ≤ 𝑥 2 − 1
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
1 − 𝑥 −2 ≤ log 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 2 − 1
2
𝛼
Since 𝑥 > 1, 𝑥 − 2 < 1
Therefore
𝛼
1 − 𝑥 −2 > 0
𝛼 𝛼
and 𝑥 2 − 1 < 𝑥 2
Therefore
𝛼 𝛼
0< log 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 2
2
𝛼
14b Divide through by 2 𝑥 𝛼 to get:
log 𝑥 2 −𝛼
0< < 𝑥 2
𝑥𝛼 𝛼
𝛼
As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑥 − 2 → 0
𝛼
2
Therefore 𝛼 𝑥 − 2 → 0
Therefore
log 𝑥
lim ( )=0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝛼
15a When 𝑛𝑘 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑛𝑘+1 ,

1 1
≥ 𝑘+1
𝑥 𝑛
Therefore
𝑛𝑘+1 𝑛 𝑘+1
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 ≥ ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑛𝑘 𝑥 𝑛𝑘 𝑛𝑘+1
𝑛𝑘+1 𝑘+1
1 𝑥 𝑛
∫ 𝑑𝑥 ≥ [ 𝑘+1 ]
𝑛𝑘 𝑥 𝑛 𝑛𝑘

𝑛𝑘+1
1 𝑛𝑘+1 − 𝑛𝑘
∫ 𝑑𝑥 ≥
𝑛𝑘 𝑥 𝑛𝑘+1
𝑛𝑘+1
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 ≥ 1 −
𝑛𝑘 𝑥 𝑛
15b By dividing the interval of integration, we can see that

𝑛𝑘 𝑛 𝑛 2 𝑛 𝑘
1 1 1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ⋯ + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛𝑘−1 𝑥
1
Using the result from part a, each of the RHS integrals is ≥ 1 − 𝑛
Therefore:
𝑛𝑘
1 1 1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 ≥ (1 − ) + (1 − ) + ⋯ + (1 − )
1 𝑥 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛𝑘
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 ≥ 𝑘 (1 − )
1 𝑥 𝑛
1
Since 𝑛 > 1, 1 − 𝑛 > 0
1
Therefore as 𝑘 → ∞, 𝑘 (1 − 𝑛) → ∞
Therefore
𝑛𝑘 1
∫1 𝑑𝑥 → ∞ as 𝑘 → ∞
𝑥
16a When 𝑛 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑛 + 𝑥,
1 1 1
≤ ≤
𝑛+𝑥 𝑡 𝑛
Therefore
𝑛+𝑥 𝑛+𝑥 𝑛+𝑥
1 1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑡 ≤ ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ≤ ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑛 𝑛+𝑥 𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 𝑛
Therefore
𝑥 𝑥
≤ log(𝑛 + 𝑥) − log(𝑛) ≤
𝑛+𝑥 𝑛
𝑥 𝑛+𝑥 𝑥
≤ log ( )≤
𝑛+𝑥 𝑛 𝑛

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
≤ log (1 + ) ≤
𝑛+𝑥 𝑛 𝑛
Multiply through by 𝑛:
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 ≤ 𝑛 log (1 + 𝑛) ≤ 𝑥
1+𝑛
𝑥
16b As 𝑛 → ∞, 1 + 𝑛 → 1
𝑥
Therefore 𝑥 →𝑥
1+
𝑛
𝑥 𝑥
Since 𝑛 log (1 + 𝑛) is sandwiched between 𝑥 and 𝑥, and both of these tend to 𝑥
1+
𝑛
as 𝑛 → ∞,
𝑥
lim 𝑛 log (1 + ) = 𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
Therefore
𝑥
𝑛 log(1+ )
lim 𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑛→∞
𝑥 𝑛
lim (1 + ) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
16c The exact value of 𝑒 0.1 is 1.105 to three decimal places. By trial and error, 𝑛
needs to be at least 9 to agree to three decimal places.

Solutions to Exercise 2G Review questions

1a If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, then it is cyclic. True.
1b If the sum of two numbers is even, then they are both odd. False.
(Counterexample: 1 + 1 = 2.)
1c Every parallelogram is a rhombus. False.
2a Not all mathematicians are intelligent. (Alternately: there exists a mathematician

who is not intelligent.)
2b Suzie doesn’t like both of Physics and Chemistry, that is, she dislikes at least one
of them.
2c I am on vacation and I am working.
3a If I don’t have two wheels, then I am not a bicycle.
3b If a number’s last digit is 6, then it is not odd. (i.e. it is even, assuming it’s an
integer.)
3c If a shape does not have four equal sides, then it is not a square.
4a If a number is even, it is divisible by 2; if a number is divisible by 2, it is even.
4b If a quadrilateral’s diagonals bisect one another, it is a parallelogram; if a

quadrilateral is a parallelogram, its diagonals bisect one another.
4c If 𝑎 is divisible by 𝑏, ∃𝑐 ∈ ℤ such that 𝑎 = 𝑏𝑐; if ∃𝑐 ∈ ℤ such that 𝑎 = 𝑏𝑐, then 𝑎 is

divisible by 𝑏.

5a Let 𝑛 be the first of the three numbers.

Then the other two are 𝑛 + 1 and 𝑛 + 2.
Therefore their sum is
𝑛+𝑛+1+𝑛+2
= 3𝑛 + 3
= 3(𝑛 + 1)
So their sum is divisible by 3.
5b Let 2𝑛 be the first of the three numbers.

Then the other two are 2𝑛 + 2 and 2𝑛 + 4.
Therefore their product is
2𝑛(2𝑛 + 2)(2𝑛 + 4)
= 2𝑛 × 2(2 + 1) × 2(2 + 2)
= 2 × 2 × 2𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)
= 8 × 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)
So their product is divisible by 8.
5c Let 2𝑛 be the first of the two numbers.

Then the other is 2𝑛 + 2.
Their product is 4𝑛2 + 4𝑛 = 4𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
Case 1: If 𝑛 is even, then 4𝑛 is a multiple of 8.
Therefore 4𝑛(𝑛 + 1) is a multiple of 8.
Case 2: If 𝑛 is odd, then 𝑛 + 1 is even.
Therefore 4(𝑛 + 1) is a multiple of 8.
Therefore 4𝑛(𝑛 + 1) is a multiple of 8.
So in either case, the product of the two numbers is divisible by 8.

6 If a square number is odd, then its square root is also odd.

Let 2𝑛 + 1 be the square root.
Therefore the square number is
(2𝑛 + 1)2
= 4𝑛2 + 4𝑛 + 1
= 4(𝑛2 + 𝑛) + 1
Since 4(𝑛2 + 𝑛) is divisible by 4, the remainder when (2𝑛 + 1)2 is divisible by 4
is 1.
7 Suppose a number 𝑛 is divisible by 15.

Therefore 𝑛 = 15𝑎 for some integer 𝑎.
Therefore 𝑛 = 3(5𝑎) so it is divisible by 3.
Similarly, 𝑛 = 5(3𝑎) so it is divisible by 5.
8 𝑛3 − 𝑛
= 𝑛(𝑛2 − 1)
= (𝑛 − 1)(𝑛)(𝑛 + 1)
Since 𝑛 is odd, 𝑛 − 1 and 𝑛 + 1 are consecutive even numbers, so their product
must be divisible by 8. (See proof in question 5c.)
Since 𝑛 − 1, 𝑛, and 𝑛 + 1 are three consecutive integers, one of them must be a
multiple of 3, therefore their product must be divisible by 3.
Therefore 𝑛3 − 𝑛 is divisible by both 3 and 8.
Since 3 and 8 have no common factors, it must therefore be divisible by 3 × 8 =
24.
9 If 𝑛 is not divisible by 3, then it must be either one greater than or one less than a
multiple of 3.
Therefore 𝑛 = 3𝑚 + 𝑎, where 𝑚 is an integer and 𝑎 is either 1 or −1.
Therefore
𝑛2 + 2

= (3𝑚 + 𝑎)2 + 2
= 9𝑚2 + 6𝑚𝑎 + 𝑎2 + 2
= 9𝑚2 + 6𝑚𝑎 + 1 + 2 (since 𝑎2 = 1)
= 9𝑚2 + 6𝑚𝑎 + 3
= 3(3𝑚2 + 2𝑚𝑎 + 1)
Therefore 𝑛2 + 2 is divisible by 3.
10a (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 𝑛−1 − 𝑥 𝑛−2 + 𝑥 𝑛−3 − 𝑥 𝑛−4 + ⋯ + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)

= (𝑥 + 1)𝑥 𝑛−1 − (𝑥 + 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 + (𝑥 + 1)𝑥 𝑛−3 − (𝑥 + 1)𝑥 𝑛−4 + ⋯ + (𝑥 + 1)𝑥 2
− (𝑥 + 1)𝑥 + (𝑥 + 1)
= 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥 𝑛−1 − 𝑥 𝑛−1 − 𝑥 𝑛−2 + 𝑥 𝑛−2 + 𝑥 𝑛−3 − 𝑥 𝑛−3 − 𝑥 𝑛−4 + ⋯ + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2
−𝑥+𝑥+1
= 𝑥𝑛 + 0 + 0 + ⋯ + 0 + 1
= 𝑥𝑛 + 1
10b i If 𝑛 is odd,
2𝑛 + 1
= (2 + 1)(2𝑛−1 − 2𝑛−2 + ⋯ − 2 + 1)
= 3(2𝑛−1 − 2𝑛−2 + ⋯ − 2 + 1)
Therefore 2𝑛 + 1 is divisible by 3.
10b ii If 𝑛 is odd,
2𝑚𝑛 + 1
= (2𝑚 )𝑛 + 1
= (2𝑚 + 1)((2𝑚 )𝑛−1 − (2𝑚 )𝑛−2 + ⋯ − (2𝑚 ) + 1)
Therefore 2𝑚𝑛 + 1 is divisible by 2𝑚 + 1.


𝑚
Suppose √7 = where 𝑚 and 𝑛 are integers with 𝑛 ≥ 1 and their HCF is 1. That
𝑛
is, they have been reduced to lowest terms.
Squaring and re-arranging gives
7𝑛2 = 𝑚2
Thus 𝑚2 is divisible by 7.
If 𝑚 were not divisible by 7 then 𝑚2 would not be divisible by 7.
Hence 𝑚 is also divisible by 7. So let 𝑚 = 7𝑝 and write
7𝑛2 = 49𝑝2
or 𝑛2 = 7𝑚2
Thus 𝑛2 is divisible by 7.
Now if 𝑛 were not divisible by 7 then 𝑛2 would not be divisible by 7.
Hence 𝑛 is also divisible by 7.
That is, 7 is a common factor of 𝑚 and 𝑛.
But the HCF is 1, so there is a contradiction.
11b Proof by contradiction:

𝑚
Suppose log 3 7 = where 𝑚 and 𝑛 are integers with 𝑛 ≥ 1 and their HCF is 1.
𝑛
That is, they have been reduced to lowest terms.
By definition,
𝑚
3𝑛 = 7
Raising both sides to the power 𝑛,
3𝑚 = 7𝑛
But this implies that 3 divides 7𝑛 which is impossible as the only factors of this
number are powers of 7.
This is a contradiction, hence log 3 7 is irrational.

12 If 𝑎 is not even, then 𝑎 is odd and 𝑎 = 2𝑚 + 1 for some integer 𝑚.

Therefore 𝑎2 = 4𝑚2 + 4𝑚 + 1
= 2(2𝑚2 + 2𝑚) + 1
Therefore 𝑎2 is odd (and not even).
Proving this proves the contrapositive: if 𝑎2 is even then 𝑎 is odd.
2
13a (√𝑥 − √𝑦) ≥ 0
𝑥 − 2√𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 ≥ 0
𝑥 + 𝑦 ≥ 2√𝑥𝑦
1
13b Substituting 𝑦 = 𝑥 into the inequality derived above:
1 𝑥
𝑥+ ≥ 2√
𝑥 𝑥
1
𝑥+ ≥2 (1)
𝑥
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(1 + 𝑎𝑏)
= 𝑎 + 𝑎2 𝑏 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏2
= 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏2 + 𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝑏
= 𝑎(1 + 𝑏2 ) + 𝑏(1 + 𝑎2 )
1 1
= 𝑎𝑏 (𝑏 + ) + 𝑎𝑏 (𝑎 + )
𝑏 𝑎
≥ 𝑎𝑏(2) + 𝑎𝑏(2) using (1)
= 4𝑎𝑏
Therefore
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(1 + 𝑎𝑏) ≥ 4𝑎𝑏

14a A. When 𝑛 = 1,
LHS = 2 × 2 = 4
RHS = 1 × 22 = 4
Therefore the result is true for 𝑛 = 1.

𝑘
∑(𝑟 + 1) × 2𝑟 = 𝑘 × 2𝑘+1
𝑟=1

𝑘+1
∑(𝑟 + 1) × 2𝑟 = (𝑘 + 1) × 2𝑘+2
𝑟=1

𝑘+1
∑(𝑟 + 1) × 2𝑟
𝑟=1
𝑘
= (∑(𝑟 + 1) × 2𝑟 ) + (𝑘 + 1 + 1) × 2𝑘+1
𝑟=1
= 𝑘 × 2𝑘+1 + (𝑘 + 2) × 2𝑘+1
= (2𝑘 + 2) × 2𝑘+1
= (𝑘 + 1) × 2𝑘+2
as required.

14b A. When 𝑛 = 1,
LHS = 1(1 + 1) = 2
1
RHS = × 1 × (1 + 1) × (1 + 2) × (3 + 1) = 1
12

𝑘
1
∑ 𝑟 2 (𝑟 + 1) = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(3𝑘 + 1)
12
𝑟=1

𝑘+1
1
∑ 𝑟 2 (𝑟 + 1) = (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3)(3𝑘 + 4)
12
𝑟=1

𝑘+1
∑ 𝑟 2 (𝑟 + 1)
𝑟=1
𝑘
= (∑ 𝑟 2 (𝑟 + 1)) + (𝑘 + 1)2 (𝑘 + 2)
𝑟=1
1
= 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(3𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)2 (𝑘 + 2)
12
1
= 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(3𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)2 (𝑘 + 2)
12
1
= 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(3𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 3 + 4𝑘 2 + 5𝑘 + 2)
12
1
= (𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(3𝑘 + 1) + 12(𝑘 3 + 4𝑘 2 + 5𝑘 + 2))
12
1
= (𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(3𝑘 + 1) + 12(𝑘 3 + 4𝑘 2 + 5𝑘 + 2))
12
1
= (3𝑘 4 + 10𝑘 3 + 9𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 12𝑘 3 + 48𝑘 2 + 60𝑘 + 24)
12
1
= (3𝑘 4 + 22𝑘 3 + 57𝑘 2 + 62𝑘 + 24)
12

1
= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3)(3𝑘 + 4)
12
as required.
15a A. When 𝑛 = 1, 6𝑛 + 4 = 10

6𝑘 + 4 = 5𝑚 for some integer 𝑚.
6𝑘+1 + 4 is divisible by 5.
6𝑘 + 4 = 5𝑚
6(6𝑘 + 4) = 6𝑘+1 + 24
6𝑘+1 + 4
= 6(6𝑘 + 4) − 20
= 6(5𝑚) − 20
= 5(6𝑚 − 4)
which is divisible by 5.

15b A. When 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛3 + 2𝑛 = 3

𝑘 3 + 2𝑘 = 3𝑚 for some integer 𝑚.
(𝑘 + 1)3 + 2(𝑘 + 1) is divisible by 3.
(𝑘 + 1)3 + 2(𝑘 + 1)
= 𝑘 3 + 3𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 1 + 2𝑘 + 2
= 𝑘 3 + 3𝑘 2 + 5𝑘 + 3
= (𝑘 3 + 2𝑘) + 3𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 3
= 3(𝑚 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 1) from the inductive assumption
which must be divisible by 3.
16a A. When 𝑛 = 1,
1
LHS = 1 −
22
3
=
4
1 1
RHS = (1 + )
2 2
3
=
4


1 1 1 1 1
(1 − 2
) (1 − 2 ) … (1 − 2
) = (1 + )
2 3 (𝑘 + 1) 2 𝑘+1
1 1 1 1 1 1
(1 − ) (1 − ) … (1 − ) (1 − ) = (1 + )
22 32 (𝑘 + 1)2 (𝑘 + 2)2 2 𝑘+2
1 1 1 1
(1 − 2
) (1 − 2 ) … (1 − 2
) (1 − )
2 3 (𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 + 2)2
1 1 1
= (1 + ) (1 − )
2 𝑘+1 (𝑘 + 2)2
1 𝑘 + 2 (𝑘 + 2)2 − 1
= ( )( )
2 𝑘+1 (𝑘 + 2)2
1 1 𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 3
= ( )( )
2 𝑘+1 𝑘+2
1 1 (𝑘 + 3)(𝑘 + 1)
= ( )( )
2 𝑘+1 𝑘+2
1 𝑘+3
= ( )
2 𝑘+2
1 1
= (1 + )
2 𝑘+2
as required.
16b As 𝑛 → ∞,
1 1 1 1
(1 + ) → (1 + 0) =
2 𝑛+1 2 2
1
Therefore the limit is 2.

17a A. When 𝑛 = 2, 𝑛(𝑛 + 2) = 2(4) = 8

B. Assume the statement is true for the positive even integer 𝑛 = 𝑘.

𝑘(𝑘 + 2) = 4𝑚 for some integer 𝑚.
(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 4) is divisible by 4.
(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 4)
= 𝑘(𝑘 + 2) + 4(𝑘 + 2)
= 4𝑚 + 4(𝑘 + 2) (from the inductive assumption)
= 4(𝑚 + 𝑘 + 2)
17b A. When 𝑛 = 1, 3𝑛 + 7𝑛 = 10
B. Assume the statement is true for the positive odd integer 𝑛 = 𝑘.

3𝑛 + 7𝑛 = 10𝑚 for some integer 𝑚.
3𝑛+2 + 7𝑛+2 is divisible by 10.
3𝑛+2 + 7𝑛+2
= 9 × 3𝑛 + 49 × 7𝑛
= 9(3𝑛 + 7𝑛 ) + 40 × 7𝑛
= 9(10𝑚) + 40 × 7𝑛 (by the inductive hypothesis)

= 10(9𝑚 + 4 × 7𝑛 )
17c A. When 𝑛 = 1, 4𝑛 + 5𝑛 + 6𝑛 = 15.

B. Assume the statement is true for the positive odd integer 𝑛 = 𝑘.

4𝑘 + 5𝑘 + 6𝑘 = 15𝑚 for some integer 𝑚.
4𝑘+2 + 5𝑘+2 + 6𝑘+2 is divisible by 15.
4𝑘+2 + 5𝑘+2 + 6𝑘+2
= 16 × 4𝑘 + 25 × 5𝑘 + 36 × 6𝑘
= 16(4𝑘 + 5𝑘 + 6𝑘 ) + 9 × 5𝑘 + 20 × 6𝑘
= 16(15𝑚) + 45 × 5𝑘−1 + 60 × 6𝑘−1
= 15(16𝑚 + 3 × 5𝑘−1 + 4 × 6𝑘−1 )
which is a multiple of 15.
(Note that 5𝑘−1 and 6𝑘−1 are integers because 𝑘 ≥ 1.)
18 A. When 𝑛 = 1, 2𝑛2 + 2𝑛 − 1 = 3.


𝑇𝑘 = 2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 − 1
𝑇𝑘+1 = 2(𝑘 + 1)2 + 2(𝑘 + 1) − 1
= 2𝑘 2 + 6𝑘 + 3
By definition,
𝑇𝑘+1 = 𝑇𝑘 + 4(𝑘 + 1)
= 2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 − 1 + 4𝑘 + 4 (from the inductive assumption)
= 2𝑘 2 + 6𝑘 + 3
as required.
19 A. When 𝑛 = 1, 𝑎𝑛 = 1.

𝑎𝑘 < 3.
𝑎𝑘+1 < 3.
𝑎𝑘 < 3
2𝑎𝑘 + 1 < 7
√2𝑎𝑘 + 1 < √7 < 3
𝑎𝑘+1 < 3
as required.

20 A. When 𝑛 = 7,
𝑛! = 5040
3𝑛 = 2187
B. Assume the statement is true for the positive integer 𝑛 = 𝑘, 𝑘 ≥ 7.

𝑘! > 3𝑘
(𝑘 + 1)! > 3𝑘+1
𝑘! > 3𝑘
(𝑘 + 1)𝑘! > (𝑘 + 1)3𝑘
(𝑘 + 1)! > (𝑘 + 1)3𝑘
Further,
(𝑘 + 1)3𝑘 > 3 × 3𝑘 since 𝑘 + 1 > 3
Therefore
(𝑘 + 1)! > 3 × 3𝑘
(𝑘 + 1)! > 3𝑘+1
as required.

21 A. When 𝑛 = 1, the 𝑛th derivative of 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 is:

𝑑
(𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 ) = 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥
𝑑𝑥
= (−1)1 (𝑥 − 1)𝑒 −𝑥
= (−1)𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑛)𝑒 −𝑥

That is, assume that the 𝑘th derivative of 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 is
(−1)𝑘 (𝑥 − 𝑘)𝑒 −𝑥
Now prove the statement for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. That is, prove that the (𝑘 + 1)th
derivative of 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 is
(−1)𝑘+1 (𝑥 − (𝑘 + 1))𝑒 −𝑥

𝑑𝑘
(𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 ) = (−1)𝑘 (𝑥 − 𝑘)𝑒 −𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑘
Therefore
𝑑 𝑘+1
(𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑘+1
𝑑
= (−1)𝑘 (𝑥 − 𝑘)𝑒 −𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
= (−1)𝑘 ( (𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 ) − (𝑘𝑒 −𝑥 ))
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= (−1)𝑘 (𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑘𝑒 −𝑥 )
= (−1)𝑘 ((1 + 𝑘)𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 )
= −(−1)𝑘 (𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 − (𝑘 + 1)𝑒 −𝑥 )
= (−1)𝑘+1 (𝑥 − (𝑘 + 1))𝑒 −𝑥
as required.

22 We begin by showing that the sum of interior angles is equal to 180°(𝑛 − 2)

through induction.
A. When 𝑛 = 3, the polygon is a triangle with interior angles adding to 180.
180° = (𝑛 − 2) × 180°

That is, assume that the interior angle sum of a polygon with 𝑘 sides is
(𝑘 − 2) × 180°.
Now prove the statement for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. That is, prove that the interior angle sum
of a polygon with 𝑘 + 1 sides is
(𝑘 − 2 + 1) × 180°.
To show this, choose any two vertices of the polygon that are separated by just
one other vertex, and draw a line between them:
This divides the (𝑘 + 1)-sided polygon into a triangle and a 𝑘-sided polygon.
The sum of internal angles of the (𝑘 + 1)-sided polygon equals the sum of
internal angles of the triangle, and the sum of internal angles of the 𝑘-sided
polygon.
From the inductive assumption, the internal angles of the 𝑘-sided polygon total
(𝑘 − 2) × 180°. Adding this to the 180° from the triangle gives (𝑘 − 2 + 1) ×
180° as required.
for all integers 𝑛 ≥ 3. Since all polygons have at least three sides, this completes
the proof that the sum of interior angles is equal to 180°(𝑛 − 2).
At any vertex of the polygon, interior and exterior angles are complementary.

Therefore the sum of all exterior and all interior angles of the polygon equals
180° × 𝑛.
Therefore the sum of all exterior angles is
180° × 𝑛 − 180°(𝑛 − 2)
= 180° × 2
= 360°
as required.
23a A. When 𝑛 = 1, 2n = 2

2𝑘 > 𝑘
2𝑘+1 > 𝑘 + 1
2𝑘 > 𝑘
2(2𝑘 ) > 2𝑘
2𝑘+1 > 𝑘 + 𝑘
2𝑘+1 > 𝑘 + 1

23b For 𝑛 ≥ 2, and using the result proved above:

1 < 𝑛 < 2𝑛
Taking 𝑛th roots:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
√1 < √𝑛 < √2𝑛
𝑛
1 < √𝑛 < 2
𝑛
23c Since 1 < √𝑛 < 2, it cannot be an integer and therefore it must be irrational. The
contrapositive of the given fact has been used.
𝑥+𝑦
24a Using the result ≥ √𝑥𝑦 three times:
2
𝑎+𝑏
≥ √𝑎𝑏
2
𝑐+𝑑
≥ √𝑏𝑐
2
𝑎+𝑏 𝑐+𝑑
( 2 )+( 2 ) 𝑎+𝑏 𝑐+𝑑
≥ √( )( )
2 2 2
𝑎+𝑏 𝑐+𝑑
( 2 )+( 2 )
≥ √√𝑎𝑏√𝑐𝑑
2
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+𝑑 4
≥ √𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑
4
24b i
1 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + )
4 3
1 1
= (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) (1 + )
4 3
1 4
= (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ( ) ( )
4 3
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
=
3
as required

24b ii
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
Let 𝑑 =
3
From part a,
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+𝑑 4
≥ √𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑
4
1 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 4 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + ) ≥ √𝑎𝑏𝑐 ( )
4 3 3
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 4 4 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
≥ √𝑎𝑏𝑐 √( )
3 3
4 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
Dividing through by √( ):
3
3
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 4 1
( ) ≥ (𝑎𝑏𝑐)4
3
4
Raising both sides to the power 3:
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 1
( ) ≥ (𝑎𝑏𝑐)3
3
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 3
≥ √𝑎𝑏𝑐
3
25 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 100𝑎 + 10𝑏 + 𝑐

𝑐𝑏𝑎 = 100𝑐 + 10𝑏 + 𝑎
𝑎𝑏𝑐 − 𝑐𝑏𝑎 = (100𝑎 − 100𝑐) − (𝑎 − 𝑐)
Let 𝑑 = 𝑎 − 𝑐
Then 100𝑎 − 100𝑐 = 𝑑00
𝑎𝑏𝑐 − 𝑐𝑏𝑎 = 𝑑00 − 𝑑
Working through the subtraction, the digits of 𝑎𝑏𝑐 − 𝑐𝑏𝑎 are (𝑑 − 1), 9, (10 − 𝑑).
Since 𝑎 − 𝑐 > 1 we know that 𝑑 − 1 is still greater than zero, hence 𝑎𝑏𝑐 − 𝑐𝑏𝑎 is
still a three-digit number.
When reversed, the digits of this difference are (10 − 𝑑), 9, (𝑑 − 1).

Therefore, the difference added to its reverse is:

100(𝑑 − 1) + 10(9) + 1(10 − 𝑑) + 100(10 − 𝑑) + 10(9) + 1(𝑑 − 1)
= 100(𝑑 − 1 + 10 − 𝑑) + 10(9 + 9) + 1(10 − 𝑑 + 𝑑 − 1)
= 100(9) + 10(18) + 1(9)
= 900 + 180 + 9
= 1089

Chapter 3 worked solutions – Complex numbers II: de Moivre and Euler

1a (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 )5
= (cis 𝜃)5
= cis 5𝜃
1b (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 )−3

= (cis 𝜃)−3
= cis(−3𝜃)
1c (cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃 )4
= (cis 2𝜃)4
= cis(4 × 2𝜃)
= cis 8𝜃
1d cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃
= cos(−𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(−𝜃)
= cis(−𝜃)
1e (cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃)−7

−7
= (cis(−𝜃))
= cis(−7 × −𝜃)
= cis 7𝜃
1f (cos 3𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 3𝜃)2

2
= (cis(−3𝜃))
= cis(2 × −3𝜃)
= cis(−6𝜃)

2a
(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)6 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)−3
(cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃)4
(cis 𝜃) (cis 𝜃)−3
6
= 4
(cis(−𝜃))
cis 6𝜃 × cis(−3𝜃)
=
cis(−4𝜃)
cis(6𝜃 − 3𝜃)
=
cis(−4𝜃)
cis 3𝜃
=
cis(−4𝜃)
= cis(3𝜃 − (−4𝜃))
= cis 7𝜃
2b
(cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃)5 (cos 2𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 2𝜃)−4
(cos 4𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 4𝜃)−7
−4
(cis 3𝜃)5 (cis(−2𝜃))
= −7
(cis(−4𝜃))
cis 15𝜃 × cis 8𝜃
=
cis 28𝜃
cis(15𝜃 + 8𝜃)
=
cis 28𝜃
cis 23𝜃
=
cis 28𝜃
= cis(23𝜃 − 28𝜃)
= cis(−5𝜃)
3a
𝜋 𝜋 4
(cos + 𝑖 sin )
4 4
𝜋 4
= (cis )
4
𝜋
= cis (4 × )
4
= cis 𝜋
= cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋
= −1 + 0𝑖
= −1

3b
𝜋 𝜋 3
(cos + 𝑖 sin )
2 2
𝜋 3
= (cis )
2
𝜋
= cis (3 × )
2
3𝜋
= cis
2
3𝜋 3𝜋
= cos + 𝑖 sin
2 2
= 0 − 1𝑖
= −𝑖
3c
𝜋 𝜋 5
(cos + 𝑖 sin )
6 6
𝜋 5
= (cis )
6
𝜋
= cis (5 × )
6
5𝜋
= cis
6
5𝜋 5𝜋
= cos + 𝑖 sin
6 6
√3 1
=− + 𝑖
2 2
3d
2𝜋 2𝜋 −2
(cos + 𝑖 sin )
3 3
2𝜋 −2
= (cis )
3
2𝜋
= cis (−2 × )
3
−4𝜋
= cis ( )
3
4𝜋 4𝜋
= cos − 𝑖 sin
3 3
1 √3
=− + 𝑖
2 2

3e
3𝜋 3𝜋 −6
(cos − 𝑖 sin )
8 8
−6
−3𝜋
= (cis ( ))
8
−3𝜋
= cis (−6 × )
8
9𝜋
= cis
4
9𝜋 9𝜋
= cos + 𝑖 sin
4 4
1 1
= + 𝑖
√2 √2
3f
5𝜋 5𝜋 4
(cos − 𝑖 sin )
12 12
4
5𝜋
= (cis (− ))
12
5𝜋
= cis (− )
3
5𝜋 5𝜋
= cos − 𝑖 sin
3 3
1 √3
= + 𝑖
2 2
4a 1+𝑖
1
= √12 + 12 cis (tan−1 ( ))
1
𝜋
= √2cis
4
4b (1 + 𝑖)17
𝜋 17
= (√2 cis )
4
17 𝜋
= (√2) cis ( × 17)
4
17𝜋
= 256√2cis ( )
4

𝜋
= 256√2 cis
4
𝜋 𝜋
= 256√2 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
4 4
1 𝑖
= 256√2 ( + )
√2 √2
= 256 + 256𝑖
5a 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖√3
2 √3
= √12 + (√3) cis (tan−1 )
1
𝜋
= 2cis
3
5b 𝑧11
𝜋 11
= (2cis )
3
11
𝜋
= 2 cis ( × 11)
3
11𝜋
= 2048 cis
3
5𝜋
= 2048 cis
3
5𝜋 5𝜋
= 2048 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
3 3
1 √3
= 2048 ( − 𝑖)
2 2
= 1024 − 1024√3𝑖
6a 𝑧 = −√3 + 𝑖
|𝑧|
2
= √(−√3) + 12
= √3 + 1
= √4
=2

Arg(𝑧)
1
= 𝜋 − tan−1
√3
𝜋
=𝜋−
6
5𝜋
=
6
6b 𝑧 7 + 64𝑧
5𝜋 7 5𝜋
= (2cis ) + 64 (2cis )
6 6
5𝜋 5𝜋
= 27 cis ( × 7) + 128cis ( )
6 6
35𝜋 5𝜋
= 128cis + 128cis
6 6
35𝜋 5𝜋
= 128 (cis + cis )
6 6
35𝜋 35𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋
= 128 (cos + 𝑖 sin + cos + 𝑖 sin )
6 6 6 6
√3 1 √3 1
= 128 ( − 𝑖− + 𝑖)
2 2 2 2
=0
7a √3 − 𝑖
2 1
= √(√3) + 12 cis (tan−1(− ))
√3
𝜋
= 2cis (− )
6
7
7b (√3 − 𝑖)
7
𝜋
= (2cis (− ))
6
𝜋
= 27 cis (− × 7)
6
7𝜋
= 128cis (− )
6

5𝜋
= 128cis
6
7
7c (√3 − 𝑖)
5𝜋
= 128cis
6
5𝜋 5𝜋
= 128 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
6 6
√3 1
= 128 (− + 𝑖)
2 2
= −64√3 + 64𝑖
8a (−1 − 𝑖√3)
2 √3
= √12 + (√3) cis (−𝜋 + tan−1 )
1
2𝜋
= 2cis (− )
3
5
8b (−1 − 𝑖√3)
5
2𝜋
= (2cis (− ))
3
2𝜋
= 25 cis (− × 5)
3
10𝜋
= 32 cis (− )
3
2𝜋
= 32 cis
3
5
8c (−1 − 𝑖√3)
2𝜋
= 32 cis
3
2𝜋 2𝜋
= 32 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
3 3

1 𝑖√3
= 32 (− + )
2 2
= −16 + 16𝑖√3
9a √2 − 𝑖√2
2 2 √2
= √(√2) + (−√2) cis (tan−1 (− ))
√2
𝜋
= √2 + 2 cis (− )
4
𝜋
= 2cis (− )
4
9b 𝑧 22
22
𝜋
= (2cis (− ))
4
𝜋
= 222 cis (− × 22)
4
11𝜋
= 222 cis (− )
2
𝜋
= 222 cis
2
= 222 𝑖

Chapter 3 worked solutions – Complex numbers II

10a (1 + 𝑖)10
10
𝜋
= (√2 cis ( ))
4
10 𝜋
= (√2) cis ( × 10)
4
5𝜋
= 25 cis ( )
2
5𝜋
= 25 cis ( − 2𝜋)
2
π
= 25 cis ( )
2
= 25 𝑖
which is purely imaginary
9
10b (1 − 𝑖√3)
9
𝜋
= (2 cis (− ))
3
𝜋
= 29 cis (− × 9)
3
= 29 cis(−3𝜋)
= 29 cis(−𝜋)
= −29
which is real
10c (−1 + 𝑖)4

4
3𝜋
= (√2 cis ( ))
4
4
= (√2) cis(3𝜋)
= 22 cis(𝜋)
= 4 cis(𝜋)

= −4
Hence −1 + 𝑖 is a fourth root of −4.
6
10d (−√3 − 𝑖)
6
5𝜋
= (2 cis (− ))
6
= 26 cis(−5𝜋)
= 26 cis(𝜋)
= −26
= −64
Hence −√3 − 𝑖 is a sixth root of −64.
11 If 𝑘 is a multiple of 4 then 𝑘 = 4𝑛 where 𝑛 is an integer. Thus,

(−1 + 𝑖)𝑘
= (−1 + 𝑖)4𝑛
4𝑛
3𝜋
= (√2 cis ( ))
4
𝑛
4
= ((√2) cis(3𝜋))
= (−22 )𝑛
= (−4)𝑛
which is real as required
𝑚
12a i (√3 + 𝑖)
𝑚
𝜋
= (2 cis ( ))
6
𝑚𝜋
= 2𝑚 cis ( )
6

𝑚𝜋
which is real when is a multiple of 𝜋. The lowest positive integer for which
6
this is true is when 𝑚 = 6.
𝑚
12a ii (√3 + 𝑖)
𝑚
𝜋
= (2 cis ( ))
6
𝑚𝜋
= 2𝑚 cis ( )
6
𝑚𝜋 𝜋
which is imaginary when is of the form 𝑛𝜋 ± 2 where 𝑛 is an integer. The
6
lowest positive integer for which this is true is when 𝑚 = 3.
6
12b i (√3 + 𝑖)
6𝜋
= 26 cis ( )
6
= −26
= −64
3
12b ii (√3 + 𝑖)
3𝜋
= 23 cis ( )
6
= 23 𝑖
= 8𝑖
13a (1 + 𝑖)𝑛 + (1 − 𝑖)𝑛

𝑛 𝑛
𝜋 𝜋
= (√2 cis ( )) + (√2 cis (− ))
4 4
𝑛 𝑛𝜋 𝑛 𝑛𝜋
= (√2) cis ( ) + (√2) cis (− )
4 4
𝑛 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
= (√2) [cis ( ) + cis (− )]
4 4
𝑛 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
= (√2) [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( ) + cos ( ) − 𝑖 sin ( )]
4 4 4 4

𝑛 𝑛𝜋
= (√2) (2 cos ( ))
4
𝑛 𝑛𝜋
= 2(√2) cos ( )
4
which is real
𝑛 𝑛𝜋
13b 2(√2) cos ( 4 ) = 0
𝑛𝜋 𝜋
= 2𝜆𝜋 ±
4 2
𝑛 = 8𝜆 ± 2𝜋
Since 𝑛 is a positive integer, 𝑛 = 2, 6, 10, 14, 18…
𝑛 𝑛
14 (−√3 + 𝑖) − (−√3 − 𝑖)
𝑛 𝑛
5𝜋 5𝜋
= (2 cis ( )) − (2 cis (− ))
6 6
5𝑛𝜋 5𝑛𝜋
= 2𝑛 cis ( ) − 2𝑛 cis (− )
6 6
5𝑛𝜋 5𝑛𝜋
= 2𝑛 [cis ( ) − cis (− )]
6 6
5𝑛𝜋 5𝑛𝜋
= 2𝑛 [cis ( ) − cis (− )]
6 6
5𝑛𝜋 5𝑛𝜋 5𝑛𝜋 5𝑛𝜋
= 2𝑛 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( ) − (cos ( ) − 𝑖 sin ( ))]
6 6 6 6
= 2𝑛 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( ) − cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
6 6 6 6
5𝑛𝜋
= 2𝑛 [2𝑖 sin ( )]
6
5𝑛𝜋
= 2𝑛+1 𝑖 sin ( )
6
5𝑛𝜋
= 2𝑛+1 sin ( )𝑖
6

2𝑛 2𝑛
15a (1 + √3𝑖) + (1 − √3𝑖)
2𝑛 2𝑛
𝜋 𝜋
= (2 cis ( )) + (2 cis (− ))
3 3
2𝑛𝜋 2𝑛𝜋
= 22𝑛 cis ( ) + 22𝑛 cis (− )
3 3
2𝑛𝜋 2𝑛𝜋
= 22𝑛 [cis ( ) + cis (− )]
3 3
= 22𝑛 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( ) + cos ( ) − 𝑖 sin ( )]
3 3 3 3
2𝑛𝜋
= 22𝑛 [2 cos ( )]
3
2𝑛𝜋
= 22𝑛+1 cos ( )
3
If 𝑛 is divisible by 3 then 𝑛 = 3𝜆 where 𝜆 is an integer. Hence
2𝑛 2𝑛
(1 + √3𝑖) + (1 − √3𝑖)
2(3𝜆)𝜋
= 22𝑛+1 cos ( )
3
= 22𝑛+1 cos(2𝜋𝜆)
= 22𝑛+1
2𝑛𝜋
15b 22𝑛+1 cos ( ) from part a, since 𝑛 is not divisible by 3,
3
2𝑛𝜋
22𝑛+1 cos ( )
3
2𝜋 4𝜋 8𝜋
= 22𝑛+1 cos (± ) , 22𝑛+1 cos (± ) , 22𝑛+1 cos (± ) …
3 3 3
1
= 22𝑛+1 (− )
2
= −22𝑛

16
1 + cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃 𝑛
( )
1 + cos 2𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 2𝜃
𝑛
1 + cos2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃
=( )
1 + cos2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 2𝜃
𝑛
cos 2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃
=( 2 )
cos 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 2𝜃
𝑛
2 cos 2 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃
=( )
2 cos 2 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 2𝜃
𝑛
2 cos 2 𝜃 + 2𝑖 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
=( )
2 cos 2 𝜃 − 2𝑖 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
2 cos 𝜃 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) 𝑛

=( )
2 cos 𝜃 (cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
𝑛
(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
=( )
(cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
cis(𝜃) 𝑛
=( )
cis(−𝜃)
𝑛
= (cis(2𝜃))
= cis(2𝑛𝜃)
17 (1 + cos 𝛼 + 𝑖 sin 𝛼)𝑘 + (1 + cos 𝛼 − 𝑖 sin 𝛼)𝑘

𝑘 𝑘
1 2 2
1 2
1 2
1
= (1 + cos 𝛼 − sin 𝛼 + 𝑖 sin 𝛼) + (1 + cos 𝛼 − sin 𝛼 − 𝑖 sin 𝛼)
2 2 2 2
𝑘 𝑘
12 2
1 2
1 2
1
= (cos 𝛼 + 1 − sin 𝛼 + 𝑖 sin 𝛼) + (cos 𝛼 + 1 − sin 𝛼 − 𝑖 sin 𝛼)
2 2 2 2
𝑘 𝑘
12 2
1 2
1 2
1
= (cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛼 + 𝑖 sin 𝛼) + (cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛼 − 𝑖 sin 𝛼)
2 2 2 2
𝑘 𝑘
1 1
= (2 cos2 𝛼 + 𝑖 sin 𝛼) + (2 cos2 𝛼 − 𝑖 sin 𝛼)
2 2
1 1 1 𝑘 1 1 1 𝑘
= (2 cos2 𝛼 + 2𝑖 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼) + (2 cos2 𝛼 − 2𝑖 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼)
2 2 2 2 2 2

𝑘
1 1 1 𝑘 1 𝑘
1 1 𝑘
= (2 cos ( 𝛼)) (cos 𝛼 + 𝑖 sin 𝛼) + (2 cos ( 𝛼)) (cos 𝛼 − 𝑖 sin 𝛼)
2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑘
1 1 𝑘 1 𝑘
1 𝑘
= (2 cos ( 𝛼)) (cis 𝛼) + (2 cos ( 𝛼)) (cis (− 𝛼))
2 2 2 2
𝑘
1 1 𝑘 1 𝑘
= (2 cos ( 𝛼)) [(cis 𝛼) + (cis (− 𝛼)) ]
2 2 2
𝑘
1 1 1
= (2 cos ( 𝛼)) [cis ( 𝑘𝛼) + cis (− 𝑘𝛼)]
2 2 2
𝑘
1 1 1 1 1
= (2 cos ( 𝛼)) [cos ( 𝑘𝛼) + 𝑖 sin ( 𝑘𝛼) + cos ( 𝑘𝛼) − 𝑖 sin ( 𝑘𝛼)]
2 2 2 2 2
𝑘
1 1
= (2 cos ( 𝛼)) [2 cos ( 𝑘𝛼)]
2 2
1 1
= 2𝑘+1 cos𝑘 ( 𝛼) cos ( 𝑘𝛼)
2 2
1 1
= 2𝑘+1 cos ( 𝑘𝛼) cos𝑘 ( 𝛼)
2 2


1a cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃
= (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)3
= cos3 𝜃 + 3 cos2 𝜃 (𝑖 sin 𝜃) + 3 cos 𝜃 (𝑖 sin 𝜃)2 + (𝑖 sin 𝜃)3
= cos3 𝜃 + 3𝑖 cos2 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin3 𝜃
= cos3 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + 𝑖(3 cos2 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − sin3 𝜃)
1a i Equating the real components:

cos 3𝜃 = cos 3 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃
= cos 3 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 (1 − cos2 𝜃)
= cos 3 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 + 3 cos3 𝜃
= 4 cos3 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃
1aii Equating imaginary components:

sin 3𝜃 = 3 cos2 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − sin3 𝜃
= 3(1 − sin2 𝜃) sin 𝜃 − sin3 𝜃
= 3 sin 𝜃 − 3 sin3 𝜃 − sin3 𝜃
= 3 sin 𝜃 − 4 sin3 𝜃
1b tan 3𝜃
sin 3𝜃
=
cos 3𝜃
3 sin 𝜃 − 4 sin3 𝜃
=
4 cos3 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃
3 sin 𝜃 − 4 sin3 𝜃 cos3 𝜃
= ÷
4 cos3 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 cos3 𝜃
3 tan 𝜃 sec2 𝜃 − 4 tan3 𝜃
=
4 − 3 sec2 𝜃
3 tan 𝜃 (tan2 𝜃 + 1) − 4 tan3 𝜃
=
4 − 3(tan2 𝜃 + 1)
3 tan3 𝜃 + 3 tan 𝜃 − 4 tan3 𝜃
=
4 − 3 tan2 𝜃 − 3
3 tan 𝜃 − tan3 𝜃
=
1 − 3 tan2 𝜃

2 cos 4𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 4𝜃
= cos4 𝜃 + 4 cos3 𝜃 (𝑖 sin 𝜃) + 6 cos 2 𝜃 (𝑖 sin 𝜃)2 + 4 cos 𝜃 (𝑖 sin 𝜃)3 + (𝑖 sin 𝜃)4
= cos4 𝜃 + 4𝑖 cos3 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 6 cos2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 − 4𝑖 cos 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 + sin4 𝜃
2a Equating the real components of the above equation:

cos 4𝜃 = cos 4 𝜃 − 6 cos2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + sin4 𝜃
2b Equating the imaginary components of the above equation:

sin 4𝜃 = 4 cos 3 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 4 cos 𝜃 sin3 𝜃
2c tan 4𝜃
sin 4𝜃
=
cos 4𝜃
4 cos3 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 4 cos 𝜃 sin3 𝜃
=
cos 4 𝜃 − 6 cos2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + sin4 𝜃
4 cos3 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 4 cos 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 cos 4 𝜃
= ÷
cos 4 𝜃 − 6 cos2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + sin4 𝜃 cos 4 𝜃
4 tan 𝜃 − 4 tan3 𝜃
=
1 − 6 tan2 𝜃 + tan4 𝜃
3a 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑧 −𝑛
= (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑛 + (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)−𝑛
= cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 + cos 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃
= 2 cos 𝑛𝜃
3b (𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 )4
= 𝑧 4 + 4𝑧 3 𝑧 −1 + 6𝑧 2 𝑧 −2 + 4𝑧1 𝑧 −3 + 𝑧 −4
= 𝑧 4 + 4𝑧 2 + 6 + 4𝑧 −2 + 𝑧 −4
= (𝑧 4 + 𝑧 −4 ) + 4(𝑧 2 + 𝑧 −2 ) + 6

3c cos4 𝜃
4
1
= ( × 2 cos 𝜃)
2
4
1 −1
= ( (𝑧 + 𝑧 ))
2
1
= (𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 )4
16
1
= ((𝑧 4 + 𝑧 −4 ) + 4(𝑧 2 + 𝑧 −2 ) + 16)
16
1
= (2 cos 4𝜃 + 8 cos 2𝜃 + 16)
16
1 1
= cos 4𝜃 + cos 2𝜃 + 1
8 2
4 𝑧 𝑛 − 𝑧 −𝑛
= (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑛 − (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)−𝑛
= cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 − (cos 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)
= cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 − cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃
= 2𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃
sin4 𝜃
4
1
= ( × 2 sin 𝜃)
2
4
1
= ( (𝑧 − 𝑧 −1 ))
2𝑖
1
= (𝑧 − 𝑧 −1 )4
(2𝑖)4
1
= (𝑧 4 − 4𝑧 3 𝑧 −1 + 6𝑧 2 𝑧 −2 − 4𝑧𝑧 −3 + 𝑧 −4 )
24 𝑖 4
1
= ((𝑧 4 + 𝑧 −4 ) − 4(𝑧 2 + 𝑧 −2 ) + 6)
16
1
= (2 cos 4𝜃 − 8 cos 2𝜃 + 6)
16
cos 4𝜃 cos 2𝜃 3
= − +
8 2 8


5a Let 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃
From question 3,
𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑧 −𝑛
= 2 cos 𝑛𝜃
= 25 cos5 𝜃
= (2 cos 𝜃)5
= (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃)5
5
= (cis(𝜃) + cis(−𝜃))
= (𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 )5
= 𝑧 5 + 5𝑧 3 + 10𝑧 + 10𝑧 −1 + 5𝑧 −3 + 𝑧 −5
= (𝑧 5 + 𝑧 −5 ) + 5(𝑧 3 + 𝑧 −3 ) + 10(𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 )
= 2 cos(5𝜃) + 5(2 cos(3𝜃)) + 10(2 cos(𝜃))
= 2 cos 5𝜃 + 10 cos 3𝜃 + 20 cos 𝜃
Hence
25 cos5 𝜃 = 2 cos 5𝜃 + 10 cos 3𝜃 + 20 cos 𝜃
1
cos5 𝜃 = (2 cos 5𝜃 + 10 cos 3𝜃 + 20 cos 𝜃)
25
1
cos5 𝜃 = (cos 5𝜃 + 5 cos 3𝜃 + 10 cos 𝜃)
16
5b
𝜋
2
∫ cos5 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
2 1
=∫ (cos 5𝜃 + 5 cos 3𝜃 + 10 cos 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
0 16
𝜋
1 1 5 2
= [ ( sin 5𝜃 + sin 3𝜃 + 10 sin 𝜃)]
16 5 3 0
1 1 5𝜋 5 3𝜋 𝜋
= ( sin + sin + 10 sin )
16 5 2 3 2 2
1 1 5
= ( (1) + (−1) + 10(1))
16 5 3
8
=
15
6a cos 6𝛼 + i sin 6𝛼
= cis(6𝛼)
6
= (cis(𝛼))
= (cos 𝛼 + 𝑖 sin 𝛼)6

= cos6 𝛼 + 6𝑖 cos5 𝛼 sin 𝛼 + 15𝑖 2 cos 4 𝛼 sin2 𝛼 + 20𝑖 3 cos 3 𝛼 sin3 𝛼
+15𝑖 4 cos2 𝛼 sin4 𝛼 + 6𝑖 5 sin 𝛼 cos 5 𝛼 + 𝑖 6 sin6 𝛼
= cos6 𝛼 + 6𝑖 cos5 𝛼 sin 𝛼 − 15 cos4 𝛼 sin2 𝛼 − 20𝑖 cos 3 𝛼 sin3 𝛼
+15 cos 2 𝛼 sin4 𝛼 + 6𝑖 sin 𝛼 cos 5 𝛼 − sin6 𝛼
= (cos 6 𝛼 − 15 cos 4 𝛼 sin2 𝛼 + 15 cos 2 𝛼 sin4 𝛼 − sin6 𝛼)
+𝑖(6 cos5 𝛼 sin 𝛼 − 20 cos3 𝛼 sin3 𝛼 + 6 sin 𝛼 cos 5 𝛼)
Equating real and imaginary components
cos 6𝛼
= cos6 𝛼 − 15 cos4 𝛼 sin2 𝛼 + 15 cos 2 𝛼 sin4 𝛼 − sin6 𝛼
= cos6 𝛼 − 15 cos4 𝛼 (1 − cos2 𝛼) + 15 cos 2 𝛼 (1 − cos 2 𝛼)2 − (1 − cos2 𝛼)3
= cos6 𝛼 − 15 cos4 𝛼 (1 − cos2 𝛼) + 15 cos 2 𝛼 (1 − 2 cos2 𝛼 + cos4 𝛼)
−(1 − 3 cos2 𝛼 + 3 cos4 𝛼 − cos6 𝛼)
= 32 cos6 𝛼 − 48 cos 4 𝛼 + 18 cos2 𝛼 − 1
6b 32 cos 6 𝛼 − 48 cos 4 𝛼 + 18 cos2 𝛼 − 1 = 0

is solved when
cos 6𝛼 = 0
which is when
𝑛𝜋
𝛼= 12
for 𝑛 = 1, 3, 4, 5, 9, 11
Hence, letting 𝑥 = cos 𝛼, the equation

32𝑥 6 + 4𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0
has solutions when
𝑛𝜋
𝑥 = cos 12 for 𝑛 = 1, 3, 4, 5, 9, 11
6c The product of the roots is

𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋 9𝜋 11𝜋 −1
cos cos cos cos cos cos =
12 12 12 12 12 12 32
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 −1
(cos ) (cos ) (cos ) (− cos ) (cos ) (− cos ) =
12 4 12 12 4 12 32
𝜋 1 5𝜋 5𝜋 1 𝜋 1
(cos ) ( ) (cos ) (cos ) ( ) (cos ) =
12 √2 12 12 √2 12 32
1 𝜋 5𝜋 2 1
(cos cos ) =
2 12 12 32
𝜋 5𝜋 2 1
(cos cos ) =
12 12 16
𝜋 5𝜋 1
cos cos =±
12 12 4
𝜋 5𝜋
Since cos 12 > 0 and cos 12 > 0 it follows that
𝜋 5𝜋 1
cos cos =
12 12 4
7a Let 𝑥 = tan 𝜃
𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0
tan4 𝜃 + 4 tan3 𝜃 − 6 tan2 𝜃 − 4 tan 𝜃 + 1 = 0
tan4 𝜃 − 6 tan2 𝜃 + 1 = 4 tan3 𝜃 − 4 tan 𝜃
4 tan3 𝜃 − 4 tan 𝜃
1=
tan4 𝜃 − 6 tan2 𝜃 + 1
1 = tan 4𝜃
𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋
4𝜃 = , , ,
4 4 4 4
𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋
𝜃= , , ,
16 16 16 16

𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋
Hence the equation is solved when 𝑥 = tan 16 , tan 16 , tan 16 , tan 16
7b The sum of the roots is

𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋
tan + tan + tan + tan = −4
16 16 16 16
Hence
𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋 2
(tan + tan + tan + tan ) = 16
16 16 16 16
𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋
tan2 + tan2 + tan2 + tan2
16 16 16 16
𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 9𝜋 𝜋 13𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋
+2 (tan tan + tan tan + tan tan + tan tan
16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
9𝜋 13𝜋
+ tan tan ) = 16
16 16
However, the term in the brackets is just the sum of the products of the roots,
hence
𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋
tan2 + tan2 + tan2 + tan2 + 2(−6) = 16
16 16 16 16
𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋
tan2 + tan2 + tan2 + tan2 = 28
16 16 16 16
𝜋 2 2
5𝜋 7𝜋 2 3𝜋 2
tan + tan + (− tan ) + (− tan ) = 28
16 16 16 16
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
tan2 + tan2 + tan2 + tan2 = 28
16 16 16 16
= cis(5𝜃)
5
= (cis(𝜃))

= cos5 𝜃 + 5𝑖 cos4 𝜃 sin 𝜃 + 10𝑖 2 cos3 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + 10𝑖 3 cos 2 𝜃 sin3 𝜃
+5𝑖 4 cos 𝜃 sin4 𝜃 + 𝑖 5 sin5 𝜃

= cos5 𝜃 − 10 cos3 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + 5 cos 𝜃 sin4 𝜃

+𝑖(5 cos4 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 10 cos 2 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 + sin5 𝜃)
Equating the imaginary parts of this equation gives:
sin 5𝜃 = 5 cos4 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 10 cos2 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 + sin5 𝜃
= 5(1 − sin2 𝜃)2 sin 𝜃 − 10(1 − sin2 𝜃) sin3 𝜃 + sin5 𝜃
= 5(1 − 2 sin2 𝜃 + sin4 𝜃) sin 𝜃 − 10(1 − sin2 𝜃) sin3 𝜃 + sin5 𝜃
= 16 sin5 𝜃 − 20 sin3 𝜃 + 5 sin 𝜃
8b Let 𝑥 = sin 𝜃
16𝑥 5 − 20𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 − 1 = 0
16 sin5 𝜃 − 20 sin3 𝜃 + 5 sin 𝜃 − 1 = 0
sin 5𝜃 − 1 = 0
sin 5𝜃 = 1
𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋
5𝜃 = , , , ,
2 2 2 2 2
𝜋 𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋
𝜃= , , , ,
10 2 10 10 10
𝜋 𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋
𝑥 = sin , sin , sin , sin , sin
10 2 10 10 10
𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋
𝑥 = 1, sin , sin , sin , sin
10 10 10 10
as required
8c (4𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)2
= 16𝑥 4 + 4𝑏𝑥 3 + 4𝑐𝑥 2 + 4𝑏𝑥 3 + 𝑏 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑐𝑥 + 4𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2
= 16𝑥 4 + (4𝑏 + 4𝑏)𝑥 3 + (4𝑐 + 𝑏 2 + 4𝑐)𝑥 2 + (𝑏𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑥 + 𝑐 2
= 16𝑥 4 + 8𝑏𝑥 3 + (8𝑐 + 𝑏 2 )𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2
Since
16𝑥 4 + 16𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = (4𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)2
16𝑥 4 + 16𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 16𝑥 4 + 8𝑏𝑥 3 + (8𝑐 + 𝑏 2 )𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2

Equating coefficients of 𝑥 gives

16 = 8𝑏 (1)
−4 = 8𝑐 + 𝑏 2 (2)
From (1), 𝑏 = 2.
Substituting this into (2) gives 𝑐 = −1.
Any root of 16𝑥 4 + 16𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 is necessarily a root of (4𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐).
Since there are two factors of (4𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) in the original equation, any root
will be a root of the quadratic and will be a double root of the initial equations.
Since quadratics have two roots, it follows that 16𝑥 4 + 16𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0
must have two double roots (or one quadruple root).
8d Dividing 16𝑥 5 − 20𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 − 1 by (𝑥 − 1) yields 16𝑥 4 + 16𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 1.

𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋
Hence it follows that since 𝑥 = 1, sin 10 , sin 10 , sin , sin are roots of the
10 10
former equation, and since 𝑥 = 1 is a root of the divisor,
𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋
𝑥 = sin 10 , sin 10 , sin , sin must be roots of the quotient
10 10
16𝑥 4 + 16𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 1 as required.
9𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
There is no contradiction to part c as sin 10 = sin (𝜋 − 10) = sin 10 and
13𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋
sin = sin (3𝜋 − ) = sin and so indeed there are two double roots.
10 10 10
8e The sum of the roots is

𝜋 𝜋 13𝜋 13𝜋
sin + sin + sin + sin +1=0
10 10 10 10
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋
sin + sin − sin − sin +1=0
10 10 10 10
𝜋 3𝜋
2 sin − 2 sin +1=0
10 10
𝜋 3𝜋 1
sin − sin + =0
10 10 2
Hence
𝜋 3𝜋 1
sin = sin − (1)
10 10 2

The product of the roots is

𝜋 𝜋 13𝜋 13𝜋 1
sin sin sin sin (1) =
10 10 10 10 16
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 1
sin sin (− sin ) (− sin ) =
10 10 10 10 16
𝜋 3𝜋 1
sin2 10 sin2 10 = 16 (2)
Hence
𝜋 3𝜋 1
sin sin =
10 10 4
𝜋 3𝜋
(noting that we take the positive solution as sin 10 > 0 and sin 10 > 0)
Substituting (1) in (2) gives:

3𝜋 1 3𝜋 1
(sin − ) sin =
10 2 10 4
3𝜋 1 3𝜋 1
sin2 − sin − =0
10 2 10 4
1 1 2 1
3𝜋 − (− 2) ± √(− 2) − 4(1) (− 4)
sin =
10 2
1 ± √5
=
4
3𝜋
Since sin >0
10
3𝜋 1 + √5
sin =
10 4
𝜋 1 + √5 1
sin = −
10 4 2
−1 + √5
=
4
√5 − 1
=
4

= cis(7𝜃)
7
= (cis(𝜃))

+35𝑖 4 cos3 𝜃 sin4 𝜃 + 21𝑖 5 cos2 𝜃 sin5 𝜃 + 7𝑖 6 cos 2 𝜃 sin6 𝜃 + 𝑖 7 sin7 𝜃
= cos7 𝜃 + 7𝑖 cos6 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 21 cos 5 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 − 35𝑖 cos 4 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 + 35 cos 3 𝜃 sin4 𝜃
+21𝑖 cos2 𝜃 sin5 𝜃 − 7 cos2 𝜃 sin6 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin7 𝜃
Equating the real components on both sides of the equation
cos 7𝜃 = cos 7 𝜃 − 21 cos5 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + 35 cos 3 𝜃 sin4 𝜃 − 7 cos 2 𝜃 sin6 𝜃
= cos7 𝜃 − 21 cos5 𝜃 (1 − cos 2 𝜃) + 35 cos3 𝜃 (1 − cos 2 𝜃)2
−7 cos2 𝜃 (1 − cos 2 𝜃)3
= cos7 𝜃 − 21 cos5 𝜃 (1 − cos 2 𝜃) + 35 cos3 𝜃 (1 − 2 cos2 𝜃 + cos 4 𝜃)
−7 cos2 𝜃 (1 − 3 cos 2 𝜃 + 3 cos 4 𝜃 − cos 6 𝜃)
= 64 cos7 𝜃 − 112 cos5 𝜃 + 56 cos 3 𝜃 − 7 cos 𝜃
9b Let 𝑥 = 4 cos2 𝜃
(4 cos2 𝜃)3 − 7(cos 2 𝜃)2 + 14(cos 2 𝜃) − 7 = 0
64 cos7 𝜃 − 112 cos 5 𝜃 + 56 cos3 𝜃 − 7 cos 𝜃 = 0

cos 7𝜃 = 0
𝜋
7𝜃 = 2𝑛𝜋 ± 2 where 𝑛 is an integer, hence
4𝑛 ± 1
7𝜃 = ( )𝜋
2
4𝑛 ± 1
𝜃=( )𝜋
14
So
4𝑛 ± 1
𝑥 = 4 cos2 ( ) 𝜋 where 𝑛 is an integer, hence:
14
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
𝑥 = 4 cos2 , 4 cos 2 , 4 cos 2
14 14 14

9c i The sum of the roots in the above equation is

𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 −(−7)
4 cos2 + 4 cos2 + 4 cos2 = =7
14 14 14 1
Hence
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7
cos2 + cos2 + cos2 =
14 14 14 4
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 2 7 2
9c ii (cos2 14 + cos2 14 + cos2 14 ) = (4)
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
cos4 + cos4 + cos4
14 14 14
𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
+2 (cos 2 cos2 + cos2 cos 2 + cos2 cos 2 )
14 14 14 14 14 14
7 2
=( )
4
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
cos4 + cos4 + cos4
14 14 14
2 𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
+ (4 cos2 4 cos2 + 4 cos 2 4 cos 2 + 4 cos2 4 cos 2 )
16 14 14 14 14 14 14
7 2
=( )
4
4
𝜋 4
3𝜋 4
5𝜋 2 7 2
cos + cos + cos + (14) = ( )
14 14 14 16 4
(from the product of pairs of roots)
4
𝜋 4
3𝜋 4
5𝜋 7 2 28
cos + cos + cos =( ) −
14 14 14 4 16
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 21
cos4 + cos4 + cos4 =
14 14 14 16
10a Let 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = cis(𝜃)

𝑧 − 𝑧 −1
1
= cis(𝜃) −
cis(𝜃)

1
= cis(𝜃) −
cis(𝜃)
= cis(𝜃) − cis(−𝜃)
= cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 − (cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
= 2𝑖 sin 𝜃
𝑧 𝑛 − 𝑧 −𝑛
1
= cis(𝑛𝜃) −
cis(𝑛𝜃)
1
= cis(𝑛𝜃) −
cis(𝑛𝜃)
= cis(𝑛𝜃) − cis(−𝑛𝜃)
(𝑧 − 𝑧 −1 )5
= 𝑧 5 − 5𝑧 3 + 10𝑧 − 10𝑧 −1 + 5𝑧 −3 − 𝑧 −5
= (𝑧 5 − 𝑧 −5 ) − 5(𝑧 3 − 𝑧 −3 ) + 10(𝑧 − 𝑧 −1 )
(2𝑖 sin 𝜃)5 = 2𝑖 sin 5𝜃 − 5(2𝑖 sin 3𝜃) + 10(2𝑖 sin 𝜃)
25 𝑖 5 sin5 𝜃 = 2𝑖 sin 5𝜃 − 5(2𝑖 sin 3𝜃) + 10(2𝑖 sin 𝜃)

25 𝑖 sin5 𝜃 = 2𝑖 sin 5𝜃 − 5(2𝑖 sin 3𝜃) + 10(2𝑖 sin 𝜃)
24 sin5 𝜃 = sin 5𝜃 − 5 sin 3𝜃 + 10 sin 𝜃
1
sin5 𝜃 = (sin 5𝜃 − 5 sin 3𝜃 + 10 sin 𝜃)
16
10b From above we know that

16 sin5 𝜃 = sin 5𝜃 − 5 sin 3𝜃 + 10 sin 𝜃
Hence, 16 sin5 𝜃 = sin 5𝜃 if and only if
−5 sin 3𝜃 + 10 sin 𝜃 = 0
10 sin 𝜃 = 5 sin 3𝜃

1
sin 𝜃 = sin 3𝜃
2
1
sin 𝜃 = (sin 𝜃 cos 2𝜃 + sin 2𝜃 cos 𝜃)
2
1
sin 𝜃 = (sin 𝜃 (1 − 2 sin2 𝜃) + (2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃) cos 𝜃)
2
1
sin 𝜃 = (sin 𝜃 (1 − 2 sin2 𝜃) + 2 sin 𝜃 cos2 𝜃)
2
1
sin 𝜃 = (sin 𝜃 (1 − 2 sin2 𝜃) + 2 sin 𝜃 (1 − sin2 𝜃))
2
1
sin 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 ((1 − 2 sin2 𝜃) + 2(1 − sin2 𝜃))
2
1
sin 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 (3 − 4 sin2 𝜃)
2
1
sin 𝜃 (3 − 4 sin2 𝜃) − sin 𝜃 = 0
2
sin 𝜃 (3 − 4 sin2 𝜃) − 2 sin 𝜃 = 0
sin 𝜃 (1 − 4 sin2 𝜃) = 0
sin 𝜃 (1 − 2 sin 𝜃)(1 + 2 sin 𝜃) = 0
1 𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋 11𝜋
Hence sin 𝜃 = 0, ± 2 and so 𝜃 = 0, 6 , , 𝜋, ,
6 6 6
11a Let 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = cis(𝜃)

So
cos 5𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 5𝜃
= cis(5𝜃)
5
= (cis(𝜃))

= (cos 5 𝜃 − 10 cos 3 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + 5 cos 𝜃 sin4 𝜃)
+𝑖(5 cos 4 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 10 cos 2 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 + sin5 𝜃)
Equating real and imaginary components,

cos 5𝜃 = cos 5 𝜃 − 10 cos3 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + 5 cos 𝜃 sin4 𝜃

sin 5𝜃 = 5 cos4 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 10 cos2 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 + sin5 𝜃
sin 5𝜃
tan 5𝜃 =
cos 5𝜃
5 cos 4 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 10 cos2 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 + sin5 𝜃
=
cos 5 𝜃 − 10 cos3 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + 5 cos 𝜃 sin4 𝜃
5 cos 4 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 10 cos2 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 + sin5 𝜃 cos 5 𝜃
= ÷
cos 5 𝜃 − 10 cos3 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + 5 cos 𝜃 sin4 𝜃 cos 5 𝜃
5 tan 𝜃 − 10 tan3 𝜃 + tan5 𝜃
=
1 − 10 tan2 𝜃 + 5 tan4 𝜃
11b Let 𝑥 = tan 𝜃

𝑥 4 − 10𝑥 2 + 5 = 0
tan4 𝜃 − 10 tan2 𝜃 + 5 = 0
tan 𝜃 (tan4 𝜃 − 10 tan2 𝜃 + 5) = tan 𝜃 × 0
tan5 𝜃 − 10 tan3 𝜃 + 5 tan 𝜃 = 0
tan5 𝜃 − 10 tan3 𝜃 + 5 tan 𝜃
=0
1 − 10 tan2 𝜃 + 5 tan4 𝜃
tan 5𝜃 = 0
5𝜃 = ±𝜋, ±2𝜋
𝜋 2𝜋
𝜃 = ± ,±
5 5
Hence the roots are
𝜋 2𝜋
𝑥 = tan (± ) , tan (± )
5 5
𝜋 2𝜋
𝑥 = ± tan ( ) , ± tan ( )
5 5

11c The product of pairs of the roots is

(tan ( )) (− tan ( )) (tan ( )) (− tan ( )) = 5
5 5 5 5
𝜋 2𝜋
tan2 tan2 =5
5 5
𝜋 2𝜋
tan2 tan2 =5
5 5
𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
tan tan = √5 (taking the positive solution as tan > 0 and tan > 0)
5 5 5 5
The product of the pairs of roots is

𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
(tan ( )) (− tan ( )) + (tan ( )) (− tan ( )) + (tan ( )) (tan ( ))
5 5 5 5 5 5
𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
+ (− tan ( )) (tan ( )) + (tan ( )) (− tan ( )) + (− tan ( )) (− tan ( ))
5 5 5 5 5 5
= 10
𝜋 2𝜋
tan2 + tan2 = 10
5 5
12a
1
𝑧𝑛 +
𝑧𝑛
𝑛 1
= (cis(𝜃)) + 𝑛
(cis(𝜃))
1
= cis(𝑛𝜃) +
cis(𝑛𝜃)
= cis(𝑛𝜃) + cis(−𝑛𝜃)
= 2 cos 𝑛𝜃

1
𝑧𝑛 −
𝑧𝑛
𝑛 1
= (cis(𝜃)) − 𝑛
(cis(𝜃))
1
= cis(𝑛𝜃) −
cis(𝑛𝜃)
= cis(𝑛𝜃) − cis(−𝑛𝜃)
12b 128 cos3 𝜃 sin4 𝜃

= (2 cos 𝜃)3 (2𝑖 sin 𝜃)4
1 3 1 4
= (𝑧 + ) (𝑧 − )
𝑧 𝑧
3 3 1 4 16
= (𝑧 3 + − + 3 ) (𝑧 4 − 3 + − 16𝑧 + 4𝑧 3 − 𝑧 4 )
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
1 1 1 1
= (𝑧 7 + 7
) − (𝑧 5 + 5 ) − 3 (𝑧 3 + 3 ) + 3 (𝑧 + )
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
12c From part b,

1 1 1 1
128 cos3 𝜃 sin4 𝜃 = (𝑧 7 + 7
) − (𝑧 5 + 5 ) − 3 (𝑧 3 + 3 ) + 3 (𝑧 + )
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
Using the result from part a,
128 cos3 𝜃 sin4 𝜃 = 2 cos 7𝜃 − 2 cos 5𝜃 − 3 × 2 cos 3𝜃 + 3 × 2 cos 𝜃
Hence
1
cos3 𝜃 sin4 𝜃 = (cos 7𝜃 − cos 5𝜃 − 3 cos 3𝜃 + 3 cos 𝜃)
64
as required

13a 5𝑧 4 − 11𝑧 3 + 16𝑧 2 − 11𝑧 + 5 = 0

11 5
5𝑧 2 − 11𝑧 + 16 − + 2=0
𝑧 𝑧
1 1
5 (𝑧 2 + 2
) − 11 (𝑧 + ) + 16 = 0
𝑧 𝑧
5(2 cos 2𝜃) − 11(2 cos 𝜃) + 16 = 0
5 cos 2𝜃 − 11 cos 𝜃 + 8 = 0
13b 5(2 cos2 𝜃 − 1) − 11 cos 𝜃 + 8 = 0

10 cos2 𝜃 − 11 cos 𝜃 + 3 = 0
−(−11) ± √(−11)2 − 4(10)(3)

cos 𝜃 =
2(10)
11 ± √1
=
20
1 3
= or
2 5
1 √22 − 1 √3
When cos 𝜃 = , sin 𝜃 = ± =±
2 2 2
3 √52 − 32 √16 4
When cos 𝜃 = , sin 𝜃 = ± =± =±
5 5 5 5
1 √3
𝑧= ± 𝑖
2 2
3 4
𝑧= ± 𝑖
5 5
14a
sin 8𝜃
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
2 sin 4𝜃 cos 4𝜃
=
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
2(2 sin 2𝜃 cos 2𝜃)(1 − 2 sin2 2𝜃)
=
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

2(2(2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃)(1 − 2 sin2 𝜃))(1 − 2(1 − 2 sin2 𝜃)2 )

=
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
= 8(1 − 2 sin2 𝜃)(1 − 2(1 − 2 sin2 𝜃)2 )
= 8(1 − 2𝑠 2 )(1 − 2(1 − 2𝑠 2 )2 )
= 8(1 − 2𝑠 2 )(1 − 2(1 − 4𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 4 ))
= 8(1 − 2𝑠 2 )(−1 + 8𝑠 2 − 8𝑠 4 )
= 8(−1 + 8𝑠 2 − 8𝑠 4 + 2𝑠 2 − 16𝑠 4 + 16𝑠 4 )
= 8(1 − 10𝑠 2 + 24𝑠 4 − 16𝑠 6 )
14b 𝑥 6 − 6𝑥 4 + 10𝑥 2 − 4 = 0
Let 𝑥 = 2 sin 𝜃 = 2𝑠
(2𝑠)6 − 6(2𝑠)4 + 10(2𝑠)2 − 4 = 0
64𝑠 6 − 6 × 16𝑠 4 + 40𝑠 2 − 4 = 0
4(16𝑠 6 − 24𝑠 4 + 10𝑠 2 − 1) = 0
1
− (8(1 − 10𝑠 2 + 24𝑠 4 − 16𝑠 6 )) = 0
2
1 sin 8𝜃
− ( )=0
2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
sin 8𝜃 = 0
8𝜃 = 𝑛𝜋 for 𝑛 = ±1, ±2, ±3
Thus
𝑛𝜋
𝑥 = 2 sin for 𝑛 = ±1, ±2, ±3
8


1a 𝑧3 = 1
(𝑟cis 𝜃)3 = 1
𝑟 3 cis 3𝜃 = 1
𝑟 3 cis 3𝜃 = 1 × cis 2𝑘𝜋
3 2𝑘𝜋
𝑟 = √1 = 1 and 3𝜃 = 2𝑘𝜋 so 𝜃 = 3
𝜋 + 2𝑘𝜋
𝑧 = cis ( )
3
2𝜋 2𝜋
= cis , cis (− ) , cis 0
3 3
1 √3 1 √3
=− + 𝑖, − − 𝑖, 1
2 2 2 2
1b
1 √3 1 √3
|(− + 𝑖) − (− − 𝑖)|
2 2 2 2
= |√3𝑖|
= √3
1 √3
|(− + 𝑖) − 1|
2 2
3 √3
= |− + 𝑖|
2 2
2
3 2 √3
= √(− ) + ( )
2 2
9 3
=√ +
4 4
= √3

1 √3
|(− − 𝑖) − 1|
2 2
3 √3
= |− − 𝑖|
2 2
2
3 2 √3
= √(− ) + (− )
2 2
9 3
=√ +
4 4
= √3
This shows that all sides of the triangle have the same length and thus it is
equilateral.
2𝜋
1c In the case that cis is the root,
3
2𝜋 2 4𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋
(cis ) = cis = cis ( − 2𝜋) = cis (− ) is the other root.
3 3 3 3
2𝜋
In the case that cis (− ) is the root,
3
2
2𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋
(cis (− )) = cis (− ) = cis (2𝜋 − ) = cis is the other root.
3 3 3 3
1d i
2𝜋 3 6𝜋
(cis ) = cis = cis 2𝜋 = 1
3 3
4𝜋 3 12𝜋
(cis ) = cis = cis 4𝜋 = 1
3 3
so in either case the answer is one.
Alternately, covering both cases at once:
2𝑘𝜋
𝜔 = cis
3
2𝑘𝜋
𝜔3 = cis (3 × )
3
= cis 2𝑘𝜋
=1
2𝜋
1d ii If 𝜔 = cis ,
3
1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2
2𝜋 2𝜋 2
= 1 + cis + (cis )
3 3
2𝜋 4𝜋
= 1 + cis + cis
3 3
2𝜋 2𝜋
= 1 + cis + cis (− )
3 3
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
= 1 + cos + 𝑖 sin + cos − 𝑖 sin
3 3 3 3
2𝜋
= 1 + 2 cos
3
1
= 1 + 2 (− )
2
=0
4𝜋
If 𝜔 = cis ,
3
1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2
4𝜋 4𝜋 2
= 1 + cis + (cis )
3 3
4𝜋 8𝜋
= 1 + cis + cis
3 3
2𝜋 2𝜋
= 1 + cis (− ) + cis
3 3
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
= 1 + cos − 𝑖 sin + cos + 𝑖 sin
3 3 3 3
2𝜋
= 1 + 2 cos
3
1
= 1 + 2 (− )
2
=0
1e i (1 + 𝜔2 )3
= (−𝜔)3
= −𝜔3
= −1

1e ii (1 − 𝜔 − 𝜔2 )(1 − 𝜔 + 𝜔2 )(1 + 𝜔 − 𝜔2 )
= (1 − (𝜔 + 𝜔2 ))(1 + 𝜔2 − 𝜔)(1 + 𝜔 − 𝜔2 )
= (1 − (−1))(−𝜔 − 𝜔)(−𝜔2 − 𝜔2 )
= 2(−2𝜔)(−2𝜔2 )
= 8𝜔3
= 8(1)
=8
1e iii (1 − 𝜔)(1 − 𝜔2 )(1 − 𝜔4 )(1 − 𝜔5 )

= (1 − 𝜔)(1 − 𝜔2 )(1 − 𝜔3 𝜔)(1 − 𝜔3 𝜔2 )
= (1 − 𝜔)(1 − 𝜔2 )(1 − (1)𝜔)(1 − (1)𝜔2 )
= (1 − 𝜔)(1 − 𝜔2 )(1 − 𝜔)(1 − 𝜔2 )
2
= ((1 − 𝜔)(1 − 𝜔2 ))
= (1 − 𝜔 − 𝜔2 + 𝜔3 )2
= (1 − 𝜔 − 𝜔2 + 1)2
= (1 + 1 + 1)2
= 32
=9
2a 𝑧6 = 1
Let 𝑧 = 𝑟cis 𝜃
(𝑟cis 𝜃)6 = 1
𝑟 6 cis 6𝜃 = 1
𝑟=1
cis 6𝜃 = cis 2𝑘𝜋
6𝜃 = 2𝑘𝜋
𝑘𝜋
𝜃=
3
𝑘𝜋
𝑧 = cis
3
𝜋 2𝜋
𝑧 = cis 0, cis (± ) , cis (± ) , cis 𝜋
3 3
1 √3 1 √3
𝑧 = 1, ± 𝑖, − ± 𝑖, −1
2 2 2 2

2b
All points are the same distance from the origin as,
|1| = 1
2
1 √3 1 2 √3 1 3
| ± 𝑖| = √( ) + ( ) = √ + = √1 = 1
2 2 2 2 4 4
2
1 √3 1 2 √3 1 3
|− ± √
𝑖| = ( ) + ( ) = √ + = √1 = 1
2 2 2 2 4 4
|−1| = 1
𝑘𝜋 𝜋
Since 𝑧 = cis , each root has an argument of 3 between it and the adjacent
3
roots, hence all roots are the same distance from the origin with the same
argument between them relative to the origin so they form the corners of a
regular hexagon.

2c
𝜋
𝛼 = cis
3
𝜋 2 2𝜋
𝛼 2 = (cis ) = cis ( ) which is a root
3 3
𝜋 −2 2𝜋
𝛼 −2 = (cis ) = cis (− ) which is a root
3 3
𝜋 −1 𝜋
𝛼 −1 = (cis ) = cis (− ) which is a root
3 3
2d (𝑧 4 + 𝑧 2 + 1)(𝑧 2 − 1)
= 𝑧 6 + 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 2 − (𝑧 4 + 𝑧 2 + 1)
= 𝑧6 − 1
2e The roots of 𝑧 2 − 1 are 𝑧 = ±1, which are the real roots of 𝑧 6 − 1. So the roots of
𝑧 4 + 𝑧 2 + 1 must be the complex roots of 𝑧 6 − 1. Thus
𝑧4 + 𝑧2 + 1
1 √3 1 √3 1 √3 1 √3
= (𝑧 − ( − 𝑖)) (𝑧 − ( + 𝑖)) (𝑧 − (− − 𝑖)) (𝑧 − (− + 𝑖))
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 √3 1 √3 1 √3 1 √3
= (𝑧 2 − ( − 𝑖+ + 𝑖) 𝑧 + ( + 𝑖) ( − 𝑖)) ×
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 √3 1 √3 1 √3 1 √3
(𝑧 2 − (− − 𝑖− + 𝑖) 𝑧 + (− + 𝑖) (− − 𝑖))
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 3 1 3
= (𝑧 2 − 𝑧 + ( + )) (𝑧 2 − (−1)𝑧 + ( + ))
4 4 4 4
2 2
= (𝑧 − 𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 + 𝑧 + 1)
3a 𝑧 4 = −1
Let 𝑧 = 𝑟cis 𝜃
(𝑟cis 𝜃)4 = −1
𝑟 4 cis 4𝜃 = −1
𝑟=1

cis 4𝜃 = −1
4𝜃 = 𝜋 ± 2𝑘𝜋
𝜋 ± 2𝑘𝜋
𝜃=
4
𝜋 ± 2𝑘𝜋
𝑧 = cis ( )
4
𝜋 3𝜋
𝑧 = cis (± ) , cis (± )
4 4
1 1 1 1
𝑧= ± 𝑖, − ± 𝑖
√2 √2 √2 √2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3b (𝑧 − ( − 𝑖)) (𝑧 − ( + 𝑖)) (𝑧 − (− − 𝑖)) (𝑧 − (− + 𝑖))
√2 √2 √2 √2 √2 √2 √2 √2
= (𝑧 2 − √2𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 2 + √2𝑧 + 1)
4a 𝑧6 + 1 = 0
𝑧 6 = −1
𝑧 = 𝑟cis 𝜃
(𝑟cis 𝜃)6 = −1
𝑟 6 cis 6𝜃 = −1
𝑟=1
cis 6𝜃 = −1
6𝜃 = 𝜋 ± 2𝑘𝜋
𝜋 ± 2𝑘𝜋
𝜃=
6
𝜋 ± 2𝑘𝜋
𝑧 = cis ( )
6
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
𝑧 = cis (± ) , cis (± ) , cis (± )
6 6 6
√3 1 √3 1
𝑧= ± 𝑖, ±𝑖, − ± 𝑖
2 2 2 2

4b (𝑧 6 + 1)
√3 1 √3 1 √3 1
= (𝑧 − 𝑖)(𝑧 + 𝑖) (𝑧 − ( + 𝑖)) (𝑧 − ( − 𝑖)) (𝑧 − (− + 𝑖)) ×
2 2 2 2 2 2
√3 1
(𝑧 − (− − 𝑖))
2 2
= (𝑧 2 + 1)(𝑧 2 − √3𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 2 + √3𝑧 + 1)
4c 𝑧 6 + 1 = (𝑧 2 + 1)(𝑧 2 − √3𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 2 + √3𝑧 + 1)
𝑧 6 + 1 (𝑧 2 + 1)(𝑧 2 − √3𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 2 + √3𝑧 + 1)

=
𝑧3 𝑧3
𝑧 3 + 𝑧 −3 = (𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 )(𝑧 − √3 + 𝑧 −1 )(𝑧 + √3 + 𝑧 −1 )
Using the result from question 3 in Exercise 3B:
2 cos 3𝜃 = (2 cos 𝜃)(2 cos 𝜃 − √3)(2 cos 𝜃 + √3)
cos 3𝜃 = (cos 𝜃)(2 cos 𝜃 − √3)(2 cos 𝜃 + √3)
√3 √3
cos 3𝜃 = 4cos 𝜃 (cos 𝜃 − ) (cos 𝜃 + )
2 2
𝜋 5𝜋
cos 3𝜃 = 4 cos 𝜃 (cos 𝜃 − cos ) (cos 𝜃 − cos )
6 6
5a 𝑧5 = 𝑖
𝜋
(𝑟 cis 𝜃)5 = cis
2
𝜋
𝑟 5 cis 5𝜃 = cis ( 2 + 2𝑘𝜋)
𝑟 5 = 1 and hence 𝑟 = 1
𝜋
5𝜃 = + 2𝑘𝜋
2
1 𝜋
𝜃= ( + 2𝑘𝜋)
5 2
1 𝜋
𝑧 = cis ( ( + 2𝑘𝜋))
5 2

7𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 9𝜋
= cis (− ) , cis (− ) , cis , cis , cis
10 10 10 2 10
5b 𝑧 4 = −𝑖
Let 𝑧 = (𝑟cis 𝜃)4
= 𝑟 4 cis 4𝜃
𝑟 4 cis 4𝜃 = −𝑖
𝑟=1
cis 4𝜃 = −𝑖
3𝜋
4𝜃 = ± 2𝑘𝜋
2
3𝜋 𝑘𝜋
𝜃= ±
8 2
3𝜋 𝑘𝜋
𝑧 = cis ( ± )
8 2
5𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 7𝜋
𝑧 = cis (− ) , cis (− ) , cis , cis
8 8 8 8
5c 𝑧 4 = −8 − 8√3𝑖
(𝑟cis 𝜃)4 = −8 − 8√3𝑖
𝑟 4 cis 4𝜃 = −8 − 8√3𝑖
2
𝑟 4 = √82 + (8√3)
= 16
𝑟=2
8√3
4𝜃 = 2𝑘𝜋 + (−𝜋 + tan−1 ( ))
8
2𝜋
4𝜃 = 2𝑘𝜋 −
3
1 𝜋
𝜃= (𝑘𝜋 − )
2 3
1 𝜋
𝑧 = 2cis ( (𝑘𝜋 − ))
2 3

𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
= 2cis (− ) , 2cis (− ) , 2cis , 2cis
6 3 3 6
= √3 − 𝑖, −1 − 𝑖√3, 1 + 𝑖√3, −√3 + 𝑖
5d 𝑧 5 = 16√2 − 16√2𝑖
(𝑟cis 𝜃)5 = 16√2 − 16√2𝑖
𝑟 5 cis 5𝜃 = 16√2 − 16√2𝑖
2 2
𝑟 5 = √(16√2) + (16√2)
= 32
𝑟=2
−16√2
5𝜃 = 2𝑘𝜋 + (tan−1 ( ))
16√2
𝜋
5𝜃 = 2𝑘𝜋 −
4
2𝑘𝜋 𝜋
𝜃= −
5 20
2𝑘𝜋 𝜋
𝑧 = 2 cis ( − )
5 20
17𝜋 9𝜋 𝜋 7𝜋 3𝜋
= 2 cis − , 2 cis − , 2 cis − , 2 cis , 2 cis
20 20 20 20 4


6a Let 𝑧 = 𝑟cis(𝜃) be a fifth root of −1.
𝑟 5 cis 5 (𝜃) = −1
𝑟 5 cis(5𝜃) = cos(𝜋)
Hence 𝑟 = 1 and 5𝜃 = 2𝜆𝜋 + 𝜋 where 𝜆 is an integer.
2𝜆+1
This means that 𝜃 = ( ) 𝜋 and so
5
𝜋 3𝜋
𝜃 = ± ,± ,𝜋
5 5
𝜋 3𝜋
𝑧 = cis (± ) , cis (± ) , cis(𝜋)
5 5
𝜋 3𝜋
𝑧 = cis (± ) , cis (± ) , −1
5 5
𝜋
6b The root with least principle argument is 𝛼 = cis ( 5 )
3
3
𝜋 3𝜋
𝛼 = (cis ( )) = cis ( )
5 5
7
7
𝛼 = (cis ( )) = cis ( ) = cis ( − 2𝜋) = cis (− )
5 5 5 5
9
9
𝜋 9𝜋 9𝜋 𝜋
𝛼 = (cis ( )) = cis ( ) = cis ( − 2𝜋) = cis (− )
5 5 5 5
Hence these are the three other complex roots.
6c 𝛼7
7
𝜋
= (cis ( ))
5
7𝜋
= cis ( )
5
= cis(𝜋)cis(2𝜋)
2
𝜋
= cis(𝜋) (cis ( ))
5

= −𝛼 2
𝛼9
9
𝜋
= (cis ( ))
5
9𝜋
= cis ( )
5
4π
= cis(𝜋)cis ( )
5
4π
= −cis ( )
5
= −𝛼 4
6d (1 + 𝛼 2 + 𝛼 4 )
= 1 − 𝛼7 − 𝛼9 (from part c)
= −(−1 + 𝛼 7 + 𝛼 9 )
= −(−1 + 𝛼 + 𝛼 3 + 𝛼 7 + 𝛼 9 ) + (𝛼 + 𝛼 3 )
= −0 + 𝛼 + 𝛼 3 (as the sum of roots is 0)
= 𝛼 + 𝛼3
7a 𝑧 = 𝑟 cis(𝜃)
𝑧 7 = 𝑟 7 cis(7𝜃)
𝑟 7 cis(7𝜃) = 1 = cis(0)
Hence 𝑟 = 1 and
7𝜃 = ±2𝑛𝜋
2𝑛𝜋
𝜃=±
7
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
𝑧 = cis(0), cis (± ) , cis (± ) , cis (± )
7 7 7
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
𝑧 = 1, cis (± ) , cis (± ) , cis (± )
7 7 7

7b The sum of the roots is

2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 6𝜋
1 + cis ( ) + cis (− ) + cis ( ) + cis (− ) + cis ( ) + cis (− ) = 0
7 7 7 7 7 7
(as the coefficient of 𝑧 6 in the equation 𝑧 7 − 1 = 0 is 0)
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋
1 + cos + 𝑖 sin + cos − 𝑖 sin + cos + 𝑖 sin + cos − 𝑖 sin
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
6𝜋 6𝜋 6𝜋 6𝜋
+ cos + 𝑖 sin + cos − 𝑖 sin =0
7 7 7 7
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
1 + 2 cos + 2 cos + 2 cos =0
7 7 7
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
2 cos + 2 cos + 2 cos = −1
7 7 7
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 1
cos + cos + cos =−
7 7 7 2
7c Writing the equation as a product of factors gives

2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋
(𝑧 − 1) (𝑧 − cis ( )) (𝑧 − cis (− )) (𝑧 − cis ( )) (𝑧 − cis (− ))
7 7 7 7
6𝜋 6𝜋
(𝑧 − cis ( )) (𝑧 − cis (− ))
7 7
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
= (𝑧 − 1) (𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (cis ( ) + cis (− )) + (cis ( ) cis (− )))
7 7 7 7
4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋
(𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (cis ( ) + cis (− )) + (cis ( ) cis (− )))
7 7 7 7
6𝜋 6𝜋 6𝜋 6𝜋
(𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (cis ( ) + cis (− )) + (cis ( ) cis (− )))
7 7 7 7
2𝜋 2𝜋
= (𝑧 − 1) (𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (cis ( ) + cis (− )) + (cis(0)))
7 7
4𝜋 4𝜋
(𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (cos ( ) + cis (− )) + (cis(0)))
7 7
6𝜋 6𝜋
(𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (cis ( ) + cis (− )) + (cis(0)))
7 7

2𝜋 4𝜋
= (𝑧 − 1) (𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (2 cos ) + (cis(0))) (𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (2 cos ) + (cis(0)))
7 7
(Noting that cis 𝑥 + cis(−𝑥) = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑥)

6𝜋
(𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (2 cos ) + (cis(0)))
7
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
= (𝑧 − 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)
7 7 7
7d
2𝜋
𝛼 = cis ( )
7
2
2
2𝜋
𝛼 = (cis ( ))
7
4𝜋
= cis ( )
7
3
3
2𝜋
𝛼 = (cis ( ))
7
6𝜋
= cis ( )
7
4
4
2𝜋
𝛼 = (cis ( ))
7
8𝜋
= cis ( )
7
6𝜋
= cis (− )
7
5
5
2𝜋
𝛼 = (cis ( ))
7
10𝜋
= cis ( )
7
3𝜋
= cis (− )
7

6
6
2𝜋
𝛼 = (cis ( ))
7
12𝜋
= cis ( )
7
2𝜋
= cis (− )
7
These are the other complex roots that we have previously found.
7e For this question note that

cis 𝑥 + cis(−𝑥) = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑥
𝛼 + 𝛼6
2𝜋 2𝜋
= cis ( ) + cis (− )
7 7
2𝜋
= 2 cos
7
𝛼2 + 𝛼5
4𝜋 4𝜋
= cis ( ) + cis (− )
7 7
4𝜋
= 2 cos
7
𝛼3 + 𝛼4
6𝜋 6𝜋
= cis ( ) + cis (− )
7 7
6𝜋
= 2 cos
7
Hence, writing the equation as a product of linear factors gives
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
(𝑥 − 2 cos ) (𝑥 − 2 cos ) (𝑥 − 2 cos ) 𝑥 3
7 7 7
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
− (2 cos + 2 cos + 2 cos ) 𝑥 2
7 7 7
2𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋 6𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋
+ (2 cos × 2 cos + 2 cos × 2 cos + 2 cos × 2 cos ) 𝑥
7 7 7 7 7 7
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
− (2 cos ) (2 cos ) (2 cos )
7 7 7

= 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1
8a i Let 𝑧 = 𝑟cis(𝜃) be a fifth root of 1.

𝑟 5 cis 5 (𝜃) = 1
𝑟 5 cis(5𝜃) = cos(𝜋)
Hence 𝑟 = 1 and 5𝜃 = 2𝜆𝜋 where 𝜆 is an integer.
2𝜆
This means that 𝜃 = ( ) 𝜋 and so
5
2𝜋 4𝜋
𝜃=± ,± ,𝜋
5 5
2𝜋 4𝜋
𝑧 = cis (± ) , cis (± ) , cis(𝜋)
5 5
2𝜋 4𝜋
𝑧 = cis (± ) , cis (± ) , 1
5 5
8a ii Note that all roots have a modulus of 1, and that all roots are evenly spaced as
4𝜋
2𝜋 cis( ) 2𝜋
5
they have an argument of between them. For example, 2𝜋 = cis( 5 ).
5 cis( )
5
Hence, they form the vertices of a regular polygon. As there are five vertices they
must form the vertices of a regular pentagon.
8a iii The sum of the roots is

2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋
cis ( ) + cis (− ) + cis ( ) + cis (− ) + 1 = 0
5 5 5 5
(as the coefficient of 𝑧 4 in the equation 𝑧 5 − 1 = 0 is 0)
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋
cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( ) + cos ( ) − 𝑖 sin ( ) + cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( ) + cos ( )
5 5 5 5 5 5 5
4𝜋
−𝑖 sin ( ) + 1 = 0
5
2𝜋 4𝜋
2 cos + 2 cos +1=0
5 5
2𝜋 4𝜋 1
cos + cos =−
5 5 2

8b i (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 4 + 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 1)
= 𝑧 5 + 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 − (𝑧 4 + 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 1)
= 𝑧5 − 1
8b ii Since the roots of 𝑧 5 − 1 = (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 4 + 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 1) are

2𝜋 4𝜋
𝑧 = cis (± ) , cis (± ),1
5 5
it follows that the roots of (𝑧 4 + 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 1) are

2𝜋 4𝜋
𝑧 = cis (± ) , cis (± )
5 5
Writing (𝑧 4 + 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 1)
2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋
(𝑧 − cis ( )) (𝑧 − cis (− )) (𝑧 − cis (− )) (𝑧 − cis (− ))
5 5 5 5
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
= (𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (cis ( ) + cis (− )) + cis ( ) cis (− ))
5 5 5 5
4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋
(𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (cis ( ) + cis (− )) + cis ( ) cis (− ))
5 5 5 5
2𝜋 2𝜋
= (𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (cis ( ) + cis (− )) + cis(0))
5 5
4𝜋 4𝜋
(𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (cis ( 5 ) + cis (− )) + cis(0))
5
2𝜋 4𝜋
= (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)
5 5
as required
8b iii Equating the coefficients of 𝑧 gives

2𝜋 4𝜋
1 = −2 cos − 2 cos
5 5
2𝜋 𝜋
1 = −2 cos + 2 cos
5 5
2𝜋 𝜋
1 + 2 cos = 2 cos
5 5

√5 − 1 𝜋
1 + 2( ) = 2 cos
4 5
𝜋 1 + √5
cos =
5 4
8c i 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 1 = 0
1 2 1
(𝑢 + ) + (𝑢 + ) − 1 = 0
𝑢 𝑢
1 1
𝑢2 + 2 + + 𝑢 + −1 =0
𝑢2 𝑢
1 1
𝑢2 + + 𝑢 + +1=0
𝑢2 𝑢
𝑢4 + 1 + 𝑢3 + 𝑢 + 𝑢2 = 0
𝑢4 + 𝑢3 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢 + 1 = 0
2𝜋 4𝜋
This has roots 𝑢 = cis (± ) , cis (± )
5 5
Hence
2𝜋
For 𝑢 = cis ( ),
5
2𝜋 1
𝑥 = cis ( )+
5 2𝜋
cis ( )
5
2𝜋 2𝜋
= cis ( ) + cis (− )
5 5
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
= cos + 𝑖 sin + cos − 𝑖 sin
5 5 5 5
2𝜋
= 2 cos
5
2𝜋
For 𝑢 = cis (− ),
5
2𝜋 1
𝑥 = cis (− )+
5 2𝜋
cis (− )
5
2𝜋 2𝜋
= cis (− ) + cis ( )
5 5

2𝜋 2𝜋
= cis ( ) + cis (− )
5 5
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
5 5 5 5
2𝜋
= 2 cos
5
4𝜋
For 𝑢 = cis ( ),
5
4𝜋 1
𝑥 = cis ( )+
5 4𝜋
cis ( )
5
4𝜋 4𝜋
= cis ( ) + cis (− )
5 5
4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋
5 5 5 5
4𝜋
= 2 cos
5
4𝜋
For 𝑢 = cis (− ),
5
4𝜋 1
𝑥 = cis (− )+
5 4𝜋
cis (− )
5
4𝜋 4𝜋
= cis (− ) + cis ( )
5 5
4𝜋 4𝜋
= cis ( ) + cis (− )
5 5
4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋
5 5 5 5
4𝜋
= 2 cos
5

8c ii
2𝜋 4𝜋
(𝑥 − 2 cos ) (𝑥 − 2 cos ) = 0
5 5
4𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 cos − 2𝑥 cos + 4 cos cos =0
5 5 5 5
𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 cos − 2𝑥 cos − 4 cos cos = 0
5 5 5 5
Comparing with 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 = 0
2𝜋 𝜋
4 cos cos = 1
5 5
2𝜋 𝜋 1
cos cos =
5 5 4
9a 𝑧 = 𝑟 cis(𝜃)
𝑧 9 = 𝑟 9 cis(9𝜃)
𝑧9 = 1
𝑟 9 cis(9𝜃) = 1
𝑟 9 cis(9𝜃) = cis(0)
𝑟 = 1 and so 9𝜃 = 2𝑛𝜋 which means that
2𝑛𝜋
𝜃= so
9
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 8𝜋
𝑧 = cis (± ) , cis (± ) , cis (± ) , cis (± ) , 1
9 9 9 9
9b 𝑧9 − 1
= (𝑧 9 + 𝑧 6 + 𝑧 3 ) − (𝑧 6 + 𝑧 3 + 1)
= (𝑧 3 − 1)(𝑧 6 + 𝑧 3 + 1)

Writing 𝑧 9 − 1 as a product of factors gives

2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋
(𝑧 − 1) (𝑧 − cis (− )) (𝑧 − cis ( )) (𝑧 − cis (− )) (𝑧 − cis ( ))
9 9 9 9
6𝜋 6𝜋 8𝜋 8𝜋
(𝑧 − cis (− )) (𝑧 − cis ( )) (𝑧 − cis (− )) (𝑧 − cis ( ))
9 9 9 9
Note that
(𝑧 − cis(𝑥))(𝑧 − cis(−𝑥))
= (𝑧 2 − 𝑧(cis(𝑥) + cis(−𝑥)) + (cis(0))
= 𝑧 2 − 𝑧(cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥) + 1

= 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos 𝑥 + 1
Thus
2𝜋 4𝜋
𝑧 9 − 1 = (𝑧 − 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)
9 9
6𝜋 8𝜋
(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)
9 9
2𝜋 4𝜋
= (𝑧 − 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)
9 9
6𝜋 8𝜋
(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)
9 9
2𝜋 4𝜋
= (𝑧 − 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)
9 9
8𝜋
(𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)
9
2𝜋
= (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)
9
4𝜋 8𝜋
(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)
9 9
2𝜋 4𝜋 8𝜋
= (𝑧 3 − 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)
9 9 9
Hence
2𝜋 4𝜋 8𝜋
𝑧 6 + 𝑧 3 + 1 = (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)
9 9 9

2𝜋 4𝜋 8𝜋
9c 𝑧 6 + 𝑧 3 + 1 = (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)
9 9 9
Dividing both sides by 𝑧 3

2𝜋 4𝜋 8𝜋
𝑧 3 + 1 + 𝑧 −3 = (𝑧 − 2 cos + 𝑧 −1 ) (𝑧 − 2 cos + 𝑧 −1 ) (𝑧 − 2 cos + 𝑧 −1 )
9 9 9
2𝜋 4𝜋 8𝜋
𝑧 3 + 𝑧 −3 + 1 = (𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 − 2 cos ) (𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 − 2 cos ) (𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 − 2 cos )
9 9 9
2𝜋 4𝜋 8𝜋
𝑧 3 + 𝑧 −3 + 1 = (𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 − 2 cos ) (𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 − 2 cos ) (𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 − 2 cos )
9 9 9
Now
𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑧 −𝑛
= cis(𝑛𝜃) + cis(−𝑛𝜃)
= 2 cos 𝑛𝜃
Hence
2𝜋 4𝜋 8𝜋
2 cos 3𝜃 + 1 = (cos 𝜃 − 2 cos ) (cos 𝜃 − 2 cos ) (cos 𝜃 − 2 cos )
9 9 9
2𝜋
10a 𝜔 = cis ( 9 )
Let 𝑧 = 𝜔𝑘
𝑧 9 = (𝜔𝑘 )9
= (𝜔9 )𝑘
9 𝑘
2𝜋
= ((cis ( )) )
9
𝑘
= (cis(2𝜋))
= (1)𝑘
=1

10b (𝜔 − 1)(1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2 + 𝜔3 + 𝜔4 + 𝜔5 + 𝜔6 + 𝜔7 + 𝜔8 )
= 𝜔 + 𝜔2 + 𝜔3 + 𝜔4 + 𝜔5 + 𝜔6 + 𝜔7 + 𝜔8 + 𝜔9
−(1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2 + 𝜔3 + 𝜔4 + 𝜔5 + 𝜔6 + 𝜔7 + 𝜔8 )
= 𝜔9 − 1
Hence the equation
(𝜔 − 1)(1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2 + 𝜔3 + 𝜔4 + 𝜔5 + 𝜔6 + 𝜔7 + 𝜔8 ) = 0
has the same roots as 𝜔9 − 1 = 0 which are the ninth roots of unity.
Hence the roots of
1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2 + 𝜔3 + 𝜔4 + 𝜔5 + 𝜔6 + 𝜔7 + 𝜔8 = 0
will be the complex ninth roots of unity.
So, provided that 𝜔 ≠ 1,
1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2 + 𝜔3 + 𝜔4 + 𝜔5 + 𝜔6 + 𝜔7 + 𝜔8 = 0
and so
𝜔 + 𝜔2 + 𝜔3 + 𝜔4 + 𝜔5 + 𝜔6 + 𝜔7 + 𝜔8 = −1
10c
2𝜋 2𝜋 2 2𝜋 3 2𝜋 4 2𝜋 5
(cis ) + (cis ) + (cis ) + (cis ) + (cis )
9 9 9 9 9
2𝜋 6 2𝜋 7 2𝜋 8
+ (cis ) + (cis ) + (cis ) = −1
9 9 9
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 8𝜋 10𝜋 12𝜋 14𝜋 16𝜋
cis + cis + cis + cis + cis + cis + cis + cis = −1
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 8𝜋 −8𝜋 6𝜋
cis + cis + cis + cis + cis ( ) + cis (− )
9 9 9 9 9 9
4𝜋 2𝜋
+ cis (− ) + cis (− ) = −1
9 9
2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
cis + cis (− ) + cis + cis (− ) + cis
9 9 9 9 9
6𝜋 8𝜋 −8𝜋
+ cis (− ) + cis + cis ( ) = −1
9 9 9

2𝜋 4𝜋 8𝜋
2 cos + 2 cos − 1 + 2 cos = −1
9 9 9
2𝜋 4𝜋 8𝜋
2 cos + 2 cos + 2 cos =0
9 9 9
2𝜋 4𝜋 8𝜋
cos + cos + cos =0
9 9 9
2𝜋 4𝜋 𝜋
cos + cos − cos = 0
9 9 9
2𝜋 4𝜋 𝜋
cos + cos = cos
9 9 9
10d <Needs adjusting>

𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋
cos cos cos
9 9 9
2𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋
= (cos + cos ) (cos cos )
9 9 9 9
= (𝜔 + 𝜔2 )(𝜔 × 𝜔2 )
= 𝜔4 + 𝜔5
8𝜋 10𝜋
= cis + cis
9 9
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= − cos + 𝑖sin + cos + 𝑖sin
9 9 9 9
𝜋
= 2𝑖sin
9
2𝜋 2𝜋 7
11a 𝜌7 = (cos + 𝑖 cos )
7 7
2𝜋 7
= (cis )
7
= cis(2𝜋)
=1
Hence 𝜌7 − 1 = 0
(𝜌 − 1)(1 + 𝜌 + 𝜌2 + ⋯ + 𝜌6 ) = 0
Since 𝜌 ≠ 1,

(1 + 𝜌 + 𝜌2 + ⋯ + 𝜌6 ) = 0
11b Since the equation has real coefficients, and 𝛼 is complex, the complex conjugate
must also be a root. Hence
𝛽=𝛼
= 𝜌 + 𝜌2 + 𝜌4
= 𝜌 + 𝜌2 + 𝜌4
2𝜋 2𝜋 2 2𝜋 4
= cis ( ) + cis ( ) + cis ( )
7 7 7
2𝜋 4𝜋 8𝜋
= cis ( ) + cis ( ) + cis ( )
7 7 7
2𝜋 4𝜋 8𝜋
= cis (− ) + cis (− ) + cis (− )
7 7 7
12𝜋 10𝜋 6𝜋
= cis ( ) + cis ( ) + cis ( )
7 7 7
2𝜋 6 2𝜋 5 2𝜋 3
= cis ( ) + cis ( ) + cis ( )
7 7 7
= 𝜌6 + 𝜌5 + 𝜌3
So 𝛽 = 𝜌3 + 𝜌5 + 𝜌6
11c 𝛼 + 𝛽 = −𝑎
Hence
𝑎 = −(𝛼 + 𝛽)
= −(𝜌 + 𝜌2 + 𝜌4 + 𝜌3 + 𝜌5 + 𝜌6 )
= −(−1)
=1
𝛼𝛽 = 𝑏
𝑏 = 𝛼𝛽
= (𝜌 + 𝜌2 + 𝜌4 )(𝜌3 + 𝜌5 + 𝜌6 )

= 𝜌4 + 𝜌6 + 𝜌7 + 𝜌5 + 𝜌7 + 𝜌8 + 𝜌7 + 𝜌8 + 𝜌10
= 𝜌4 + 𝜌6 + 1 + 𝜌5 + 1 + 𝜌 + 1 + 𝜌2 + 𝜌3 (since 𝜌7 = 1)
= 3 + 𝜌 + 𝜌2 + 𝜌4 + 𝜌3 + 𝜌5 + 𝜌6
= 3 + (−1)
=2
11d <Solution to come>


3
1a (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃×3 = 𝑒 3𝑖𝜃
6
1b (𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃×6 = 𝑒 −6𝑖𝜃
4
1c (𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃×4 = 𝑒 8𝑖𝜃
−2
1d (𝑒 −5𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑒 −5𝑖𝜃×−2 = 𝑒 10𝑖𝜃
2a 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 × 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃−2𝑖𝜃 = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
2b
𝑒 6𝑖𝜃
= 𝑒 6𝑖𝜃−3𝑖𝜃 = 𝑒 3𝑖𝜃
𝑒 3𝑖𝜃
−2 −5
2c (𝑒 4𝑖𝜃 ) × (𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 )
= 𝑒 −8𝑖𝜃 × 𝑒 10𝑖𝜃
= 𝑒 −8𝑖𝜃+10𝑖𝜃 = 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃
2d
3 −4
(𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 ) × (𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃 )
(𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )2
𝑒 6𝑖𝜃 × 𝑒 12𝑖𝜃
=
𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃
𝑒 6𝑖𝜃+12𝑖𝜃
=
𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃
𝑒 18𝑖𝜃
=
𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃
= 𝑒 18𝑖𝜃−(−2𝑖𝜃)

= 𝑒 20𝑖𝜃
𝜋 𝜋
3a 2𝑖 = 2𝑒 2 𝑖 (note that 𝑖 = 𝑒 2 𝑖 )
3b 1+𝑖
−1 1
= √12 + 12 𝑒 𝑖×tan 1
𝜋
= √2 𝑒 𝑖 4
3c −6
−1 0)
= √02 + (−6)2 𝑒 𝑖(𝜋−tan 6
= 6𝑒 𝑖𝜋
3d −1 + √3𝑖
√3
2 𝑖(𝜋−tan−1 )
1
= √(−1)2 + (√3) 𝑒
2𝑖𝜋
= 2𝑒 3
3e −3 − 3𝑖
−1 3)
= √(−3)2 + (−3)2 𝑒 𝑖(−𝜋+tan 3
3𝑖𝜋
= √18𝑒 − 4
3𝑖𝜋
= 3√2𝑒 − 4
3f 2√3 − 2𝑖
2
2 𝑖 tan−1 (− )
= √(2√3) + (−2)2 𝑒 2√3
𝑖𝜋
= √16𝑒 − 6

𝑖𝜋
= 4𝑒 − 6
4a 5𝑒 𝑖𝜋
= 5(cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋)
= 5(−1 + 0𝑖)
= −5
4b
𝑖𝜋
𝑒3
𝜋 𝜋
= cos + 𝑖 sin
3 3
1 √3
= + 𝑖
2 2
4c
𝑖𝜋
4𝑒 − 2
𝜋 𝜋
= 4 (cos − 𝑖 sin )
2 2
= 4(0 − 𝑖)
= −4𝑖
4d
5𝑖𝜋
2𝑒 6
5𝜋 5𝜋
= 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
6 6
√3 1
= 2 (− + 𝑖)
2 2
= −√3 + 𝑖

𝑖𝜋
4e 2√2𝑒 − 4
𝜋 𝜋
= 2√2 (cos − 𝑖 sin )
4 4
1 𝑖
= 2√2 ( − )
√2 √2
= 2 − 2𝑖
2𝑖𝜋
4f 4√3𝑒 − 3
2𝜋 2𝜋
= 4√3 (cos − 𝑖 sin )
3 3
1 𝑖√3
= 4√3 (− − )
2 2
= −2√3 − 6𝑖


5a 𝑧𝑤 = (1 + √3𝑖)(1 − 𝑖)
𝜋 𝜋
= (2𝑒 𝑖 3 ) (√2𝑒 −𝑖 4 )
𝜋
= 2√2𝑒 𝑖 12
5b
𝑤 (1 − 𝑖)
=
𝑧 (1 + √3𝑖)
𝜋
(√2𝑒 −𝑖 4 )
= 𝜋
(2𝑒 𝑖 3 )
1 7𝜋
= 𝑒 −𝑖 12
√2
3
5c 𝑧 3 𝑤 = (1 + √3𝑖) (1 − 𝑖)
𝜋 3 𝜋
= (2𝑒 𝑖 3 ) (√2𝑒 −𝑖 4 )
𝜋
= 8𝑒 𝑖𝜋 (√2𝑒 −𝑖 4 )
3𝜋
= 8√2𝑒 𝑖 4
5d
2
𝑧 2 (1 + √3𝑖)
=
𝑤 (1 − 𝑖)
𝜋 2
(2𝑒 𝑖 3 )
= 𝜋
(√2𝑒 −𝑖 4 )
𝑖2𝜋
4𝑒 3
= 𝜋
(√2𝑒 −𝑖 4 )

𝑖11𝜋
= 2√2𝑒 12
6
6a (√3 + 𝑖)
𝜋 6
= (2𝑒 𝑖 6 )
= (2)6 𝑒 𝑖𝜋
= 26 (−1)
= −64
6b (−1 + 𝑖)5
3𝜋 5
= (√2𝑒 4 )
5 15𝜋
= (√2) 𝑒 4
4 𝜋
= (√2) √2𝑒 − 4
4
= (√2) (1 − 𝑖)
= 4 − 4𝑖
6c
−8
1 √3
( − 𝑖)
2 2
𝜋 −8
= (𝑒 − 3 )
8𝜋
=𝑒3
2𝜋
=𝑒3
1 √3
=− + 𝑖
2 2

4
6d (−3 − 3√3𝑖)
2𝜋 4
−
= (6𝑒 3)
8𝜋
= 1296𝑒 − 3
2𝜋
= 1296𝑒 − 3
= −648 − 648√3𝑖
7a 𝑧10 − 𝑤 10 = 2𝑖
10
1+𝑖 1 − 𝑖 10
( ) −( )
√2 √2
𝜋 10 𝜋 10
= (𝑒 4 ) − (𝑒 − 4 )
10𝜋 10𝜋
=𝑒 4 − 𝑒− 4
2𝜋 2𝜋
= 𝑒 4 − 𝑒− 4
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑒 2 − 𝑒 −2
= 𝑖 − (−𝑖)
= 2𝑖
7b 1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 + 𝑧4
𝜋 𝜋 2 𝜋 3 𝜋 4
= 1 + (𝑒 4 ) + (𝑒 4 ) + (𝑒 4 ) + (𝑒 4 )
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
= 1 + 𝑒 4 + 𝑒 2 + 𝑒 4 + 𝑒𝜋
1 1
= 1+ (1 + 𝑖) + 𝑖 + (1 − 𝑖) − 1
√2 √2
2
= 𝑖+𝑖
√2
= (√2 + 1)𝑖

5 5
8a (1 + √3𝑖) (1 − 𝑖)4 + (1 − √3𝑖) (1 + 𝑖)4
𝜋 𝜋
= 32𝑒 −𝑖 3 (−4) + 32𝑒 𝑖 3 (−4)
𝜋 𝜋
= −128𝑒 −𝑖 3 − 128𝑒 𝑖 3
1 √3 1 √3
= −128 ( − 𝑖+( + 𝑖))
2 2 2 2
= −128
8b
5 5
(1 + √3𝑖) (1 − √3𝑖)
+
(1 − 𝑖)4 (1 + 𝑖)4
𝜋 𝜋
32𝑒 −𝑖 3 32𝑒 𝑖 3
= +
(−4) (−4)
𝜋 𝜋
= −23 𝑒 −𝑖 3 − 23 𝑒 𝑖 3
1 √3 1 √3
= −23 ( − 𝑖+( + 𝑖))
2 2 2 2
= −23 (1)
= −8
9a 1 + 𝑧4
4
= 1 + (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )
= 1 + 𝑒 4𝑖𝜃
= 1 + cos 4𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 4𝜃
= 1 + (cos 2 2𝜃 − sin2 2𝜃) + 𝑖(2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃)
= 1 − sin2 2𝜃 + cos 2 2𝜃 + 2𝑖 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
= cos2 2𝜃 + cos2 2𝜃 + 2𝑖 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
= 2 cos2 2𝜃 + 2𝑖 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
= 2 cos 2𝜃 (cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃)

= 2 cos 2𝜃 cis 2𝜃
9b
1 + 𝑧4
1 + 𝑧 −4
𝑧 4 (1 + 𝑧 4 )
=
𝑧4 + 1
= 𝑧4
4
= (cis(𝜃))
= cis(4𝜃)
𝜋 𝑛
11a (1 + 𝑖)𝑛 = (√2𝑒 𝑖 4 )
𝑛 𝑛𝜋
= (√2) 𝑒 𝑖 4
This is real when the imaginary part of the exponent is a multiple of 2𝜆𝜋 or
𝑛𝜋
2𝜆𝜋 ± 𝜋, that is, when 4 = 2𝜋𝜆 ± 𝜋 or 2𝜆𝜋 where 𝜆 is an integer.
So 𝑛 = 8𝜆 ± 4 or 8𝜆. Hence 𝑛 = 0, 4, 8 ….
Therefore (1 + 𝑖)𝑛 is real when 𝑛 is a multiple of 4.
𝜋 𝑛
11b (1 − 𝑖)𝑛 = (√2𝑒 −𝑖 4 )
𝑛 𝑛𝜋
= (√2) 𝑒 −𝑖 4
𝜋
This is purely imaginary when the imaginary part of the exponent is 2𝜆𝜋 ± 2
𝑛𝜋
where 𝜆 is an integer, that is, when − = 2𝜋𝜆 ± 𝜋 where 𝜆 is an integer.
4
𝜋
𝑛𝜋 = −4 (2𝜆𝜋 ± )
2
𝑛 = 8𝜆 ± 2 where 𝜆 is an integer
Hence 𝑛 = 2, 6, 10 …

𝑛
11c (√3 − 𝑖)
𝜋 𝑛
= (2𝑒 −𝑖 6 )
𝑖𝑛𝜋
= 2𝑛 𝑒 − 6
𝑛𝜋
− = 2𝜆𝜋 ± 𝜋 or 2𝜋𝜆
6
𝑛 = −6(2𝜆 ± 1) or 𝑛 = −12𝜆
So 𝑛 = 6𝜆 where 𝜆 is an integer
This means 𝑛 is divisible by 6.
𝑛
11d (1 + √3𝑖)
𝑖𝜋 𝑛
= (2𝑒 3 )
𝑖𝑛𝜋
= 2𝑛 𝑒 3
𝑛𝜋 𝜋
= 2𝜆𝜋 ±
3 2
1
𝑛 = 3 (2𝜆 ± )
2
3 9 15
𝑛= , ,
2 2 2
12a i 𝑒 𝑛𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑛𝑖𝜃

= 2 cos 𝑛𝜃
12a ii 𝑒 𝑛𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑛𝑖𝜃


12b i Using part a i with 𝑛 = 3
𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃 = 2𝑖 sin 3𝜃
2
12b ii (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
= 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 2𝑒 𝑖𝜃−𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃
= 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 2𝑒 0 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃
= 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃
= (𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 ) + 2
= 2 cos 2𝜃 + 2
= 4 cos2 𝜃
3
12biii (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
= 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃 (𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 − 1)3

3 3
= 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃 (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 1) (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 1)
= 3𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 − 3𝑒 𝑖𝜃 3 − 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 3𝑖𝜃

= −8𝑖 sin3 𝜃
12b iv 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 2 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃
= (𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 ) + (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ) + 2
= 2 cos 2𝜃 + 2 cos 𝜃 + 2
12v 𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃
= (𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃 ) − (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
= 2𝑖 sin 3𝜃 − 2𝑖 sin 𝜃
13a Using question 12a with 𝑛 = 1,

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = 2 cos 𝜃

1 𝑖𝜃
cos 𝜃 = (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
2
13b cos(−𝜃)
1 −𝑖𝜃
= (𝑒 + 𝑒 −(−𝑖𝜃) )
2
1 −𝑖𝜃
= (𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )
2
1 𝑖𝜃
= (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
2
= cos 𝜃
Hence cos 𝜃 is an even function.
13c
1 𝑖𝜃
sin 𝜃 = (𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
2𝑖
Hence
sin(−𝜃)
1 −𝑖𝜃
= (𝑒 − 𝑒 −(−𝑖𝜃) )
2𝑖
1 −𝑖𝜃
= (𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )
2𝑖
1 𝑖𝜃
=− (𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
2𝑖
= − sin 𝜃
Hence sin 𝜃 is an odd function.
13d
sin(−𝜃) − sin 𝜃
tan(−𝜃) = = = − tan 𝜃
cos(−𝜃) cos 𝜃
Hence tan 𝜃 is an odd function.

1 1
cot(−𝜃) = = = − cot 𝜃
tan(−𝜃) − tan 𝜃
Hence cot 𝜃 is an odd function.
1 1
sec(−𝜃) = = = sec 𝜃
cos(−𝜃) cos 𝜃
Hence sec 𝜃 is an even function.
1 1
cosec(−𝜃) = = = − cosec 𝜃
sin(−𝜃) − sin 𝜃
Hence cosec 𝜃 is an odd function.
𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋
14a (𝑧 + 2𝑒 2 ) (𝑧 − 2𝑒 2 )
𝑖𝜋 2
2
=𝑧 − (2𝑒 2 )
= 𝑧 2 − 4𝑒 𝑖𝜋
= 𝑧2 + 4
𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋
14b (𝑧 − 𝑒 3 ) (𝑧 − 𝑒 − 3 )
𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋
= 𝑧 2 − 𝑧𝑒 − 3 − 𝑧𝑒 3 + (𝑒 3 ) (𝑒 − 3 )
𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋
= 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (𝑒 − 3 + 𝑒 3 ) + 𝑒 0
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (cos − 𝑖 sin + cos + 𝑖 sin ) + 1
3 3 3 3
𝜋
= 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1
3
= 𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 1
𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋
14c (𝑧 + 2) (𝑧 − 2𝑒 3 ) (𝑧 − 2𝑒 − 3 )
= (𝑧 + 2)(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 4)
= 𝑧3 + 8

𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋 3𝑖𝜋 3𝑖𝜋
14d (𝑧 − √2𝑒 4 ) (𝑧 − √2𝑒 − 4 ) (𝑧 − √2𝑒 4 ) (𝑧 − √2𝑒 − 4 )
= (𝑧 2 − 𝑧√2 (𝑒 4 + 𝑒 − 4 ) + (−√2𝑒 4 ) (−√2𝑒 − 4 ))
3𝑖𝜋 3𝑖𝜋 3𝑖𝜋 3𝑖𝜋

× (𝑧 2 − 𝑧√2 (𝑒 4 + 𝑒− 4 ) + (−√2𝑒 −
4 ) (−√2𝑒 4 ))
𝜋 3𝜋
= (𝑧 2 − 2√2𝑧 cos + 2) (𝑧 2 − 2√2𝑧 cos + 2)
4 4
1 1
= (𝑧 2 − 𝑧2√2 ( ) + 2) (𝑧 2 − 𝑧2√2 (− ) + 2)
√2 √2
= (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2)(𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 2)
= 𝑧 4 + 2𝑧 3 + 2𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 3 − 4𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 2𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 + 4
= 𝑧4 + 4
15a 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝜙
|𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 | = |𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝜙 |
|𝑟||𝑒 𝑖𝜃 | = |𝑠||𝑒 𝑖𝜙 |
|𝑟|(1) = |𝑠|(1)
|𝑟| = |𝑠|
And since 𝑟 > 0 and 𝑠 > 0
𝑟=𝑠
15b 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝜙
Since 𝑟 = 𝑠,
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜙
𝑒 𝑖𝜃
=1
𝑒 𝑖𝜙
𝑒 𝑖(𝜃−𝜙) = 1
Hence −2𝜋 < 𝜙 − 𝜃 < 2𝜋 within this range, 𝜃 − 𝜙 = 0 and so 𝜃 = 𝜙.

15c If two complex numbers are equal, then they represent the same point in the
Argand diagram. Hence the moduli are equal and the principal arguments are
equal.


𝜋 𝜋
1a 2𝑖 = 2𝑒 𝑖 2 (note that 𝑖 = 𝑒 𝑖 2 )
𝜋 𝜋
1b 2𝑒 𝑖 2 = 2𝑒 𝑖( 2 +2𝑘𝜋)
1c 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃
𝜋
2𝑒 𝑖( 2 +2𝑘𝜋) = 2𝑖 = 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃
𝜋
𝜋 𝜋+4𝑘𝜋
Hence 𝑟 2 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 = 2𝑒 𝑖( 2 +2𝑘𝜋) , thus 𝑟 2 = 2 and 2𝜃 = 2 + 2𝑘𝜋 = 2
and so
(4𝑘+1)𝜋
𝑟 = √2, 𝜃 = 4
(4𝑘+1)𝑖𝜋 𝜋 −3𝑖𝜋
1d 𝑧 = √2𝑒 4 = √2𝑒 𝑖 4 , √2𝑒 4
𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 1 1
1e 𝑧 = √2𝑒 𝑖 4 = √2 (cos 4 + 𝑖 sin 4 ) = √2 ( + 𝑖) = 1 + 𝑖
√2 √2
3𝜋
3𝜋 3𝜋 1 1
𝑧 = √2𝑒 −𝑖 4 = √2 (cos (− ) + 𝑖 sin (− )) = √2 (− − 𝑖) = −1 − 𝑖
4 4 √2 √2
2a −1 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜋
2b 𝑒 𝑖(𝜋+2𝑘𝜋)
4
2c 𝑧 4 = (𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑟 4 𝑒 4𝑖𝜃
Hence 𝑟 4 𝑒 4𝑖𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖(𝜋+2𝑘𝜋)

𝑟 = 1 and
4𝜃 = (𝜋 + 2𝑘𝜋)
𝜋 + 2𝑘𝜋
𝜃=
4

2d
3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
𝑧 = 𝑒 −𝑖 4 , 𝑒 −𝑖 4 , 𝑒 𝑖 4 , 𝑒 𝑖 4
2e
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑧=− − 𝑖, − 𝑖, + 𝑖, − + 𝑖
√2 √2 √2 √2 √2 √2 √2 √2
3a
𝑖𝜋
−𝑖 = 𝑒 − 2
3b
𝜋
−𝑖 = 𝑒 −𝑖( 2 +2𝑘𝜋)
3c 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
3 𝜋
(𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑒 −𝑖( 2 +2𝑘𝜋)
𝜋
𝑟 3 𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 = 𝑒 −𝑖( 2 +2𝑘𝜋)
𝑟=1
𝜋
3𝜃 = − ( + 2𝑘𝜋)
2
1 𝜋
𝜃 = − ( + 2𝑘𝜋)
3 2
1 𝜋 + 4𝑘𝜋
𝜃=− ( )
3 2
(4𝑘 + 1)𝜋
𝜃=−
6
3d
𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋 5𝑖𝜋
𝑧 = 𝑒 2 , 𝑒− 6 , 𝑒− 6

4a 𝑒 𝑛𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑛𝑖𝜃
= cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 + cos(−𝑛𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(−𝑛𝜃)
= 2 cos 𝑛𝜃
3
4b (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
= 𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 + 3𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 + 3𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃
= 𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 + 3𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 3𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃
= 𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 + 3(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ) + 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃
= (𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃 ) + 3(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
4c cos3 𝜃
3
1
= ( × 2 cos 𝜃)
2
3
1 𝑖𝜃 −𝑖𝜃
= ( × (𝑒 + 𝑒 ))
2
1 𝑖𝜃 3
= 3 (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
2
1
= ((𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃 ) + 3(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ))
8
1
= (2 cos 3𝜃 + 6 cos 𝜃)
8
1 3
= cos 3𝜃 + cos 𝜃
4 4
𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑛𝜃
Hence
1 𝑖𝑛𝜃
sin 𝑛𝜃 = (𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑛𝜃 )
2𝑖

sin3 𝜃
3
1
= ( (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ))
2𝑖
1 3
= 3
(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
(2𝑖)
1
= (𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 − 3𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 + 3𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃 )
(2𝑖)3
1
= (𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃 − 3𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 3𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
(2𝑖)3
1
= (𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃 − 3(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 3𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ))
(2𝑖)3
1
= (2𝑖 sin 3𝜃 − 6𝑖 sin 𝜃)
(2𝑖)3
1
= − (2 sin 3𝜃 − 6 sin 𝜃)
8
3 1
= sin 𝜃 − sin 3𝜃
4 4


6a Consider the equation
𝑧 4 + 16 = 0
Let 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 be a root of the equation.
4
(𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) + 16 = 0
𝑟 4 𝑒 4𝑖𝜃 = −16
𝑟 4 = 16 and 𝑒 4𝑖𝜃 = −1
(2𝑛+1)𝜋
Hence 𝑟 = 2 and 4𝜃 = 𝜋 + 2𝑛𝜋 so 𝜃 = where 𝑛 is an integer. Thus
4
𝑖𝜋 3𝑖𝜋
𝑧 = 2𝑒 ± 4 , 2𝑒 ± 4
Hence writing 𝑧 4 + 16 as a product of factors gives

𝑧 4 + 16 = (𝑧 − 2𝑒 4 ) (𝑧 − 2𝑒 − 4 ) (𝑧 − 2𝑒 4 ) (𝑧 − 2𝑒 − 4 )
6b 𝑧 4 + 16
= (𝑧 − 2𝑒 4 ) (𝑧 − 2𝑒 − 4 ) (𝑧 − 2𝑒 4 ) (𝑧 − 2𝑒 − 4 )
= (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧𝑒 4 − 2𝑧𝑒 − 4 + 4𝑒 0 ) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧𝑒 4 − 2𝑧𝑒 − 4 + 4𝑒 0 )
= (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 (𝑒 4 + 𝑒 − 4 ) + 4) + (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 (𝑒 4 + 𝑒− 4 ) + 4)
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 (cos + 𝑖 sin + cos − 𝑖 sin ) + 4)
4 4 4 4
3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋
+ (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 (cos + 𝑖 sin + cos − 𝑖 sin ) + 4)
4 4 4 4
𝜋 3𝜋
= (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 (2 cos ) + 4) + (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 (2 cos ) + 4)
4 4
2 2
= (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 ( ) + 4) + (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 (− ) + 4)
√2 √2
= (𝑧 2 − 2√2𝑧 + 4)(𝑧 2 + 2√2𝑧 + 4)

6c 𝑧 4 + 16
= (𝑧 4 + 8𝑧 2 + 16) − 8𝑧 2
2
= (𝑧 2 + 4)2 − (2√2𝑧)
= (𝑧 2 + 4 − 2√2𝑧)(𝑧 2 + 4 + 2√2𝑧)
= (𝑧 2 − 2√2𝑧 + 4)(𝑧 2 + 2√2𝑧 + 4)
7a Consider the equation

𝑧5 + 1 = 0
Let 𝑧 = 𝑟 cis(𝜃). It follows that
𝑟 5 cis(5𝜃) + 1 = 0
𝑟 5 cis(5𝜃) = −1
(2𝑛+1)𝜋
Hence 𝑟 = 1 and cis(5𝜃) = −1 so 5𝜃 = 𝜋 + 2𝑛𝜋 and thus 𝜃 = . From this
5
it follows that
𝑖𝜋 3𝑖𝜋 5𝑖𝜋
𝑧 = 𝑒± 5 , 𝑒± ±
5 ,𝑒 5
𝑖𝜋 3𝑖𝜋
𝑧 = 𝑒± 5 , 𝑒± 5 , −1
Hence writing 𝑧 5 + 1 as a product of roots gives

𝑧 5 + 1 = (𝑧 − (−1)) (𝑧 − 𝑒 5 ) (𝑧 − 𝑒 − 5 ) (𝑧 − 𝑒 5 ) (𝑧 − 𝑒− 5 )
= (𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 − 𝑒 5 ) (𝑧 − 𝑒 − 5 ) (𝑧 − 𝑒 5 ) (𝑧 − 𝑒− 5 )
7b 𝑧5 + 1
= (𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 − 𝑒 5 ) (𝑧 − 𝑒 − 5 ) (𝑧 − 𝑒 5 ) (𝑧 − 𝑒− 5 )
𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋
= (𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 − (𝑒 5 + 𝑒 − 5 ) + (𝑒 5 𝑒 − 5 )) (𝑧 − (𝑒 3 5 + 𝑒 −3 5 ) + (𝑒 3 5 𝑒 −3 5 ))
= (𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 − (𝑒 5 + 𝑒 − 5 ) + 𝑒 0 ) (𝑧 − (𝑒 3 5 + 𝑒 −3 5 ) + 𝑒 0 )
= (𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 − (𝑒 5 + 𝑒 − 5 ) + 1) (𝑧 − (𝑒 3 5 + 𝑒 −3 5 ) + 1)

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= (𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 − (cos + 𝑖 sin + cos − 𝑖 sin ) + 1)
5 5 5 5
3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋
(𝑧 − (cos + 𝑖 sin + cos − 𝑖 sin ) + 1)
5 5 5 5
𝜋 3𝜋
= (𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 − 2 cos + 1)(𝑧 − 2 cos + 1)
5 5
𝜋 2𝜋
= (𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 − 2 cos + 1)(𝑧 + 2 cos + 1)
5 5
7c The sum of the roots of the equation 𝑧 5 + 1 is

3𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
cis ( ) + cis (− ) + cis ( ) + cis (− ) − 1 = 0
5 5 5 5
3𝜋 𝜋
2 cos (− ) + 2 cos ( ) − 1 = 0
5 5
2𝜋 𝜋
−2 cos ( ) + 2 cos ( ) − 1 = 0
5 5
2𝜋 𝜋
2 cos − 2 cos + 1 = 0
5 5
2𝜋 𝜋 2
cos = 2 (cos 5 ) − 1
5
Hence,
𝜋 2 𝜋
4 (cos ) − 2 − 2 cos + 1 = 0
5 5
𝜋 2 𝜋
4 (cos ) − 2 cos − 1 = 0
5 5
Hence, roots are
𝜋 2 ± √(4 + 16)
cos =
5 8
1 + √5
= (remove the other solution as its value is less than 0)
4
Hence,
2
2𝜋 (1 + √5)
cos =2× −1
5 16
2√5 − 2
=
8

−1 + √5
=
4
√5 − 1
=
4
8a Noting that cis(𝜃) = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃

it follows that
cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 (1)

And hence that
cos(−𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(−𝜃) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 (2)

(1) + (2):
2 cos 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
1 𝑖𝜃
2
(1) − (2):
2𝑖 sin 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
1 𝑖𝜃
2𝑖
1
8b i cos 2𝜃 = 2 (𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 )
1 1
= (𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 0 + 𝑒 0 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 ) + (𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 0 − 𝑒 0 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 )
4 4
2 2
1 1
= ( (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )) − ( (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ))
2 2𝑖
= cos 2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃

8b ii sin 2𝜃
1 2𝑖𝜃
= (𝑒 − 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 )
2𝑖
1 2𝑖𝜃
= (𝑒 − 𝑒 0 + 𝑒 0 − 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 )
2𝑖
1 𝑖𝜃
= (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
2𝑖
1 1
= 2 ( (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ) (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ))
2 2𝑖
= 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
8b iii cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)
1 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽)
= (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) )
2
1 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽)
= (𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(𝛽−𝛼) + 𝑒 −𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) )
4
1
+ (𝑒 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(𝛽−𝛼) + 𝑒 −𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) )
4
1 𝑖(𝛼) 1 1 1
= (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖(𝛼) ) (𝑒 𝑖(𝛽) + 𝑒 −𝑖(𝛽) ) − (𝑒 𝑖(𝛼) − 𝑒 −𝑖(𝛼) ) (𝑒 𝑖(𝛽) − 𝑒 −𝑖(𝛽) )
2 2 2𝑖 2𝑖
= cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽
8b iv sin(𝛼 + 𝛽)
1 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽)
= (𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) )
2𝑖
1 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽)
= (𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(𝛽−𝛼) − 𝑒 −𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) )
4𝑖
1 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽)
+ (𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(𝛽−𝛼) − 𝑒 −𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) )
4𝑖
1 𝑖(𝛼) 1 1 1
= (𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑖(𝛼) ) (𝑒 𝑖(𝛽) + 𝑒 −𝑖(𝛽) ) + (𝑒 𝑖(𝛼) + 𝑒 −𝑖(𝛼) ) (𝑒 𝑖(𝛽) − 𝑒 −𝑖(𝛽) )
2𝑖 2 2 2𝑖
= sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽

9a cos6 𝜃
6
1
= ( (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ))
2
1 6𝑖𝜃
= (𝑒 + 6𝑒 4𝑖𝜃 + 15𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 20 + 15𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 + 6𝑒 −4𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −6𝑖𝜃 )
26
1
= ((𝑒 6𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −6𝑖𝜃 ) + 6(𝑒 4𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −4𝑖𝜃 ) + 15(𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 ) + 20)
26
1
= (2 cos 6𝜃 + 12 cos 4𝜃 + 30 cos 2𝜃 + 20)
26
1
= (cos 6𝜃 + 6 cos 4𝜃 + 15 cos 2𝜃 + 10)
25
9b
𝜋
4
∫ cos6 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
4 1
=∫ (cos 6𝜃 + 6 cos 4𝜃 + 15 cos 2𝜃 + 10) 𝑑𝜃
0 25
𝜋
1 4
= 5 ∫ (cos 6𝜃 + 6 cos 4𝜃 + 15 cos 2𝜃 + 10) 𝑑𝜃
2 0
𝜋
1 1 6 15 4
= 5 [ sin 6𝜃 + sin 4𝜃 + sin 2𝜃 + 10𝜃]
2 6 4 2 0
1 1 6𝜋 6 16 𝜋 10𝜋
= 5
( sin + sin 𝜋 + sin + − 0)
2 6 4 4 2 2 4
15𝜋 + 44
=
192
10a sin3 𝜃
3
1
= ( (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ))
2𝑖
1
= (𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 − 3𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 3𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃 )
8𝑖 3
1
=− ((𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃 ) − 3(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ))
8𝑖

1
=− (2𝑖 sin 3𝜃 − 6𝑖 sin 𝜃)
8𝑖
1
= − (sin 3𝜃 − 3 sin 𝜃)
4
sin5 𝜃
5
1
= ( (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ))
2𝑖
1
= (𝑒 5𝑖𝜃 − 5𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 + 10𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 10𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 + 5𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −5𝑖𝜃 )
32𝑖 5
1
= ((𝑒 5𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −5𝑖𝜃 ) − 5(𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −3𝑖𝜃 ) + 10(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ))
32𝑖
1
= (2𝑖 sin 5𝜃 − 10𝑖 sin 3𝜃 + 20𝑖 sin 𝜃)
32𝑖
1
= (sin 5𝜃 − 5 sin 3𝜃 + 10 sin 𝜃)
16
10b sin3 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃

= sin3 𝜃 (1 − sin2 𝜃)
= sin3 𝜃 − sin5 𝜃
1 1
= − (sin 3𝜃 − 3 sin 𝜃) − (sin 5𝜃 − 5 sin 3𝜃 + 10 sin 𝜃)
4 16
1
= (2 sin 𝜃 + sin 3𝜃 − sin 5𝜃)
16
10c
𝜋
3
∫ sin3 𝜃 cos2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
3 1
=∫ (2 sin 𝜃 + sin 3𝜃 − sin 5𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
0 16
𝜋
1 1 1 3
= [−2 cos 𝜃 − cos 3𝜃 + cos 5𝜃]
16 3 5 0

1 𝜋 1 1 5𝜋 1 1
= (−2 cos − cos 𝜋 + cos − (−2 cos 0 − cos 0 + cos 0))
16 3 3 5 3 3 5
1 1 1 1 1
= (−1 + + − (−2 − + ))
16 3 10 3 5
47
=
480
11a 𝑒 𝑛𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑛𝑖𝜃

= 2 cos 𝑛𝜃
11b Since
5𝑧 4 − 11𝑧 3 + 16𝑧 2 − 11𝑧 + 5 = 0
𝑧 2 (5𝑧 2 − 11𝑧 + 16 − 11𝑧 −1 + 5𝑧 −2 ) = 0
𝑧 2 (5(𝑧 2 + 𝑧 −2 ) − 11(𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 ) + 16) = 0
5(2 cos 2𝜃) − 11(2 cos 𝜃) + 16 = 0
5 cos 2𝜃 − 11 cos 𝜃 + 8 = 0
11c 5(2cos 2 𝜃 − 1) − 11 cos 𝜃 + 8 = 0

10 cos2 𝜃 − 5 − 11 cos 𝜃 + 8 = 0
10 cos2 𝜃 − 11 cos 𝜃 + 3 = 0
(5 cos 𝜃 − 3)(2 cos 𝜃 − 1) = 0
3 1
cos 𝜃 = or
5 2
3 √52 − 32 4
5 5 5
1 √21 − 1 √3
2 2 2
3 4 1 √3
Hence the roots are 𝑧 = ± 𝑖, ± 𝑖
5 5 2 2

12 1−𝑖
𝜋
= √2𝑒 −𝑖 4
𝜋
= 𝑒 ln √2 𝑒 −𝑖 4
𝑖𝜋
= 𝑒 ln √2− 4
1 𝜋
So 𝑎 = ln √2 = 2 ln 2 and 𝑏 = − 4 .
13a cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) + cos(𝐴 − 𝐵)

= cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
= 2 cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵
𝛼+𝛽 𝛼−𝛽
13b Let 𝐴 = and 𝐵 = , thus
2 2
2 cos ( ) cos ( )
2 2
𝛼+𝛽 𝛼−𝛽 𝛼+𝛽 𝛼−𝛽
= cos (( )+( )) + cos (( )−( ))
2 2 2 2
= cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛽
13c sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) + sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)

= sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
= 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵
Let 𝐴 = and 𝐵 = , thus
2 2
2 sin ( ) cos ( )
2 2
= sin (( )+( )) + sin (( )−( ))
2 2 2 2
= sin 𝛼 + sin 𝛽
as required

13d 𝑒 𝑖𝛼 + 𝑒 𝑖𝛽
= cos 𝛼 + 𝑖 sin 𝛼 + cos 𝛽 + 𝑖 sin 𝛽
= (cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛽) + 𝑖(sin 𝛼 + sin 𝛽)
= 2 cos ( ) cos ( ) + 𝑖 (2 sin ( ) cos ( ))
2 2 2 2
𝛼−𝛽 𝛼+𝛽 𝛼+𝛽
= 2 cos ( ) [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
2 2 2
𝛼 − 𝛽 𝑖 (𝛼+𝛽)
= 2 cos ( ) 𝑒2
2
14ai cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛽

1 𝑖𝛼 1
= (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝛼 ) + (𝑒 𝑖𝛽 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝛽 )
2 2
1 𝑖𝛼
= (𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑖𝛽 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝛼 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝛽 )
2
1 𝑖 (𝛼+𝛽) 𝑖
(𝛼+𝛽)
𝑖
(𝛼−𝛽)
𝑖
(𝛼−𝛽)
= (𝑒 2 + 𝑒 −2 ) (𝑒 2 + 𝑒 −2 )
2
1 𝑖 (𝛼+𝛽) 𝑖
(𝛼+𝛽) 1 𝑖 (𝛼−𝛽) 𝑖
(𝛼−𝛽)
= 2 ( (𝑒 2 + 𝑒 −2 )) ( (𝑒 2 + 𝑒 −2 ))
2 2
= 2 cos ( ) cos ( )
2 2
14aii sin 𝛼 + sin 𝛽

1 𝑖𝛼 1
= (𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝛼 ) + (𝑒 𝑖𝛽 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝛽 )
2𝑖 2𝑖
1 𝑖𝛼
= (𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑖𝛽 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝛼 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝛽 )
2𝑖
1 𝑖 (𝛼+𝛽) 𝑖
(𝛼+𝛽)
𝑖
(𝛼−𝛽)
𝑖
(𝛼−𝛽)
= (𝑒 2 − 𝑒 −2 ) (𝑒 2 + 𝑒 −2 )
2𝑖
1 𝑖 (𝛼+𝛽) 𝑖
(𝛼+𝛽) 1 𝑖 (𝛼−𝛽) 𝑖
(𝛼−𝛽)
= 2 ( (𝑒 2 − 𝑒 −2 )) ( (𝑒 2 + 𝑒 −2 ))
2𝑖 2
= 2 sin ( ) cos ( )
2 2

14b tan 𝜃
sin 𝜃
=
cos 𝜃
1 𝑖𝜃
(𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
= 2𝑖
1 𝑖𝜃
(𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
2
=
𝑖(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
14c tan 2𝜃
(𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 )
=
𝑖(𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 )
2 2𝑖𝜃
(𝑒 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 )
= 𝑖
2(𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 )
2 2𝑖𝜃
(𝑒 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 )
= 2𝑖𝜃 𝑖
𝑒 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃
2 2𝑖𝜃
(𝑒 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 )
= 2𝑖𝜃 𝑖
𝑒 + 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 − 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃
2 𝑖𝜃
(𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
𝑖
= 𝑖𝜃
(𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )2 + (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )2
2 ( 𝑖𝜃 )
𝑖(𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
=
(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )2
1 + 𝑖𝜃
(𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )2
2( )
𝑖(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
=
(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )2
1−
−(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )2
2 ( 𝑖𝜃 )
𝑖(𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
= 2
1 − ( 𝑖𝜃 )
𝑖(𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )

2 tan 𝜃
=
1 − tan2 𝜃
15a 𝑧 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛
This is a geometric series with 𝑎 = 𝑧 and 𝑟 = 𝑧. Now, assuming that |𝑧| < 1, we
have that the sum of the geometric series is
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟
𝑧(1 − 𝑧 𝑛 )
=
1−𝑧
𝑧 𝑛+1 − 𝑧
=
𝑧−1
𝑧 𝑛+1 −𝑧
15b 𝑧 + 𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛 = 𝑧−1
Putting 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝜃 2
(𝑒 𝑖(𝑛+1)𝜃 − 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )
𝑖𝜃 𝑛
𝑒 + (𝑒 ) + ⋯ + (𝑒 ) =
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 1
(𝑒 𝑖(𝑛+1)𝜃 − 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑒 𝑛𝑖𝜃 =
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 1
(𝑒 𝑖(𝑛+1)𝜃 − 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑒 𝑛𝑖𝜃 =
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 1
(𝑒 𝑖(𝑛+1)𝜃 + 𝑒 𝑖(𝜃+𝜋) )
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑒 𝑛𝑖𝜃 =
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 𝑖𝜋
𝑖𝜃 2𝑖𝜃 𝑛𝑖𝜃
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 (𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 1)
𝑒 +𝑒 + ⋯+ 𝑒 =
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 1
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 (𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑒 𝑖𝜋 )
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑒 𝑛𝑖𝜃 =
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 𝑖𝜋
(𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 1)
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑒 𝑛𝑖𝜃 =
1 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
1 1 1
𝑒 2𝑖𝑛𝜃 (𝑒 2𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑛𝜃 )
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑒 𝑛𝑖𝜃 = 1 1 1
𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 (𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 )

1 1 1
𝑒 2𝑖(𝑛+1)𝜃 (𝑒 2𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑒 −2𝑖𝑛𝜃 )
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑒 𝑛𝑖𝜃 = 1 1
(𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 )
1 1
𝑒 2𝑖(𝑛+1)𝜃 (2𝑖 sin 2 𝑛𝜃)
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑒 𝑛𝑖𝜃 =
1
2𝑖 sin 2 𝜃
1 1
𝑒 2𝑖(𝑛+1)𝜃 (sin 2 𝑛𝜃)
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑒 𝑛𝑖𝜃 =
1
sin 2 𝜃
cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 + cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃 + ⋯ + cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃

1 1 1
(cos 2 (𝑛 + 1)𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2 (𝑛 + 1)𝜃) (sin 2 𝑛𝜃)
=
1
sin 2 𝜃
Equating the imaginary component in the above equation

1 1
sin 2 (𝑛 + 1)𝜃 (sin 2 𝑛𝜃)
sin 𝜃 + sin 2𝜃 + ⋯ + sin 𝑛𝜃 =
1
sin 2 𝜃
𝜋
15c Let 𝜃 = 𝑛
1
(𝑛
sin
1 𝜋
𝑛 ( ) sin 2 + 1)𝜋
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 (𝑛 − 1)𝜋 𝑛𝜋 2 𝑛 𝑛
sin + sin + sin + ⋯ + sin + sin =
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 1 𝜋
sin 2 (𝑛)
1 1 1
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 (𝑛 − 1)𝜋 sin 2 𝜋 sin 2 (1 + 𝑛) 𝜋
sin + sin + sin + ⋯ + sin + sin 𝜋 =
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 1 𝜋
sin ( )
2 𝑛
1 1 1
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 (𝑛 − 1)𝜋 sin 2 𝜋 sin 2 (1 + 𝑛) 𝜋
sin + sin + sin + ⋯ + sin +0=
sin 2 (𝑛)
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 (𝑛 − 1)𝜋 (1) sin ( 2 + 2𝑛)
sin + sin + sin + ⋯ + sin =
sin 2 (𝑛)

𝜋
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 (𝑛 − 1)𝜋 cos (2𝑛)
sin + sin + sin + ⋯ + sin =
sin 2 (𝑛)
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 (𝑛 − 1)𝜋 𝜋
sin + sin + sin + ⋯ + sin = cot
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 2𝑛

Solutions to Exercise 3F Chapter review

1a (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)3 (cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃)2
= (cis 𝜃)3 (cis 2𝜃)2
= cis 3𝜃 cis 4𝜃
= cis 7𝜃
1b
(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)4
(cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃)2
(cis 𝜃)4
=
(cis(−𝜃))2
cis 4𝜃
=
cis(−2𝜃)
= cis 6𝜃
2
𝑖𝜋 3
−
(𝑒 7)
𝜋 4
(𝑒 𝑖 7 )
3𝜋
𝑒 −𝑖 7
= 4𝜋
𝑒𝑖 7
7𝜋
= 𝑒 −𝑖 7
= 𝑒 −𝑖𝜋
= −1
3a 1−𝑖
1
= √1 + 1cis (tan−1 − )
1
𝜋
= √2 cis (− )
4

3b (1 − 𝑖)13
13
3𝜋
= (√2 cis ( ))
4
13 3𝜋
= (√2) cis ( × 13)
4
39𝜋
= 26 √2 cis ( )
4
𝜋
= 26 √2 cis (− )
4
1 𝑖
= 26 √2 (− + )
√2 √2
= −64 + 64𝑖
12 12
4a (√3 + 𝑖) + (√3 − 𝑖)
𝜋 12 𝜋 12
= (2𝑒 6 ) + (2𝑒 − 6 )
= 212 𝑒 2𝜋 + 212 𝑒 −2𝜋

= 212 + 212
= 2 × 212
= 213
𝑛 𝑛
4b i (√3 + 𝑖) + (√3 − 𝑖)
𝜋 𝑛 𝜋 𝑛
= (2𝑒 6 ) + (2𝑒 − 6 )
= 212 𝑒 𝑛𝜋 + 212 𝑒 −𝑛𝜋

= 212 𝑒 𝑛𝜋 + 212 𝑒 −𝑛𝜋
= 212 (𝑒 𝑛𝜋 + 𝑒 −𝑛𝜋 )
= 212 (cos 𝑛𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜋 + cos 𝑛𝜋 − 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜋)
= 212 (2 cos 𝑛𝜋)
= 213 cos 𝑛𝜋
which is real

𝑛 𝑛
4b ii (√3 + 𝑖) + (√3 − 𝑖)
is rational when 213 cos 𝑛𝜋 is rational and hence when cos 𝑛𝜋 is rational. This is
when 𝑛 is even or a multiple of 3.
= cis 6𝜃
= (cis 𝜃)6
+15𝑖 4 cos 2 𝜃 sin4 𝜃 + 6𝑖 5 cos 𝜃 sin5 𝜃 + 𝑖 6 sin6 𝜃
= cos6 𝜃 + 6𝑖 cos5 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 15 cos 4 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 − 20𝑖 cos 3 𝜃 sin3 𝜃
+15 cos2 𝜃 sin4 𝜃 + 6𝑖 cos 𝜃 sin5 𝜃 − sin6 𝜃
= (cos 6 𝜃 − 15 cos 4 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + 15 cos2 𝜃 sin4 𝜃 − sin6 𝜃)
+ 𝑖(6 cos5 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 20 cos 3 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 + 6 cos 𝜃 sin5 𝜃)
Equating the real components of the above equation gives
cos 6𝜃 = cos 6 𝜃 − 15 cos4 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + 15 cos 2 𝜃 sin4 𝜃 − sin6 𝜃
Equating the imaginary components of the above equation gives
sin 6𝜃 = 6 cos5 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 20 cos3 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 + 6 cos 𝜃 sin5 𝜃
5b tan 6𝜃
sin 6𝜃
=
cos 6𝜃
6 cos 5 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 20 cos 3 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 + 6 cos 𝜃 sin5 𝜃
=
cos6 𝜃 − 15 cos4 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + 15 cos2 𝜃 sin4 𝜃 − sin6 𝜃
6 cos 5 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 20 cos 3 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 + 6 cos 𝜃 sin5 𝜃 cos6 𝜃
= ÷
cos6 𝜃 − 15 cos4 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + 15 cos2 𝜃 sin4 𝜃 − sin6 𝜃 cos6 𝜃
6 tan 𝜃 − 20 tan3 𝜃 + 6 tan5 𝜃
=
1 − 15 tan2 𝜃 + 15 tan4 𝜃 − tan6 𝜃
6𝑡 − 20𝑡 3 + 6𝑡 5
=
1 − 15𝑡 2 + 15𝑡 4 − 𝑡 6

2𝑡(3 − 10𝑡 2 + 3𝑡 4 )
=
1 − 15𝑡 2 + 15𝑡 4 − 𝑡 6
6a
1 4
(𝑧 + )
𝑧
1 1 1 1
= 𝑧 4 + 4𝑧 3 ( ) + 6𝑧 2 ( 2 ) + 4𝑧 ( 3 ) + ( 4 )
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
= 𝑧 4 + 4𝑧 2 + 6 + 4𝑧 −2 + 𝑧 −4
1 4
(𝑧 − )
𝑧
1 1 1 1
= 𝑧 4 − 4𝑧 3 ( ) + 6𝑧 2 ( 2 ) − 4𝑧 ( 3 ) + ( 4 )
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
= 𝑧 4 − 4𝑧 2 + 6 − 4𝑧 −2 + 𝑧 −4
6b Adding the above two results from part a,
1 4 1 4
(𝑧 + ) + (𝑧 − ) = 2(𝑧 4 + 6 + 𝑧 −4 )
𝑧 𝑧
1 4 1 4
(𝑧 + ) + (𝑧 − ) = 2(𝑧 4 + 𝑧 −4 + 6)
𝑧 𝑧
(2 cos 𝜃)4 + (2𝑖 sin 𝜃)4 = 2(cos 4𝜃 + 6)
16 cos4 𝜃 + 16 sin4 𝜃 = 2(cos 4𝜃 + 6)
1
cos4 𝜃 + sin4 𝜃 = (cos 4𝜃 + 3)
4
7a If 𝜔 is a cube root of −1 it follows that

𝜔3 = −1
Now
(−𝜔2 )3
= −𝜔6
= −(𝜔3 )2

= −(−1)2
= −1
Hence 𝜔2 is a cube root of −1.
7b (6𝜔 + 1)(6𝜔2 − 1)
= 36𝜔3 + 6(𝜔2 − 𝜔) − 1
= 36(−1) − 6(𝜔 − 𝜔2 ) − 1
= −36 − 6(𝜔 − 𝜔2 − 1) − 6 − 1
Since 𝜔 − 𝜔2 − 1 is the sum of roots of −1, but note there is no coefficient of 𝜔2
in 𝜔3 − 1 = 0 and hence it follows that 𝜔 − 𝜔2 − 1 = 0
(6𝜔 + 1)(6𝜔2 − 1)
= −36 − 6(𝜔 − 𝜔2 − 1) − 6 − 1
= −36 − 6(0) − 6 − 1
= −36 − 6 − 1
= −43
8 𝑧 3 − 8𝑖 = 0
𝑧 3 = 8𝑖
Let 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , hence 𝑧 3 = 𝑟 3 𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 .

𝜋 𝜋
Thus 𝑟 3 = 8 and so 𝑟 = 2 whilst 3𝜃 = 2 and thus 𝜃 = 6 . Hence
𝜋
𝑧 = 2 cis ( )
6
9a 2 + 2𝑖
𝜋
= √22 + 22 cis ( )
4
𝜋
= 2√2 cis ( )
4
𝜋
Let 𝑧 = 𝑟 cis(𝜃) be a cube root of 2√2 cis ( 4 ). It follows that
𝜋
𝑧 3 = 2√2 cis ( )
4

𝜋
𝑟 3 cis(3𝜃) = 2√2 cis ( )
4
𝜋 (8𝑛+1)𝜋
𝑟 3 = 2√2 and hence 𝑟 = √2, 3𝜃 = 2𝑛𝜋 + 4 = 4
(8𝑛 ± 1)𝜋
𝜃= where 𝑛 is an integer
12
(8𝑛 ± 1)𝜋
𝑧 = √2 cis ( )
12
𝑘𝜋
𝑧 = √2 cis ( ) for 𝑘 = −7, 1, 9
12
9b Let 𝑧 = 𝑟 cis 𝜃 be a sixth root of 𝑖, it follows that

𝑧 6 = 𝑟 6 cis 6θ
=𝑖
𝑟 6 cis 6𝜃 = 𝑖
𝜋
𝑟 6 cis 6𝜃 =
2
Hence 𝑟 = 1 and thus
𝜋
6𝜃 = 2𝑛𝜋 +
2
(4𝑛 + 1)𝜋
6𝜃 =
2
(4𝑛 + 1)𝜋
𝜃=
12
(4𝑛 + 1)𝜋
𝑧 = cis ( ) where 𝑛 is an integer
12
𝑘𝜋
𝑧 = cis ( ) for 𝑘 = −11, −7, −3, 1, 5, 9
12

𝑖𝜋 5𝑖𝜋
10a 𝑧 = 4√3𝑒 3 − 4𝑒 6
= 4√3 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) − 4 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
3 3 6 6
1 𝑖√3 √3 𝑖
= 4√3 ( + ) − 4 (− + )
2 2 2 2
= 4√3 + 4𝑖
√3 𝑖
= 8( + )
2 2
𝑖𝜋
= 8𝑒 6
𝑧 𝑧 2 𝑧 3
10b + 𝑖 (8) + (8)
8
𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋 2 𝑖𝜋 3
8𝑒 6 8𝑒 6 8𝑒 6
= +𝑖( ) +( )
8 8 8
𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋 2 𝑖𝜋 3
= 𝑒 6 + 𝑖 (𝑒 6 ) + (𝑒 6 )
𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋
= 𝑒 6 + 𝑖𝑒 3 + 𝑒 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= cos + 𝑖 sin + 𝑖 cos + 𝑖 2 sin + cos + 𝑖 sin
6 6 3 3 2 2
√3 𝑖 𝑖 √3
= + + − 𝑖+0+𝑖
2 2 2 2
= 2𝑖
10c Let 𝜆 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 be a cube root of 𝑧. It follows that
𝜆3 = 𝑟 3 𝑒 3𝑖𝜃
𝑖𝜋
= 8𝑒 6
Hence 𝑟 3 = 8 and so 𝑟 = 2
𝜋
3𝜃 = 2𝑛𝜋 +
6

(12𝑛 + 1)𝜋
3𝜃 =
6
(12𝑛 + 1)𝜋
𝜃=
18
Hence
(12𝑛+1)𝜋
𝜆 = 2𝑒 18 where 𝑛 is an integer
11𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋 13𝑖𝜋
𝜆 = 2𝑒 − 18 , 2𝑒 18 , 2𝑒 18
11a (𝑧 − 𝑧 −1 )7
= 𝑧 7 − 7(𝑧 6 )(𝑧 −1 ) + 21(𝑧 5 )(𝑧 −2 ) − 35(𝑧 4 )(𝑧 −3 ) + 35(𝑧 3 )(𝑧 −4 ) − 21(𝑧 2 )(𝑧 −5 )
+7(𝑧)(𝑧 −6 ) − 𝑧 −7
= 𝑧 7 − 7𝑧 5 + 21𝑧 3 − 35𝑧 + 35𝑧 −1 − 21𝑧 −3 + 7𝑧 −5 − 𝑧 −7
= (𝑧 7 − 𝑧 −7 ) − 7(𝑧 5 − 𝑧 −5 ) + 21(𝑧 3 − 𝑧 −3 ) − 35(𝑧 − 𝑧 −1 )
11b 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = cis 𝜃

𝑧 − 𝑧 −1 = cis 𝜃 − cis(−𝜃)
= 2𝑖 sin 𝜃
𝑧 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 = cis 𝑛𝜃

𝑧 − 𝑧 −1 = cis 𝑛𝜃 − cis(−𝑛𝜃)
11c sin7 𝜃
= 𝑖 8 sin7 𝜃
= 𝑖(𝑖 7 sin7 𝜃)
𝑖
= (128𝑖 7 sin7 𝜃)
128

𝑖
= (27 𝑖 7 sin7 𝜃)
128
𝑖
= (2𝑖 sin 𝜃)7
128
𝑖
= (𝑧 − 𝑧 −1 )7
128
𝑖
= ((𝑧 7 − 𝑧 −7 ) − 7(𝑧 5 − 𝑧 −5 ) + 21(𝑧 3 − 𝑧 −3 ) − 35(𝑧 − 𝑧 −1 ))
128
𝑖
= (2𝑖 sin 7𝜃 − 7(2𝑖 sin 5𝜃) + 21(2𝑖 sin 3𝜃) − 35(2𝑖 sin 𝜃))
128
1
=− (2 sin 7𝜃 − 7(2 sin 5𝜃) + 21(2 sin 3𝜃) − 35(2 sin 𝜃))
64
1
= (35 sin 𝜃 − 21 sin 3𝜃 + 7 sin 5𝜃 − sin 7𝜃)
64
11d
∫(35 sin 𝜃 − 64 sin7 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
1
= ∫ (35 sin 𝜃 − 64 ( (35 sin 𝜃 − 21 sin 3𝜃 + 7 sin 5𝜃 − sin 7𝜃))) 𝑑𝜃
64
= ∫(35 sin 𝜃 − (35 sin 𝜃 − 21 sin 3𝜃 + 7 sin 5𝜃 − sin 7𝜃)) 𝑑𝜃
= ∫(21 sin 3𝜃 − 7 sin 5𝜃 + sin 7𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
7 1
= −7 cos 3𝜃 + cos 5𝜃 − cos 7𝜃 + 𝐶
5 7

= cis 5𝜃
= (cis 𝜃)5
= (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
Equating real components in the above equation

cos 5𝜃
= cos5 𝜃 − 10 cos3 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + 5 cos 𝜃 sin4 𝜃
= cos5 𝜃 − 10 cos3 𝜃 (1 − cos2 𝜃) + 5 cos 𝜃 (1 − cos 2 𝜃)2
= cos5 𝜃 − 10 cos3 𝜃 (1 − cos2 𝜃) + 5 cos 𝜃 (1 − 2 cos2 𝜃 + cos 4 𝜃)
= 16 cos5 𝜃 − 20 cos 3 𝜃 + 5 cos 𝜃
12b 16𝑥 4 − 20𝑥 2 + 5 = 0

Let 𝑥 = cos 𝜃
16 cos4 𝜃 − 20 cos 2 𝜃 + 5 = 0
cos 𝜃 (16 cos 4 𝜃 − 20 cos2 𝜃 + 5) = 0 × cos 𝜃
16 cos5 𝜃 − 20 cos 3 𝜃 + 5 cos 𝜃 = 0
cos 5𝜃 = 0
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋 9𝜋
5𝜃 = , , , ,
2 2 2 2 2
𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 7𝜋 9𝜋
𝜃= , , , ,
10 10 2 10 10
𝜋
But we omit 2 as that solution was introduced when we multiplied the equation
𝜋
by 𝜃 = 2 .
So the solutions are 𝜃 = , , ,
10 10 10 10
Hence the solutions are 𝑥 = cos , cos , cos , cos
10 10 10 10
12c The product of the roots is

cos cos cos cos =5
10 10 10 10
𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 5
cos cos cos cos =
10 10 10 10 16
𝜋 3𝜋 2 5
(cos cos ) =
10 10 16
𝜋 3𝜋 √5
cos cos =±
10 10 4

𝜋 3𝜋
But cos 10 cos 10 > 0 and hence
𝜋 3𝜋 √5
cos cos =
10 10 4
12d Let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 2 − 1
4𝑢2 − 2𝑢 − 1
= 4(2𝑥 2 − 1)2 − 2(2𝑥 2 − 1) − 1
= 4(4𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 2 + 1) − (4𝑥 2 − 2) − 1
= 16𝑥 4 − 20𝑥 2 + 5
=0
𝜋
12e 𝑥 = cos 10 is a solution to 16𝑥 4 − 20𝑥 2 + 5 = 0
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
cos = (cos2 − sin2 )
5 10 10
𝜋
= 2 cos2 −1
10
= 2𝑥 2 − 1
From part d, 𝑢 = 2𝑥 2 − 1 is a solution to the equation 4𝑢2 − 2𝑢 − 1 = 0.
The solutions to the equation are
−(−2) ± √(−2)2 − 4(4)(−1)

𝑢=
2(4)
2 ± √4 + 16
=
8
2 ± 2√5
=
8
1 ± √5
=
4
𝜋 𝜋 1 + √5
But since cos > 0, cos =
5 5 4

13a Begin by noting that
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 (1)

and that
𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = cos(−𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(−𝜃)
Hence
𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃 (2)

(1) + (2):
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
= cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃
= 2 cos 𝜃
Hence
1 𝑖𝜃
2
(1) − (2):
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
= 2𝑖 sin 𝜃
Hence
1 𝑖𝜃
2𝑖
13b i 2 cos 2 𝜃
2
1
= 2 ( (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ))
2
1
= 2 ( (𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 2𝑒 0 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 ))
4
1 2𝑖𝜃
= (𝑒 + 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 )
2
1
= (cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃 + 2 + cos 2𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 2𝜃)
2

1
= (2 + 2 cos 2𝜃)
2
= 1 + cos 2𝜃
13b ii 2 sin2 𝜃
2
1
= 2 ( (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ))
2𝑖
1
= 2 ( (𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 − 2𝑒 0 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 ))
−4
1
= − (𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 − 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 )
2
1
= − (cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃 − 2 + cos 2𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 2𝜃)
2
1
= − (−2 + 2 cos 2𝜃)
2
= 1 − cos 2𝜃
13b iii cos(𝛼 − 𝛽)

1 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽)
= (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) )
2
1
= (2𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) + 2𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼+𝛽) )
4
1 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼+𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼−𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼+𝛽)
= ( )
4 −𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼−𝛽)
1 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼+𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼−𝛽)
= ( )
4 −(𝑒 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼+𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼−𝛽) )
1 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽)
= (𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼+𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼−𝛽) )
4
1
− (𝑒 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼+𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼−𝛽) )
4
1 𝑖𝛼 1 1 1
= (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝛼 ) × (𝑒 𝑖𝛽 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝛽 ) + (𝑒 𝑖𝛼 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝛼 ) × (𝑒 𝑖𝛽 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝛽 )
2 2 2𝑖 2𝑖
= cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽

13b iv sin(𝛼 − 𝛽)
1 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽)
= (𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) )
2𝑖
1
= (2𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) − 2𝑒 −𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) )
2𝑖
1 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼+𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼−𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼+𝛽)
= ( )
4𝑖 +𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼−𝛽)
1 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽)
= (𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼+𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼−𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼+𝛽)
4𝑖
+ 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼−𝛽) )
1 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼+𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼−𝛽)

= ( )
4𝑖 −(𝑒 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽) + 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼+𝛽) − 𝑒 𝑖(−𝛼−𝛽) )
1
= ((𝑒 𝑖𝛼 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝛼 )(𝑒 𝑖𝛽 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝛽 ) − (𝑒 𝑖𝛼 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝛼 )(𝑒 𝑖𝛽 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝛽 ))
4𝑖
1 1 1 1
= ( (𝑒 𝑖𝛼 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝛼 )) ( (𝑒 𝑖𝛽 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝛽 )) − ( (𝑒 𝑖𝛼 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝛼 )) ( (𝑒 𝑖𝛽 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝛽 ))
2𝑖 2 2𝑖 2
= sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽
14a Let 𝑧 = 𝑟cis 𝜃. It follows that

𝑧 7 = 𝑟 7 (cis 𝜃)7
= 𝑟 7 cis 7𝜃
= −1
It follows that 𝑟 = 1 and hence cis 7𝜃 = −1
Hence cos 7𝜃 = −1 and so 7𝜃 = ±𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±5𝜋, 7𝜋
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
Thus 𝜃 = ± 7 , ± ,± , 𝜋 and so the roots are
7 7
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
𝑧 = cis (± ) , cis (± ) , cis (± ) , cis(𝜋)
7 7 7
Hence
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
𝑧 = cis (± ) , cis (± ) , cis (± ) , −1
7 7 7

14b i The roots of the equation 𝑧 7 = −1 are the same as the roots of the equation
𝑧 7 + 1 = 0. Since there is no coefficient of 𝑧 6 , it follows that the sum of the roots
of the equation is equal to zero. Hence
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋
cis ( ) + cis (− ) + cis ( ) + cis (− ) + cis ( ) + cis (− ) + (−1) = 0
7 7 7 7 7 7
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋
(cos + 𝑖 sin ) + (cos − 𝑖 sin ) + (cos + 𝑖 sin ) + (cos − 𝑖 sin )
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
5𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋
+ (cos + 𝑖 sin ) + (cos − 𝑖 sin ) + (−1) = 0
7 7 7 7
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
2 cos + 2 cos + 2 cos −1=0
7 7 7
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
2 cos + 2 cos + 2 cos =1
7 7 7
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 1
cos + cos + cos =
7 7 7 2
14b ii Writing 𝑧 7 + 1 as a product of factors (using part a) gives

𝑧7 + 1
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
= (𝑧 − (−1)) (𝑧 − cis ( )) (𝑧 − cis (− )) (𝑧 − cis ( ))
7 7 7
3𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋
(𝑧 − cis (− )) (𝑧 − cis ( )) (𝑧 − cis (− ))
7 7 7
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= (𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (cis ( ) + cis (− )) + cis ( ) cis (− ))
7 7 7 7
3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋
(𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (cis ( ) + cis (− )) + cis ( ) cis (− ))
7 7 7 7
5𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋
(𝑧 2 − 𝑧 (cis ( ) + cis (− )) + cis ( ) cis (− ))
7 7 7 7
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= (𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + cos2 + sin2 )
7 7 7
3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋
(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + cos2 + sin2 ) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + cos2 + sin2 )
7 7 7 7 7 7

𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
= (𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)
7 7 7
14b iii (𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 6 − 75 + 𝑧 4 − 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 + 1)

= 𝑧 7 − 76 + 𝑧 5 − 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 3 − 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 6 − 75 + 𝑧 4 − 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 + 1
= 𝑧7 + 1
Hence
(𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 6 − 75 + 𝑧 4 − 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 + 1)
= 𝑧7 + 1
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
= (𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)
7 7 7
Thus
𝑧 6 − 75 + 𝑧 4 − 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 + 1
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
= (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos + 1)
7 7 7
14c Dividing both sides of the identity in part b iii by 𝑧 3 gives

𝑧 3 − 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 − 1 + 𝑧 −1 − 𝑧 −2 + 𝑧 −3
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos 7 + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos 7 + 1) (𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 cos 7 + 1)
=
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
(𝑧 3 + 𝑧 −3 ) − (𝑧 2 + 𝑧 −2 ) + (𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 ) − 1
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
= (𝑧 − 2 cos + 𝑧 −1 )(𝑧 − 2 cos + 𝑧 −1 )(𝑧 − 2 cos + 𝑧 −1 )
7 7 7
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
= ((𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 ) − 2 cos ) ((𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 ) − 2 cos ) ((𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 ) − 2 cos )
7 7 7
We have already seen that 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑧 −𝑛 = 2 cos 𝑛𝜃

2 cos 3𝜃 − 2 cos 2𝜃 + 2 cos 𝜃 − 1
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
= (2 cos 𝜃 − 2 cos ) (2 cos 𝜃 − 2 cos ) (2 cos 𝜃 − 2 cos )
7 7 7
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
= 8 (cos 𝜃 − cos ) (cos 𝜃 − cos ) (cos 𝜃 − cos )
7 7 7

15a Let 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 . If it is a fifth root of unity, then 𝑧 5 = 1
𝑟 5 𝑒 5𝑖𝜃 = 1
𝑟5 = 1
Hence 𝑟 = 1
5𝑖𝜃 = 0, ±2𝜋, ±4𝜋
2𝜋 4𝜋
𝑖𝜃 = 0, ± ,±
5 5
Thus
2𝜋 4𝜋
𝑧 = 𝑒 0, 𝑒 ± 5 , 𝑒 ± 5
2𝜋 4𝜋
𝑧 = 1, 𝑒 ± 5 , 𝑒 ± 5
15b i 𝑢 + 𝑣
= 𝛼 + 𝛼4 + 𝛼2 + 𝛼3
= 𝛼 + 𝛼2 + 𝛼3 + 𝛼4
2𝜋 2𝜋 2 2𝜋 3 2𝜋 4
=𝑒 5 + (𝑒 5 ) + (𝑒 5) + (𝑒 5 )
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 8𝜋
=𝑒 5 +𝑒 5 +𝑒 5 +𝑒 5
2𝜋 4𝜋 −4𝜋 −2𝜋
=𝑒 5 +𝑒 5 +𝑒 5 +𝑒 5
2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋
= cos + 𝑖 sin + cos + 𝑖 sin + cos − 𝑖 sin + cos − 𝑖 sin
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
2𝜋 4𝜋
= 2 cos + 2 cos
5 5
𝑢−𝑣
= 𝛼 + 𝛼4 − 𝛼2 − 𝛼3
= 𝛼 − 𝛼2 − 𝛼3 + 𝛼4
2𝜋 2𝜋 2 2𝜋 3 2𝜋 4
=𝑒 5 − (𝑒 5 ) − (𝑒 5) + (𝑒 5 )
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 8𝜋
=𝑒 5 −𝑒 5 −𝑒 5 +𝑒 5

2𝜋 4𝜋 −4𝜋 −2𝜋
=𝑒 5 −𝑒 5 −𝑒 5 +𝑒 5
2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋
= cos + 𝑖 sin − cos − 𝑖 sin − cos + 𝑖 sin + cos − 𝑖 sin
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
2𝜋 4𝜋
= 2 cos + 2 cos
5 5
15b ii From question 12e,
𝜋 1 + √5
cos =
5 4
Now
2𝜋 𝜋
cos = 2 cos2 ( ) − 1
5 5
Hence
2
2𝜋 (1 + √5)
cos =2× −1
5 16
6 + 2√5 − 8
=
8
√5 − 1
=
4
16a 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑧 −𝑛
= (cis 𝜃)𝑛 + (cis 𝜃)−𝑛
= cis 𝑛𝜃 + cis(−𝑛𝜃)
= 2 cos 𝑛𝜃
16b sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) − sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)

= sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 − (sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵)
= 2 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵

16c (𝑧 2𝑛 + 𝑧 2𝑛−2 + 𝑧 2𝑛−4 + ⋯ + 𝑧 −2𝑛 ) sin 𝜃
= ((𝑧 2𝑛 + 𝑧 −2𝑛 ) + (𝑧 2𝑛−2 + 𝑧 −2𝑛+2 ) + ⋯ + (𝑧 2 + 𝑧 −2 ) + 𝑧 0 ) sin 𝜃
= (2 cos 2𝑛𝜃 + 2 cos(2𝑛 − 2)𝜃 + ⋯ + cos 0) sin 𝜃

= 2 cos 2𝑛𝜃 sin 𝜃 + 2 cos(2𝑛 − 2)𝜃 sin 𝜃 + ⋯ + cos 0 sin 𝜃
= (sin(2𝑛𝜃 + 𝜃) − sin(2𝑛𝜃 − 𝜃)) + (sin(2(𝑛 − 1)𝜃 + 𝜃) − sin(2(𝑛 − 1)𝜃 − 𝜃))
+ ⋯ + sin 𝜃
= sin(2𝑛𝜃 + 𝜃)
= sin(2𝑛 + 1)𝜃
16d Using the result in part c with 𝑛 = 3

(𝑧 6 + 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 0 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 6 ) sin 𝜃 = sin 7𝜃
sin 7𝜃
𝑧 6 + 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 0 + 𝑧 −2 + 𝑧 −4 + 𝑧 −6 =
sin 𝜃
sin 7𝜃
(𝑧 6 + 𝑧 −6 ) + (𝑧 4 + 𝑧 −4 ) + (𝑧 2 + 𝑧 −2 ) + 1 =
sin 𝜃
sin 7𝜃
2 cos 6𝜃 + 2 cos 4𝜃 + 2 cos 2𝜃 + 1 =
sin 𝜃
sin 7𝜃
2(4 cos 3 2𝜃 − 3 cos 2𝜃) + 2(2 cos2 2𝜃 − 1) + 2 cos 2𝜃 + 1 =
sin 𝜃
sin 7𝜃
8 cos3 2𝜃 + 4 cos2 2𝜃 − 4 cos 2𝜃 − 1 =
sin 𝜃
17 sin 𝛼 − sin 𝛽
1 𝑖𝛼 1
= (𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝛼 ) − (𝑒 𝑖𝛽 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝛽 )
2𝑖 2𝑖
1 𝑖𝛼
= (𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑖𝛽 − (𝑒 −𝑖𝛼 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝛽 ))
2𝑖
1 𝑖𝛼
= (𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑖𝛽 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝛽 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝛼 )
2𝑖
1 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽 ) −𝑖(
𝛼+𝛽
) 𝑖(
𝛼−𝛽
) −𝑖(
𝛼−𝛽
)
= (𝑒 2 + 𝑒 2 ) (𝑒 2 −𝑒 2 )
2𝑖
1 𝑖(𝛼+𝛽 ) −𝑖(
𝛼+𝛽
) 1 𝑖(𝛼−𝛽 ) −𝑖(
𝛼−𝛽
)
= 2 ([ (𝑒 2 +𝑒 2 )] [ (𝑒 2 −𝑒 2 )])
2 2𝑖

= 2 cos ( ) sin ( )
2 2
18a (1 + 2𝜔 + 3𝜔2 + 4𝜔3 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝜔𝑛−1 )(𝜔 − 1)

= 𝜔 − 1 + 2𝜔2 − 2𝜔 + 3𝜔3 − 3𝜔2 + 4𝜔4 − 4𝜔3 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝜔𝑛 − 𝑛𝜔𝑛−1
= −1 − 𝜔 − 𝜔2 − 𝜔3 − ⋯ − 𝜔𝑛−1 + 𝑛𝜔𝑛
= −(1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2 + ⋯ + 𝜔𝑛−1 ) + 𝑛𝜔𝑛
Since 𝜔 is an 𝑛th root of unity, 𝜔𝑛 = 1 and 1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2 + ⋯ + 𝜔𝑛−1 = 0
Hence
(1 + 2𝜔 + 3𝜔2 + 4𝜔3 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝜔𝑛−1 )(𝜔 − 1)
= −0 + 𝑛(1)
=𝑛
18b
1 𝑧 −1
=
𝑧 2 − 1 𝑧 − 𝑧 −1
Let 𝑧 = cis 𝜃
1 (cis 𝜃)−1
=
(cis 𝜃)2 − 1 cis 𝜃 − (cis 𝜃)−1
1 cis(−𝜃)
=
cis 2𝜃 − 1 cis 𝜃 − cis(−𝜃)
1 cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃
=
cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃 − 1 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 − (cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
1 cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃
=
cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃 − 1 2𝑖 sin 𝜃
𝜋
18c Considering the above equation, let 𝜃 = 𝑛. It follows that
𝜋 𝜋
1 cos 𝑛 − 𝑖 sin 𝑛
= 𝜋
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝑖 sin 𝑛
cos 𝑛 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛 − 1

𝜋 𝜋
1 cos 𝑛 𝑖 sin 𝑛
= −
𝜔 − 1 2𝑖 sin 𝜋 2𝑖 sin 𝜋
𝑛 𝑛
𝜋 𝜋
cos 𝑛 sin 𝑛
= −𝑖 𝜋− 𝜋
2 sin 𝑛 2 sin 𝑛
𝜋
1 cos 𝑛
=− −𝑖 𝜋
2 2 sin 𝑛
1 1
Hence the real part of is − .
𝜔−1 2
18d Consider
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 8𝜋
1 + 2 cos + 3 cos + 4 cos + 5 cos
5 5 5 5
Begin by noting that all components of the expression are real and thus the result
must be real.
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 8𝜋
1 + 2 cos + 3 cos + 4 cos + 5 cos
5 5 5 5
= 1 + 2 cos + 3 cos (𝜋 − ) + 4 cos (𝜋 + ) + 5 cos (𝜋 + )
5 5 5 5
= 1 + 2 cos − 3 cos − 4 cos + 5 cos(2𝜋 − )
5 5 5 5
2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
= 1 + 2 cos − 7 cos + 5 cos
5 5 5
2𝜋 𝜋
= 1 + 7 cos − 7 cos
5 5
√5 − 1 √5 + 1
=1+7×[ − ]
4 4
7
=1−
2
5
= −
2

18e From part d,

2𝜋 𝜋 5
1 + 7 cos − 7 cos = −
5 5 2
2𝜋 𝜋 1
cos − cos = −
5 5 2
𝜋 2 𝜋 1
2 (cos ) − 1 − cos = −
5 5 2
𝜋 2 𝜋 1
2 (cos ) − cos − = 0
5 5 2
𝜋 2 𝜋
4 (cos ) − 2cos − 1 = 0
5 5
𝜋 2 ± √4 − 4(4)(−1)
cos =
5 8
2 ± √20
=
8
1 ± √5
=
4
𝜋 𝜋 1 + √5
Since cos > 0, cos =
5 5 4

Chapter 4 worked solutions – Integration

Let 𝐶 be a constant.
1a
∫ 𝑒 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 4𝑥
= 𝑒 +𝐶
4
1b
∫ sin 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
= − cos 5𝑥 + 𝐶
5
1c
1
∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
1
= 2 tan 𝑥 + 𝐶
2
1d
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
3𝑥 − 4
Let 𝑢 = 3𝑥 − 4
𝑑𝑢
=3
𝑑𝑥
Hence,
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
3𝑥 − 4
1 3
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 𝑢

1 1 𝑑𝑢
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑢
3 𝑢
1
= ln|𝑢| + 𝐶
3
1
= ln|3𝑥 − 4| + 𝐶
3
1e
2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥
1
= 2 ∫ 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑥2
= 2×[ ]+𝐶
1
2
= 4√𝑥 + 𝐶
1f
∫ 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3𝑥
= +𝐶
ln 3
2a
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(2𝑥 − 1)2
= ∫(2𝑥 − 1)−2 𝑑𝑥
(2𝑥 − 1)−1
= +𝐶
2 × −1

1
=− +𝐶
2(2𝑥 − 1)
2b
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√25 − 𝑥 2
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√52 − 𝑥 2
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1
Hence,
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√52 − 𝑥 2
𝑥
= sin−1 ( ) + 𝐶
5
2c
3
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 , 𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2
Hence,
3
1 3
= ∫ 3𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3
1
= ∫ 𝑓′(𝑥)𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
3
1 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥)
= +𝐶
3 ln 𝑒
1 𝑥3
= 𝑒 +𝐶
3

2d
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
9 + 𝑥2
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
32 + 𝑥 2
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1
Hence,
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
32 + 𝑥 2
1 𝑥
= tan−1 + 𝐶
3 3
2e
4𝑥 + 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1
Hence,
4𝑥 + 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1
2𝑥 + 1
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 +𝑥+1
= 2 ln|𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶
= 2 ln(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶 (since 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 > 0)
2f
∫ 2𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)4 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥
Hence,
∫ 2𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)4 𝑑𝑥
1 2
= (𝑥 + 1)5 + 𝐶
5

3a
4 𝑥
∫ 𝑒2 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑥 ′ 1
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑓 (𝑥) =
2 2
Hence,
4 𝑥
∫ 𝑒2 𝑑𝑥
0
4
1 𝑥
= 2∫ 𝑒 2 𝑑𝑥
0 2
𝑥 4
= 2 [𝑒 2 ]
0
= 2(𝑒 2 − 𝑒 0 )
= 2(𝑒 2 − 1)
3b
𝜋
8
∫ sec 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2

Hence,
𝜋
8
∫ sec 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
1 8
= ∫ 2 sec 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋
1
= [tan 2𝑥]08
2
1 𝜋
= (tan − tan 0)
2 4
1
=
2

3c
4
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
−4 16 + 𝑥 2
4
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
−4 42 + 𝑥2
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1
Hence,
4
1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
−4 16 + 𝑥
1 𝑥 4
= [ tan−1 ]
4 4 −4
1 1
= tan−1 1 − tan−1(−1)
4 4
1 𝜋 𝜋
= ( − (− ))
4 4 4
𝜋
=
8
3d
1
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √2 − 𝑥 2
1
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 2
√(√2) − 𝑥 2
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1

Hence,
1
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 2
√(√2) − 𝑥 2
𝑥 1
= [sin−1 ( )]
√2 0

1
= (sin−1 ( ) − sin−1 0)
√2
𝜋
=
4
3e
−1
3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
−2 2 − 3𝑥
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 − 3𝑥, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −3

Hence,
−1
3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
−2 2 − 3𝑥
−1
−3
= −∫ 𝑑𝑥
−2 2 − 3𝑥
= −[ln|2 − 3𝑥|]−1
−2
= −(ln 5 − ln 8)
= ln 8 − ln 5
ln 8
=
ln 5
3f
𝜋
4
∫ cos 𝑥 sin3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥

Hence,
𝜋
4
0
𝜋
1 4
= [ sin4 𝑥]
4 0
1 𝜋
= (sin4 − sin4 0)
4 4

1 1 4
= (( ) − 0)
4 √2
1
=
16


4a
1 1
∫− 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
1
Let 𝑢 =
𝑥
1
𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
Hence
1 1
∫− 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
= ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑒𝑢 + 𝐶
1
= 𝑒𝑥 + 𝐶
4b
cos 3𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + sin 3𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 1 + sin 3𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 3 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Hence
cos 3𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + sin 3𝑥
1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑢
3 𝑢
1
= ln|𝑢| + 𝐶
3
1
= ln|1 + sin 3𝑥| + 𝐶
3

4c
∫ 𝑥 sec 2 (𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Hence
∫ 𝑥 sec 2 (𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
1
= ∫ 2𝑥 sec 2(𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
2
1
= ∫ sec 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2
1
= tan 𝑢 + 𝐶
2
1
= tan(𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶
2
4d
∫ 52𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥
= ∫(𝑒 ln 5 ) 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑒 2 ln(5)𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
= 𝑒 2 ln(5)𝑥 + 𝐶
2 ln 5
1
= 52𝑥 + 𝐶
2 ln 5
4e
1 + sec 2 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + tan 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 1 + sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Hence
1 + sec 2 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + tan 𝑥
1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢
= ln|𝑢| + 𝐶
= ln|𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶
4f
𝑒𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑒 2𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Hence
𝑒𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − (𝑒 𝑥 )2
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
√1 − 𝑢2
= sin−1 𝑢 + 𝐶
= sin−1(𝑒 𝑥 ) + 𝐶
5a
4
∫ (1 − 𝑥)3 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = 1 − 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = −1 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 4, 𝑢 = −3
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
4
∫ (1 − 𝑥)3 𝑑𝑥
0

−3
= − ∫ 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢
1
1
= ∫ 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢
−3
1 41
=[ 𝑢 ]
4 −3
1 1
= − × (−3)4
4 4
1 1
= − × 81
4 4
= −20
5b
1
𝑥2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + 𝑥3
Let 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑥 3
𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
1
𝑥2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + 𝑥3
1 1 3𝑥 2
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 0 1 + 𝑥3
1 21
= ∫ 𝑑𝑢
3 1 𝑢
1
= [ln|𝑢|]12
3
1
= (ln 2 − ln 1)
3
1
= ln 2
3

5c
1
𝑑𝑥
∫
0 1 + 3𝑥 2
1 1 𝑑𝑥
= ∫
3 0 1 + 𝑥2
3
1
1
1 √3
= × √3 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 0 1 2
( ) + 𝑥2
√3
√3 1
= [tan−1(√3𝑥)]0
3
√3 𝜋
= ( − 0)
3 3
√3𝜋
=
9
𝜋
Note: This is the rationalised answer. 3√3 is also acceptable.
5d
1
𝑒 2𝑥
∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑒 +1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑒 2𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 𝑒 2 + 1
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 2
Hence
1
𝑒 2𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑒 2𝑥 + 1
1 1 2𝑒 2𝑥
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 0 𝑒 2𝑥 + 1
2 +1
1 𝑒 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑢
2 2 𝑢

1 2
= [ln|𝑢|]𝑒2 +1
2
1
= (ln(𝑒 2 + 1) − ln 2)
2
1 𝑒2 + 1
= ln ( )
2 2
5f
𝜋
sec 2 𝑥
4
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + tan 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 1 + tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
𝑥= ,𝑢 = 2
4
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
𝜋
sec 2 𝑥
4
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + tan 𝑥
2
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
1 𝑢
= [ln|𝑢|]12
= ln|2| − ln|1|
= ln(2) − 0
= ln 2


1a
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1
𝑥−1+1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1
𝑥−1 1
= ∫( + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
1
= ∫ (1 + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1
= 𝑥 + ln|𝑥 − 1| + 𝐶
1b
𝑥−1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
𝑥+1−2
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
𝑥+1 2
= ∫( − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1 𝑥+1
2
= ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
= 𝑥 − 2ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶
1c
𝑥+1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1
𝑥−1+2
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1
𝑥−1 2
= ∫( + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
2
= ∫ (1 + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1
= 𝑥 + 2ln|𝑥 − 1| + 𝐶

2a
1
𝑥−1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥+1
1
𝑥+1−2
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥+1
1
𝑥+1 2
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥+1 𝑥+1
1
2
= ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥+1
= [𝑥 − 2ln|𝑥 + 1|]10
= (1 − 2 ln 2) − (0 − 2 ln 1)
= 1 − ln 22 − 0 + 0
= 1 − ln 4
2b
2
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 2𝑥 + 1
1
1 −2
2
=∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑥 (by long division)
0 2 (2𝑥 + 1)
2
1 1
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 2 2(2𝑥 + 1)
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑓′(𝑥) = 2

Hence,
2
1 1
∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 2 2(2𝑥 + 1)
2
1 2
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 2 4(2𝑥 + 1)
2
1 1 2 2
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 2 4 0 2𝑥 + 1
2
𝑥 1
= [ − ln|2𝑥 + 1|]
2 4 0

1 1
= (1 − ln 5) − (0 − ln 1)
4 4
1
= 1 − ln 5
4
2c
1
3 − 𝑥2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + 𝑥2
1
4
= ∫ (−1 + ) 𝑑𝑥 (by long division)
0 1 + 𝑥2
1 1
1
= ∫ −1 𝑑𝑥 + 4 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 0 1 + 𝑥2
= [−𝑥]10 + 4[tan−1 𝑥]10

= −1 + 0 + 4 tan−1 1 − 0
𝜋
= −1 + 4 ×
4
= −1 + 𝜋
= 𝜋−1
3a
√3
2 1−𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √1 − 𝑥 2
√3
2 1 𝑥
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 √1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
√3 √3
2 1 2 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √1 − 𝑥 2 0 √1 − 𝑥 2
1
If 𝑦 = (1 − 𝑥 2 )2 , then
𝑑𝑦 1 1
= (1 − 𝑥 2 )−2 × −2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
−𝑥
=
√1 − 𝑥 2

Hence,
√3 √3
2 1 2 −𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √1 − 𝑥 2 0 √1 − 𝑥 2
√3 √3
2
= [sin−1 𝑥]02 + [√1 − 2
𝑥 ]
0
√3 1
= (sin−1 − sin−1 0) + ( − 1)
2 2
𝜋 1
= −
3 2
3b
1
2𝑥 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + 𝑥2
1
2𝑥 1
=∫ ( 2
+ ) 𝑑𝑥
0 1+𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
1 1
2𝑥 1
=∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
0 1+𝑥 0 1+𝑥
If 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥 2 , then
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Hence,
1 1
2𝑥 1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
0 1+𝑥 0 1+𝑥
= [ln(1 + 𝑥 2 )]10 + [tan−1(𝑥)]10

= (ln 2 − ln 1) + (tan−1 1 − tan−1 0)
𝜋
= ln 2 − 0 + −0
4
𝜋
= + ln 2
4

3c
1
1−𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + 𝑥2
1
1 𝑥
=∫ ( 2
− ) 𝑑𝑥
0 1+𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
1 1
1 𝑥
=∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
0 1+𝑥 0 1+𝑥
If 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥 2 , then
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Hence,
1 1
1 𝑥
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
0 1+𝑥 0 1+𝑥
1
1 1 1 2𝑥
=∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1+𝑥 2 0 1 + 𝑥2
1
= [tan−1 𝑥]10 − [ln(1 + 𝑥 2 )]10 (since 1 + 𝑥 2 > 0)
2
1
= (tan−1 1 − tan−1 0) − (ln 2 − ln 1)
2
𝜋 ln 2
= −0− +0
4 2
𝜋 2ln 2
= −
4 4
1
= (𝜋 − ln 22 )
4
1
= (𝜋 − ln 4)
4
3d
2
1+𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 4 + 𝑥2
2
1 𝑥
=∫ ( 2
+ ) 𝑑𝑥
0 4+𝑥 4 + 𝑥2

2 2
1 𝑥
=∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
0 4+𝑥 0 4+𝑥
If 𝑦 = 4 + 𝑥 2 , then
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Hence,
2 2
1 𝑥
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
0 4+𝑥 0 4+𝑥
2
1 1 2 2𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 4 + 𝑥2 2 0 4 + 𝑥2
1 𝑥 2 1
= [ tan ( )] + [ln(4 + 𝑥 2 )]20
−1
(since 4 + 𝑥 2 > 0)
2 2 0 2
1
= [(tan−1 1 − tan−1 0) + (ln 8 − ln 4)]
2
1 𝜋
= [ − 0 + ln 8 − ln 4]
2 4
1 𝜋
= [ + ln 23 − ln 22 ]
2 4
1 𝜋
= [ + 3 ln 2 − 2ln 2]
2 4
𝜋 1
= + ln 2
8 2
4a
𝑦 = log(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )
1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2
𝑑𝑢 1 1
= 1 + (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )−2 × 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑥
= 1+ 1
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2
Hence,
𝑦 = log 𝑢

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥
= × (1 + )
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
1
𝑥 + (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2
( 1 )
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2
= 1
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2
𝑑𝑦 1
= 1
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2
+ 𝑎 2 )2
𝑑𝑦 1
=
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
4b
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
= log(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) + 𝐶
(since √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ≥ |𝑥| and so 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 is not negative)
4c i
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 + 3
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
2
√𝑥 2 + (√3)
= log(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 3) + 𝐶
(since √𝑥 2 + 3 ≥ |𝑥| and so 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 3 is not negative)

4c ii
4
1
∫
2 +9
−4 √𝑥
4
1
=∫
2 + 32
−4 √𝑥
4
= [log (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 9)]
−4
= log 9 − log 1
= log 9 − 0
= log 9
= log 32
= 2 log 3


5a
𝑥3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 1
𝑥 3 = 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1) − 𝑥
Hence
𝑥3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 1
𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1) − 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 1
𝑥
= ∫ (𝑥 − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 +1
1 2 1
= 𝑥 − ln(𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐶
2 2
Note: Modulus function not needed since 𝑥 2 + 1 is always greater than 0.
5b
𝑥3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
𝑥 3 = (𝑥 3 + 1) − 1
𝑥 3 + 1 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)
Hence
𝑥3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
(𝑥 3 + 1) − 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1) − 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
1
= ∫ (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
1 3 1 2
= 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶
3 2

5c i
𝑥3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1
𝑥3 = 𝑥3 − 1 + 1
𝑥 3 − 1 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)
Hence
𝑥3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1) + 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1
1
= ∫ (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1
1 3 1 2
= 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ln|𝑥 − 1| + 𝐶
3 2
5c ii
𝑥4
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 1
𝑥4 = 𝑥4 − 1 + 1
𝑥 4 − 1 = (𝑥 2 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 1)
Hence
𝑥4
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +1
(𝑥 2 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 1) + 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 1
1
= ∫ (𝑥 2 − 1 + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 +1
1 3
= 𝑥 − 𝑥 + tan−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
3

5c iii
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑒𝑥
1 𝑒 −𝑥
=∫ × 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑒 −𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 −𝑥 + 1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑒 −𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑢 = −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Hence
𝑒 −𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 −𝑥 + 1
1
= − ∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢
= −ln|𝑢| + 𝐶
= − ln(𝑒 −𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶
5c iv
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√2 + 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 2 + 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
Hence
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√2 + 𝑥
𝑢−2
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
√𝑢
𝑢 2
= ∫( 1 − 1 ) 𝑑𝑢
𝑢2 𝑢2
1 1
= ∫ (𝑢2 − 2𝑢−2 ) 𝑑𝑢

2 3 1
= 𝑢2 − 4𝑢2 + 𝐶
3
2 3 1
= (2 + 𝑥)2 − 4(2 + 𝑥)2 + 𝐶
3
Note: Square root notation is also fine.
5c v
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 1 − 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = −𝑑𝑥
Hence
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥
1−𝑢
= −∫ 𝑑𝑢
√𝑢
1 𝑢
= −∫( 1 − 1 ) 𝑑𝑢
𝑢2 𝑢2
1 1
= − ∫ (𝑢−2 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
2 3 1
= 𝑢2 − 2𝑢2 + 𝐶
3
2 3 1
= (1 − 𝑥)2 − 2(1 − 𝑥)2 + 𝐶
3
5c vi
𝑥3
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +4
𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 4𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 4
𝑥(𝑥 2 + 4) − 4𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 4

4𝑥
= ∫ (𝑥 − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 +4
1 2
= 𝑥 − 2 ln|𝑥 2 + 4| + 𝐶
2
6a
2
𝑒 2𝑥 + 1
∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑒 −1
2 2𝑥
𝑒 + 1 𝑒 −𝑥
=∫ × 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑒 2𝑥 − 1 𝑒 −𝑥
2
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 2, 𝑢 = 𝑒 2 − 𝑒 −2
𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 𝑒 − 𝑒 −1
Hence
2
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
∫ 𝑥 −𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑒 −𝑒
𝑒 2 −𝑒 −2
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑒−𝑒 −1 𝑢
2 −2
= [ln|𝑢|]𝑒𝑒−𝑒
−𝑒
−1
= ln(𝑒 2 − 𝑒 −2 ) − ln(𝑒 − 𝑒 −1 )
𝑒 2 − 𝑒 −2
= ln ( )
𝑒 − 𝑒 −1
6b
1
𝑒𝑥
∫ 𝑥 −𝑥
𝑑𝑥
0 𝑒 +𝑒
1
𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥
=∫ 𝑥 −𝑥
× 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑒 +𝑒 𝑒

1 1 2𝑒 2𝑥
= ∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0 𝑒 +1
1
= [ln|𝑒 2𝑥 + 1|]10
2
1
= (ln(𝑒 2 + 1) − ln(2))
2
1 𝑒2 + 1
= ln ( )
2 2
6c
√3 2
1
+𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1
1 𝑥+𝑥
√3 2𝑥 +1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥2 +1
√3 2𝑥 √3 1
=∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥 +1 1 𝑥 +1
= [ln(𝑥 2 + 1)]1√3 + [tan−1 𝑥]1√3
= ln 4 − ln 2 + tan−1 √3 − tan−1 1
𝜋 𝜋
= ln 2 + −
3 4
𝜋
= ln 2 +
12
7a
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
𝑥2
= ∫( + 1) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
𝑥2 − 1 + 1
= ∫( + 1) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) + 1
= ∫( + 1) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1

1
= ∫ (𝑥 − 1 + + 1) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
1
= ∫ (𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
1 2
= 𝑥 + ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶
2
7b
𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−2
𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 2) + 3
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−2
3
= ∫ (𝑥 2 + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−2
1 3
= 𝑥 + 3 ln|𝑥 − 2| + 𝐶
3
7c
(𝑥 + 1)2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
2𝑥
= ∫ (1 + ) 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
= 𝑥 + ln(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶
8a 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 ) , 𝑥 > |𝑎|

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥
= × (1 + )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
= ×( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
𝑑𝑦 1
=
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2

8b
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 ) + 𝐶
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
8c i
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 5
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
2
√𝑥 2 − √5
= ln (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 5) + 𝐶
8c ii
3
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2
√5 √𝑥 −4
3
= [ln (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4)]
√5
= ln(3 + √5) − ln(√5 + 1)
√5 + 3
= ln ( )
√5 + 1
√5 + 1 + 2
= ln ( )
√5 + 1
2 √5 − 1
= ln (1 + × )
√5 + 1 √5 − 1
√5 − 1
= ln (1 + )
2
√5 + 1
= ln ( )
2


1a Using reverse chain rule:
∫ 2𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)4 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1
𝑓′(𝑥) = 2𝑥
∫ 2𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)4 𝑑𝑥
1 2
= (𝑥 + 1)5 + 𝐶
5
Using substitution:
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 1
𝑑𝑢
= 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Thus
∫ 2𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)4 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑢4 𝑑𝑢
1 5
= 𝑢 +𝐶
5
1 2
= (𝑥 + 1)5 + 𝐶
5
1b Using reverse chain rule:
∫ 3𝑥 2 (1 + 𝑥 3 )6 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 3
𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2
∫ 3𝑥 2 (1 + 𝑥 3 )6 𝑑𝑥
1
= (1 + 𝑥 3 )7 + 𝐶
7
Using substitution:

Let 𝑢 = 1+ 𝑥 3
𝑑𝑢
= 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
Thus
∫ 3𝑥 2 (1 + 𝑥 3 )6 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑢6 𝑑𝑢
1 7
= 𝑢 +𝐶
7
1
= (1+𝑥 3 )7 + 𝐶
7
1c Using reverse chain rule:

6𝑥 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(1 + 𝑥 3 )2
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 3
𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2
6𝑥 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(1 + 𝑥 3 )2
3𝑥 2
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑥
(1 + 𝑥 3 )2
2
= (1 + 𝑥 3 )−1 + 𝐶
−1
2
=− +𝐶
1 + 𝑥3
Using substitution:
Let 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑥 3
𝑑𝑢
= 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
Thus

6𝑥 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(1 + 𝑥 3 )2
3𝑥 2
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑥
(1 + 𝑥 3 )2
= 2 ∫ 𝑢−2 𝑑𝑢
= −2𝑢−1 + 𝐶
2
=− +𝐶
1 + 𝑥3
1d Using reverse chain rule:

4𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(3 − 𝑥 2 )5
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 𝑥 2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −2𝑥
4𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(3 − 𝑥 2 )5
= −2 ∫(−2𝑥(3 − 𝑥 2 )−5 ) 𝑑𝑥
−2
= (3 − 𝑥 2 )−4 + 𝐶
−4
1
= +𝐶
2(3 − 𝑥 2 )4
Using substitution:
Let 𝑢 = 3 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑢
= −2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = −2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Thus
4𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(3 − 𝑥 2 )5
−2𝑥
= −2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(3 − 𝑥 2 )5
= −2 ∫ 𝑢−5 𝑑𝑢

−2 −4
= 𝑢 +𝐶
−4
1
= +𝐶
2(3 − 𝑥 2 )4
1e Using reverse chain rule:

𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 2
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 2
1 1
= ∫ 2𝑥(𝑥 2 − 2)−2 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1
= × 2(𝑥 2 − 2)2 + 𝐶
2
= √𝑥 2 − 2 + 𝐶
Using substitution:
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 2
𝑑𝑢
= 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Thus,
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 2
1 2𝑥
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 √𝑥 2 − 2
1 1
= ∫ 𝑢−2 𝑑𝑢
2
1 1
= × 2𝑢2 + 𝐶
2
= √𝑥 2 − 2 + 𝐶

1f Using reverse chain rule:

𝑥3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 + 𝑥 4
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 4
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3
𝑥3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 + 𝑥 4
1 1
= ∫ 4𝑥 3 (1 + 𝑥 4 )−2 𝑑𝑥
4
1 1
= × 2(1 + 𝑥 4 )2 + 𝐶
4
1
= √1 + 𝑥 4 + 𝐶
2
Using substitution:
Let 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑥 4
𝑑𝑢
= 4𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥
Thus,
𝑥3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 + 𝑥 4
1 4𝑥 3
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
4 √1 + 𝑥 4
1 1
= ∫ 𝑢−2 𝑑𝑢
4
1 1
= × 2𝑢2 + 𝐶
4
1
= √1 + 𝑥 4 + 𝐶
2

2a
cos 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
sin3 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑢
= cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Hence,
cos 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
sin3 𝑥
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢3
= ∫ 𝑢−3 𝑑𝑢
𝑢−2
= +𝐶
−2
−1
= +𝐶
2 sin2 𝑥
2b
sec 2 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(1 + tan 𝑥)2
Let 𝑢 = 1 + tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑢
= sec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Hence,
sec 2 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(1 + tan 𝑥)2
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢2
= ∫ 𝑢−2 𝑑𝑢

= −𝑢−1 + 𝐶
−1
= +𝐶
1 + tan 𝑥
2c
(ln 𝑥)2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
Let 𝑢 = ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 1
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 =
𝑥
Hence,
(ln 𝑥)2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
= ∫ 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
1 3
= 𝑢 +𝐶
3
1
= (ln 𝑥)3 + 𝐶
3
2d
cos √𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥
Let 𝑢 = √𝑥
𝑑𝑢 1
=
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 =
2 √𝑥
Hence,
cos √𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥

cos √𝑥
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑥
2√𝑥
= 2 ∫ cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
= 2 sin 𝑢 + 𝐶
= 2 sin √𝑥 + 𝐶
2e
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥4
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑢
= 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥4
1 2𝑥
= ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
2 1 + (𝑥 2 )2
1 1
= ∫ 2 𝑑𝑢
2 1 + 𝑢2
1 1
= × tan−1 𝑢 + 𝐶
2 1
1
= tan−1 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
2
2f
𝑥2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 6
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 3
𝑑𝑢
= 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑥2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 6
1 3𝑥 2
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 √1 − (𝑥 3 )2
1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑢
3 √12 − 𝑢2
1 1 −1
= × sin 𝑢 + 𝐶
3 1
1 −1 3
= sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
3
3a
1
∫ 𝑥 3 (1 + 3𝑥 4 )2 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = 1 + 3𝑥 4
𝑑𝑢
= 12𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 12𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
When 𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 4.
When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1.
Hence
1
∫ 𝑥 3 (1 + 3𝑥 4 )2 𝑑𝑥
0
1 1
= ∫ 12𝑥 3 (1 + 3𝑥 4 )2 𝑑𝑥
12 0
1 4 2
= ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
12 1
1 3 4
=[ 𝑢 ]
36 1
64 1
= −
36 36
63
=
36

7
=
4
3b
1
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √4 − 𝑥 2
Let 𝑢 = 4 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑢
= −2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
When 𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 3.
When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 4.
Hence
1
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √4 − 𝑥 2
1 1 −2𝑥
=− ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 0 √4 − 𝑥 2
1 3 𝑑𝑢
=− ∫
2 4 √𝑢
1 4 𝑑𝑢
= ∫
2 3 √𝑢
1 1 4
= [ × 2𝑢2 ]
2 3
4
= [√𝑢]3
= 2 − √3
3c
4
𝑥+1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 √𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3

𝑑𝑢
= 2𝑥 + 2 = 2(𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑢 = 2(𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
When 𝑥 = 4, 𝑢 = 27.
When 𝑥 = 3, 𝑢 = 18.
Hence
4
𝑥+1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 √𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3
1 4 2(𝑥 + 1)
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 3 √𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3
1 27 𝑑𝑢
= ∫
2 18 √𝑢
1 1 27
= [ × 2𝑢2 ]
2 18
27
= [√𝑢]18
= √27 − √18
= 3√3 − 3√2
= 3(√3 − √2)
3d
𝜋
2
∫ sin4 𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑢
= cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝜋
When 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑢 = 1.
When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 0.
Hence,

𝜋
2
∫ sin4 𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑑𝑥
0
1
= ∫ 𝑢4 𝑑𝑢
0
1 51
=[ 𝑢 ]
5 0
1
= −0
5
1
=
5
3e
𝜋
4
∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑢
= sec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝜋
When 𝑥 = 4 , 𝑢 = 1.
When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 0.
Hence,
𝜋
4
∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
1
= ∫ 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
0
1 31
=[ 𝑢 ]
3 0
1
= −0
3
1
=
3

3f
𝑒2
ln 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 1
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 =
𝑥
When 𝑥 = 𝑒 2 , 𝑢 = 2.
When 𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 0.
Hence,
𝑒2
ln 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥
2
= ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
0
1 2 2
=[ 𝑢 ]
2 0
1
= ×4−0
2
=2


4a
1
∫ 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)5 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 =𝑢+1
𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 0
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = −1
Hence
1
∫ 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)5 𝑑𝑥
0
0
= ∫ (𝑢 + 1)𝑢5 𝑑𝑢
−1
0
= ∫ (𝑢6 + 𝑢5 ) 𝑑𝑢
−1
1 7 1 6 0
=[ 𝑢 + 𝑢 ]
7 6 −1
1 1 1 1
= ( (0)7 + (0)6 ) − ( (−1)7 + (−1)6 )
7 6 7 6
1 1
= −
7 6
1
=−
42
4b
1
∫ 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)5 𝑑𝑥
0
1
= ∫ 𝑥(𝑥 5 − 5𝑥 4 + 10𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
0

1
= ∫ (𝑥 6 − 5𝑥 5 + 10𝑥 4 − 10𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
1
1 5 5 5 1
= [ 𝑥 7 − 𝑥 6 + 2𝑥 5 − 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 ]
7 6 2 3 2 0
1 5 5 5 1
= − +2− + −
7 6 2 3 2
1
=−
42
5a
∫ 𝑥√𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = √𝑥 + 1
𝑥 = 𝑢2 − 1
𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Hence
∫ 𝑥√𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(𝑢2 − 1)𝑢 × 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
= 2 ∫(𝑢4 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
1 1
= 2 ( 𝑢5 − 𝑢3 ) + 𝐶
5 3
2 5 2 3
= (√𝑥 + 1) − (√𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶
5 3
2
= (3(𝑥 + 1)2 √𝑥 + 1 − 5(𝑥 + 1)√𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶
15
2
= ((𝑥 + 1)√𝑥 + 1(3(𝑥 + 1)√𝑥 + 1 − 5)) + 𝐶
15
2
= (𝑥 + 1)√𝑥 + 1(3𝑥 − 2) + 𝐶
15
2
= (3𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1)√𝑥 + 1 + 𝐶
15

5b
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + √𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 1 + √𝑥
𝑥 = (𝑢 − 1)2
𝑑𝑥 = 2(𝑢 − 1) 𝑑𝑢
Hence
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + √𝑥
1
= 2 ∫ (𝑢 − 1) 𝑑𝑢
𝑢
1
= 2 ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑢
𝑢
= 2(𝑢 − ln|𝑢|) + 𝐶
= 2 + 2√𝑥 − 2 ln(1 + √𝑥) + 𝐶
= 2(1 + √𝑥 − ln(1 + √𝑥)) + 𝐶
5c
1
∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
1+ 𝑥4
1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 4
𝑥 = 𝑢4
𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑢3 𝑑𝑢
Hence
1
∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥4
𝑢3
= 4∫ 𝑑𝑢
1+𝑢
𝑢3 = 𝑢3 + 1 − 1
𝑢3 + 1 = (𝑢 + 1)(𝑢2 − 𝑢 + 1)

𝑢3 = (𝑢 + 1)(𝑢2 − 𝑢 + 1) − 1
Hence
𝑢3
4∫ 𝑑𝑢
1+𝑢
(𝑢 + 1)(𝑢2 − 𝑢 + 1) − 1
= 4∫ 𝑑𝑢
1+𝑢
1
= 4 ∫ (𝑢2 − 𝑢 + 1 − ) 𝑑𝑢
1+𝑢
1 1
= 4 ( 𝑢3 − 𝑢2 + 𝑢 − ln|1 + 𝑢|) + 𝐶
3 2
4 3 1 1 1
= 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 4 − 4 ln (1 + 𝑥 4 ) + 𝐶
3
1 3 1 1 1 1
= 4 ( 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 4 − ln (1 + 𝑥 4 )) + 𝐶
3 2
1 3 1 1 1
= 4 ( 𝑥 4 − √𝑥 + 𝑥 4 − ln (1 + 𝑥 4 )) + 𝐶
3 2
5d
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑒 2𝑥 − 1
Let 𝑢 = √𝑒 2𝑥 − 1
𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝑢2 + 1
𝑒 2𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
√𝑒 2𝑥 − 1
𝑢2 + 1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑢
𝑢
𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 +1
Hence,
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑒 2𝑥 − 1
1 𝑢
=∫ × 2 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 𝑢 +1

1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢2 +1
= tan−1(𝑢) + 𝐶
= tan−1 (√𝑒 2𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
6a
1
2−𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 (2 + 𝑥)3
Let 𝑢 = 2 + 𝑥
𝑥 =𝑢−2
𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 3
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
Hence
1
2−𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 (2 + 𝑥)3
3
2−𝑢+2
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
2 𝑢3
3
= ∫ (4𝑢−3 − 𝑢−2 ) 𝑑𝑢
2
= [−2𝑢−2 + 𝑢−1 ]32

2 1 1 1
=− + + −
9 3 2 2
1
=
9

6b
4
∫ 𝑥√4 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = √4 − 𝑥
𝑥 = 4, 𝑢 = 0
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 2
𝑥 = 4 − 𝑢2
𝑑𝑥 = −2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Hence
4
∫ 𝑥√4 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
0
= ∫ (4 − 𝑢2 )𝑢 × −2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2
2
= 2 ∫ (4 − 𝑢2 )𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
0
2
= 2 ∫ (4𝑢2 − 𝑢4 ) 𝑑𝑢
0
4 3 1 5 2
= 2[ 𝑢 − 𝑢 ]
3 5 0
4 1
= 2 [ × 8 − × 32]
3 5
128
=
15
6c
4
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 5 + √𝑥
Let 𝑢 = √𝑥
𝑥 = 4, 𝑢 = 2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 0
𝑥 = 𝑢2

Hence
4
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 5 + √𝑥
2
1
=∫ × 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
0 5+𝑢
2
𝑢
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑢
0 5+𝑢
2
𝑢+5−5
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑢
0 5+𝑢
2
5
= 2 ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑢
0 5+𝑢
= 2[𝑢 − 5 ln|5 + 𝑢|]20

= 2(2 − 5 ln 7 − 0 + 5 ln 5)
5
= 4 + 10 ln ( )
7
6d
12
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
4 (4 + 𝑥)√𝑥
Let 𝑢 = √𝑥
𝑥 = 12, 𝑢 = 2√3
𝑥 = 4, 𝑢 = 2
𝑥 = 𝑢2
Hence
12
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
4 (4 + 𝑥)√𝑥
2√3
1
=∫ × 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2 (4 + 𝑢2 )𝑢

2√3
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
2 4 + 𝑢2
𝑢 2√3
= [tan−1 ( )]
2 2
= tan−1(√3) − tan−1(1)
𝜋 𝜋
= −
3 4
𝜋
=
12
7a
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(1 + 𝑥)√𝑥
Let 𝑢 = √𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑢2
Hence
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(1 + 𝑥)√𝑥
1
=∫ 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
(1 + 𝑢2 )𝑢
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
(1 + 𝑢2 )
= 2 tan−1(𝑢) + 𝐶
= 2 tan−1(√𝑥) + 𝐶
7b
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 + 1
Let 𝑢 = √𝑥 + 1
𝑥 = 𝑢2 − 1

Hence
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 + 1
𝑢2 − 1
=∫ 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑢
= 2 ∫(𝑢2 − 1) 𝑑𝑢
1
= 2 ( 𝑢3 − 𝑢) + 𝐶
3
2
= (𝑥 + 1)√𝑥 + 1 − 2√𝑥 + 1 + 𝐶
3
2
= ( (𝑥 + 1) − 2) √𝑥 + 1 + 𝐶
3
2 4
= ( 𝑥 − ) √𝑥 + 1 + 𝐶
3 3
2
= (𝑥 − 2)√𝑥 + 1 + 𝐶
3
8a
1
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
(1 + 2
𝑥 )2
Let 𝑥 = tan 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Hence
1
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
(1 + 2
𝑥 )2
1 2
=∫ 3 sec 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
(1 + 2
tan 𝜃)2
sec 2 𝜃
=∫ 3 𝑑𝜃
(sec 2 𝜃)2
sec 2 𝜃
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
sec 3 𝜃
= ∫ cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= sin 𝜃 + 𝐶
𝜃 = tan−1 𝑥
sin 𝜃 + 𝐶
= sin(tan−1 𝑥) + 𝐶
𝑥
= +𝐶
√𝑥 2 + 1
8b
𝑥2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√4 − 𝑥 2
Let 𝑥 = 2 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Hence
𝑥2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√4 − 𝑥 2
4 sin2 𝜃
=∫ 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
√4 − 4 sin2 𝜃
8 sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
√4(1 − sin2 𝜃)
8 sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
2 cos 𝜃
= ∫ 4 sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
1
sin2 𝜃 = (1 − cos 2𝜃)
2
Hence
∫ 4 sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= ∫(2 − 2 cos 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃

= 2𝜃 − sin 2𝜃 + 𝐶
𝑥
𝜃 = sin−1 ( )
2
sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 √1 − sin2 𝜃

Hence
2𝜃 − sin 2𝜃 + 𝐶
𝑥 𝑥2
= 2 sin−1 ( ) − 𝑥 √1 − + 𝐶
2 4
𝑥 4 − 𝑥2
= 2 sin−1 ( ) − 𝑥 √ +𝐶
2 4
𝑥 𝑥
= 2 sin−1 ( ) − √4 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
2 2
8c
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 √25 − 𝑥 2
Let 𝑥 = 5 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = −5 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Hence
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 √25 − 𝑥2
1
=∫ (−5 sin 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
25 cos2 𝜃 √25 − 25 cos 2 𝜃
−5 sin 𝜃
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
25 cos2 𝜃 √25 sin2 𝜃
−5 sin 𝜃
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
25 cos2 𝜃 5 sin 𝜃
−1
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
25 cos2 𝜃
1
=− ∫ sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
25

1
=− tan 𝜃 + 𝐶
25
𝑥
𝜃 = cos −1 ( )
5
sin 𝜃 √1 − cos 2 𝜃
tan 𝜃 = =
cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃
Hence
1
− tan 𝜃 + 𝐶
25
1 √1 − cos2 𝜃
=− +𝐶
25 cos 𝜃
𝑥2
1 √1 − 25
=− 𝑥 +𝐶
25
5
25 − 𝑥 2
−√
25
= +𝐶
5𝑥
1
− √25 − 𝑥 2
= 5 +𝐶
5𝑥
−√25 − 𝑥 2
= +𝐶
25𝑥
8d
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 √1 + 𝑥2
Let 𝑥 = tan 𝜃
Hence
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 √1 + 𝑥 2
1
=∫ sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
tan2 𝜃 √1 + tan2 𝜃

sec 2 𝜃
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
tan2 𝜃 sec 𝜃
sec 𝜃
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
tan2 𝜃
1 cos 2 𝜃
=∫ × 𝑑𝜃
cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃
cos 𝜃
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
sin2 𝜃
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑢 = cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Hence
cos 𝜃
∫ 𝑑𝜃
sin2 𝜃
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢2
1
=− +𝐶
𝑢
1
=− +𝐶
sin 𝜃
1
=− +𝐶
sin(tan−1 𝑥)
1
=− +𝐶
sin(tan−1 𝑥)
−√𝑥 2 + 1
= +𝐶
𝑥
9a
√2 𝑥3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √𝑥 2 + 1
Let 𝑥 = tan 𝜃
𝑥 = √2, 𝜃 = tan−1 √2
𝑥 = 0, 𝜃 = 0

Hence
√2 𝑥3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √𝑥 2 + 1
tan−1 √2
tan3 𝜃
0 √tan2 𝜃 +1
tan−1 √2
tan3 𝜃
0 sec 𝜃
tan−1 √2
=∫ tan3 𝜃 sec 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
tan−1 √2
=∫ sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 tan2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
tan−1 √2
=∫ sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 (sec 2 𝜃 − 1) 𝑑𝜃
0
Let 𝑢 = sec 𝜃
𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜃 = tan−1 √2 , 𝑢 = √3
𝜃 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
tan−1 √2
∫ sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 (sec 2 𝜃 − 1) 𝑑𝜃
0
√3
= ∫ 𝑢2 − 1 𝑑𝑢
1
√3
1 3
= [ 𝑢 − 𝑢]
3 1
1
= √3 − √3 − ( − 1)
3
2
=
3

9b
√2 𝑥3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √𝑥 2 + 1
𝑥 3 = 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1) − 𝑥
√2 𝑥3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √𝑥 2 + 1
√2 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1) − 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √𝑥 2 + 1
√2 𝑥
=∫ (𝑥√𝑥 2 + 1 − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 √𝑥 2 + 1
From here on, the integral can be evaluated by a substitution 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 .
10a
2
∫ √4 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1
𝜋
𝑥 = 2, 𝜃 =
2
𝜋
𝑥 = 1, 𝜃 =
6
Hence
2
∫ √4 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1
𝜋
2
= ∫ √4 − (2 sin 𝜃)2 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
6
𝜋
2
= ∫ √4(1 − sin2 𝜃) 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
6
𝜋
2
= ∫ 2 cos 𝜃 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
6

𝜋
2
= 4 ∫ cos2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
6
1
cos2 𝜃 = (1 + cos 2𝜃)
2
Hence
𝜋
2
4 ∫ cos2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
6
𝜋
21
= 4∫ (1 + cos 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 2
6
𝜋
2
= 2 ∫ (1 + cos 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
6
𝜋
1 2
= 2 [𝜃 + sin 2𝜃]𝜋
2
6
𝜋 1 𝜋 1 𝜋
= 2 ( + sin 𝜋 − − sin )
2 2 6 2 3
𝜋 √3
= 𝜋+0− −
3 2
2𝜋 √3
= −
3 2
10b
2
∫ √4 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1
The function represents a semi-circle of radius 2 centred at the origin.

The area between 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 2 represents half of the minor segment created
of a circle of radius 2.
The formula for the area of a segment:
1 2
Area = 𝑟 (𝜃 − sin 𝜃)
2
𝜃 1
𝑟 = 2, cos ( ) = (draw out the diagram to see the triangle)
2 2

2𝜋
𝜃=
3
Hence
2
∫ √4 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1
1
= × Area of segment
2
1 1 2 2𝜋 2𝜋
= × 2 ( − sin )
2 2 3 3
2𝜋 √3
= −
3 2
11a
𝜋
2 sin 𝑥
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
𝜋
Let 𝑢 = −𝑥
2
𝜋
𝑥= −𝑢
2
𝜋
𝑥= ,𝑢 = 0
2
𝜋
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 =
2
Hence
𝜋
0 sin ( − 𝑢)
𝐼 = −∫ 2 𝑑𝑢
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
sin ( − 𝑢) + cos ( − 𝑢)
2 2 2
𝜋
2 cos 𝑢
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑢
0 cos 𝑢 + sin 𝑢
𝑢 is a dummy variable and can be replaced by 𝑥.
𝜋
2 cos 𝑥
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑥

11b
𝜋
2 sin 𝑥
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
2 cos 𝑥
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑥
Hence
𝜋 𝜋
sin 𝑥 2 2 cos 𝑥
𝐼+𝐼 =∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 0 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
𝜋
2𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
2
2𝐼 = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2𝐼 =
2
𝜋
𝐼=
4
12a
𝜋
sin 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + cos2 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = − sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 𝜋, 𝑢 = −1
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
𝜋
sin 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + cos2 𝑥
−1
1
= −∫ 𝑑𝑢
1 1 + 𝑢2
1
1
=∫ 2
𝑑𝑢
−1 1 + 𝑢

= [tan−1 𝑢]1−1
= tan−1 1 − tan−1(−1)
𝜋 𝜋
= +
4 4
𝜋
=
2
12b i
𝜋
𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + cos2 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 𝜋 − 𝑥
𝑥 =𝜋−𝑢
𝑥 = 𝜋, 𝑢 = 0
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 𝜋
Hence
𝜋
𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + cos2 𝑥
0 (𝜋
− 𝑢) sin(𝜋 − 𝑢)
𝐼 = −∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝜋 1 + cos2 (𝜋 − 𝑢)
𝜋 (𝜋
− 𝑢) sin(𝑢)
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑢
0 1 + cos 2 (𝑢)
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 sin(𝑢) 𝑢 sin(𝑢)
𝐼=∫ 2
𝑑𝑢 − ∫ 2
𝑑𝑢
0 1 + cos (𝑢) 0 1 + cos (𝑢)
𝜋
sin(𝑢)
𝐼 = 𝜋∫ 𝑑𝑢 − 𝐼
0 1 + cos2 (𝑢)
𝜋
𝐼 =𝜋× −𝐼
2
𝜋2
𝐼= −𝐼
2

12b ii
𝜋2
𝐼= −𝐼
2
𝜋2
2𝐼 =
2
𝜋2
𝐼=
4


1a
2 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 1
2 𝐴(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)
=
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
2 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)
When 𝑥 = 1,
2 = 2𝐴
𝐴=1
When 𝑥 = −1,
2 = −2𝐵
𝐵 = −1
Thus,
2 1 1
= −
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 1
1b
1 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 − 4 𝑥 − 1
1 𝐴(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 4)
=
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 1)
1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 4)
When 𝑥 = 4,
1 = 3𝐴
1
𝐴=
3
When 𝑥 = 1,
1 = −3𝐵
1
𝐵=−
3

Thus,
1 1 1
= −
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 1) 3(𝑥 − 4) 3(𝑥 − 1)
1c
4𝑥 4𝑥
=
𝑥2 − 9 (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3)
4𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 3
4𝑥 𝐴(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 3)
=
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3)
4𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 3)
When 𝑥 = 3,
12 = 6𝐴
𝐴=2
When 𝑥 = −3,
−12 = −6𝐵
𝐵=2
Thus,
4𝑥 2 2
= +
𝑥2 − 9 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 3
1d
𝑥 𝑥
=
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1)
𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 − 1
𝑥 𝐴(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 2)
=
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1)
𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 2)
When 𝑥 = 2,
𝐴=2

When 𝑥 = 1,
1 = −𝐵
𝐵 = −1
Thus,
𝑥 2 1
= −
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 − 1
1e
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
=
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3)
𝑥−1 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 3
𝑥−1 𝐴(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 2)
=
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3)
𝑥 − 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 2)
When 𝑥 = 2,
1 = 5𝐴
1
𝐴=
5
When 𝑥 = −3,
−4 = −5𝐵
4
𝐵=
5
Thus,
𝑥−1 1 4
= +
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6 5(𝑥 − 2) 5(𝑥 + 3)

1f
3𝑥 + 1 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
Let 2
= + 2
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 3
3𝑥 + 1 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 3) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 − 1)
=
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 3) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 3)
3𝑥 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 3) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 − 1)
When 𝑥 = 1,
4 = 4𝐴
𝐴=1
Equating coefficients of 𝑥 2 yields:
0=𝐴+𝐵
0=1+𝐵
𝐵 = −1
When 𝑥 = 0,
1 = 3𝐴 − 𝐶
1=3−𝐶
𝐶=2
Thus,
3𝑥 + 1 1 2−𝑥
2
= + 2
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 3
2a
2 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 − 4 𝑥 − 2
2 𝐴(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 4)
=
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 2)
2 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 4)
When 𝑥 = 4,
2 = 2𝐴
𝐴=1

When 𝑥 = 2,
2 = −2𝐵
𝐵 = −1
Thus,
2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 2)
1 1
= ∫( − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−4 𝑥−2
1 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−4 𝑥−2
= ln|𝑥 − 4| − ln|𝑥 − 2| + 𝐶
2b
4 4
=
𝑥2 + 4𝑥 + 3 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3)
4 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 3
4 𝐴(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)
=
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3)
4 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)
When 𝑥 = −1,
4 = 2𝐴
𝐴=2
When 𝑥 = −3,
4 = −2𝐵
𝐵 = −2
Thus,
4
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3
2 2
= ∫( − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1 𝑥+3

1 1
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1 𝑥+3
= 2 ln|𝑥 + 1| − 2 ln|𝑥 + 3| + 𝐶
2c
3𝑥 − 2 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2
3𝑥 − 2 𝐴(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)
=
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)
3𝑥 − 2 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)
When 𝑥 = 1,
1 = −1𝐴
𝐴 = −1
When 𝑥 = 2,
4=𝐵
𝐵=4
Thus,
3𝑥 − 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)
−1 4
= ∫( + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1 𝑥−2
1 1
= −∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 4 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1 𝑥−2
= − ln|𝑥 − 1| + 4 ln|𝑥 − 2| + 𝐶
= 4 ln|𝑥 − 2| − ln|𝑥 − 1| + 𝐶
2d
2𝑥 + 10 2𝑥 + 10
=
𝑥2 + 2𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)
2𝑥 + 10 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 3

2𝑥 + 10 𝐴(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)
=
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)
2𝑥 + 10 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)
When 𝑥 = 1,
12 = 4𝐴
𝐴=3
When 𝑥 = −3,
4 = −4𝐵
𝐵 = −1
Thus,
2𝑥 + 10
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3
3 1
= ∫( − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1 𝑥+3
1 1
= 3∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1 𝑥+3
= 3 ln|𝑥 − 1| − ln|𝑥 + 3| + 𝐶
2e
4𝑥 + 5 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 1) 2𝑥 + 3 𝑥 + 1
4𝑥 + 5 𝐴(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(2𝑥 + 3)
=
(2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 1) (2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 1)
4𝑥 + 5 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(2𝑥 + 3)
3
When 𝑥 = − ,
2
𝐴
−1 = −
2
𝐴=2
When 𝑥 = −1,
𝐵=1
Thus,

4𝑥 + 5
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 1)
2 1
= ∫( + ) 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 + 3 𝑥 + 1
2 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 + 3 𝑥+1
= ln|2𝑥 + 3| + ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶
= ln|𝑥 + 1| + ln|2𝑥 + 3| + 𝐶
2f
10𝑥 10𝑥
=
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 3)
10𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 3) 𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 − 3
10𝑥 𝐴(2𝑥 − 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)
=
(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 3) (𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 3)
10𝑥 = 𝐴(2𝑥 − 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)
When 𝑥 = −1,
−10 = −5𝐴
𝐴=2
3
When 𝑥 = ,
2
5𝐵
15 =
2
𝐵=6
Thus,
10𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3
2 6
= ∫( + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 − 3
1 2
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1 2𝑥 − 3
= 2 ln|𝑥 + 1| + 3 ln|2𝑥 − 3| + 𝐶

3a
1 1
=
𝑥2 − 4 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
1 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 2
1 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 2)
=
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
1 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 2)
When 𝑥 = 2,
1 = 4𝐴
1
𝐴=
4
When 𝑥 = −2,
1 = −4𝐵
1
𝐵=−
4
Thus,
6
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
4 𝑥2 −4
6
1 1
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
4 4(𝑥 − 2) 4(𝑥 + 2)
1
= [ln|𝑥 − 2| − ln|𝑥 + 2|]64
4
1 𝑥−2 6
= [ln | |]
4 𝑥+2 4
1 4 2
= [ln − ln ]
4 8 6
1 1 1
= ln ( ÷ )
4 2 3
1 3
= ln
4 2

3b
3 3
=
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)
3 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2
3 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)
=
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)
3 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)
When 𝑥 = 1,
3 = 3𝐴
𝐴=1
When 𝑥 = −2,
3 = −3𝐵
𝐵 = −1
Thus,
4
3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥2 +𝑥−2
4
1 1
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥−1 𝑥+2
= [ln|𝑥 − 1| − ln|𝑥 + 2|]42
𝑥−1 4
= [ln | |]
𝑥+2 2
3 1
= ln ( ) − ln ( )
6 4
1 1
= ln ( ÷ )
2 4
= ln 2

3c
11 11
=
2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 12 (2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 4)
11 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 4) 2𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 4
11 𝐴(𝑥 + 4) + 𝐵(2𝑥 − 3)
=
(2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 4) (2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 4)
11 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 4) + 𝐵(2𝑥 − 3)
3
When 𝑥 = ,
2
11𝐴
11 =
2
𝐴=2
When 𝑥 = −4,
11 = −11𝐵
𝐵 = −1
Thus,
5
11
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 12
5
2 1
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
2 2𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 4
= [ln|2𝑥 − 3| − ln|𝑥 + 4|]52
2𝑥 − 3 5
= [ln | |]
𝑥+4 2
7 1
= ln ( ) − ln ( )
9 6
7 1
= ln ( ÷ )
9 6
14
= ln
3

3d
1 1
=
3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 − 1)
1 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 − 1 3𝑥 − 1
1 𝐴(3𝑥 − 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)
=
(𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 − 1)
1 = 𝐴(3𝑥 − 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)
When 𝑥 = 1,
1 = 2𝐴
1
𝐴=
2
1
When 𝑥 = ,
3
2𝐵
1=−
3
3
𝐵=−
2
Thus,
0
1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
−1 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 1
0
1 3
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
−1 2(𝑥 − 1) 2(3𝑥 − 1)
1 0 1 3
= ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
2 −1 𝑥 − 1 3𝑥 − 1
1
= [ln|𝑥 − 1| −ln|3𝑥 − 1|]0−1
2
1 𝑥−1 0
= [ln | |]
2 3𝑥 − 1 −1
1 −1 −2
= (ln ( ) − ln ( ))
2 −1 −4
1 1
= (ln 1 − ln )
2 2

1 1
= ln (1 ÷ )
2 2
1
= ln 2
2
4a
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
Let = +
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 2 + 1
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 − 2)
=
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 1) (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 − 2)
When 𝑥 = 2,
5 = 5𝐴
𝐴=1
1=𝐴+𝐵
1=1+𝐵 (since 𝐴 = 1)
𝐵=0
When 𝑥 = 0,
5 = 𝐴 − 2𝐶
5 = 1 − 2𝐶
𝐶 = −2
Thus,
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 1)
1 2
= ∫( − 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−2 𝑥 +1
1 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−2 𝑥 +1
= ln|𝑥 − 2| − 2 tan−1 𝑥 + 𝐶

4b
6−𝑥 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
Let 2
= + 2
(2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3) 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 3
6−𝑥 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 3) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(2𝑥 + 1)
=
(2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 3) (2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 3)
6 − 𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 3) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(2𝑥 + 1)
1
When 𝑥 = − ,
2
13 13𝐴
=
2 4
𝐴=2
0 = 𝐴 + 2𝐵
0 = 2 + 2𝐵 (since 𝐴 = 2)
𝐵 = −1
When 𝑥 = 0,
6 = 3𝐴 + 𝐶
6=6+𝐶
𝐶=0
Thus,
6−𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 3)
2 𝑥
= ∫( − 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 3
2 1 2𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 + 1 2 𝑥 +3
1
= ln|2𝑥 + 1| − ln(𝑥 2 + 3) + 𝐶 (since 𝑥 2 + 3 is positive)
2

4c
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 3 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 3
=
𝑥3 + 𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 3 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
Let = + 2
𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 +1
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 3 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥)
=
𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 3 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥)
When 𝑥 = 0,
𝐴=3
1=𝐴+𝐵
1=3+𝐵 (since 𝐴 = 3)
𝐵 = −2
Equating coefficients of 𝑥 yields:
𝐶=1
Thus,
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 + 𝑥
3 −2𝑥 + 1
= ∫( + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 +1
3 2𝑥 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 +1 𝑥 +1
= 3ln|𝑥| − ln(𝑥 2 + 1) + tan−1 𝑥 + 𝐶 (since 𝑥 2 + 1 is positive)
= tan−1 𝑥 + 3ln|𝑥| − ln(𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐶
5a
1 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑥 2 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
Let 2
= + 2
(𝑥 + 1)(4𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 + 1 4𝑥 + 1
1 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑥 2 𝐴(4𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 + 1)
=
(𝑥 + 1)(4𝑥 2 + 1) (𝑥 + 1)(4𝑥 2 + 1)

1 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑥 2 = 𝐴(4𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 + 1)

When 𝑥 = −1,
−5 = 5𝐴
𝐴 = −1
−4 = 4𝐴 + 𝐵
−4 = −4 + 𝐵 (since 𝐴 = −1)
𝐵=0
When 𝑥 = 0,
1=𝐴+𝐶
1 = −1 + 𝐶
𝐶=2
Thus,
1
2 1 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑥 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 (𝑥 + 1)(4𝑥 2 + 1)
1
−1 2 2
=∫ ( + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥+1 4𝑥 + 1
1
2 2 1
=∫ ( 2 − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 4𝑥 + 1 𝑥+1
1 1
22 2 1
=∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 (2𝑥) + 1 0 𝑥+1
1 1
= [tan−1 2𝑥]20 − [ln|𝑥 + 1|]20
3
= (tan−1 1 − tan−1 0) − (ln − ln 1)
2
𝜋 3
= − 0 − ln − 0
4 2
𝜋 3
= − ln
4 2

5b
7−𝑥 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
Let 2
= + 2
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 + 1
7−𝑥 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 + 3)
=
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 2 + 1) (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 2 + 1)
7 − 𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 + 3)
When 𝑥 = −3,
10 = 10𝐴
𝐴=1
0=𝐴+𝐵
0=1+𝐵 (since 𝐴 = 1)
𝐵 = −1
When 𝑥 = 0,
7 = 𝐴 + 3𝐶
7 = 1 + 3𝐶
𝐶=2
Thus,
1
7−𝑥
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
−1 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 1)
1
1 2−𝑥
=∫ ( + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
−1 𝑥+3 𝑥 +1
1
1 2 𝑥
=∫ ( + 2 − 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
−1 𝑥+3 𝑥 +1 𝑥 +1
1 1
1 1 1 1 2𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
−1 𝑥 + 3 −1 𝑥 + 1 2 −1 𝑥 + 1
1
= [ln|𝑥 + 3|]1−1 + 2[tan−1 𝑥]1−1 − [ln(𝑥 2 + 1)]1−1 (since 𝑥 2 + 1 is positive)
2
1
= (ln 4 − ln 2) + 2(tan−1 1 − tan−1 (−1)) − (ln 2 − ln 2)
2

𝜋 𝜋
= ln 2 + 2 ( − ( )) − 0
4 4
= ln 2 + 𝜋
= 𝜋 + ln 2
5c
𝑥2 − 4 𝑥2 − 4
=
𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 2)
𝑥2 − 4 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
Let 2
= + 2
𝑥(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 𝑥 + 2
𝑥2 − 4 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 2) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥)
=
𝑥(𝑥 2 + 2) 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 2)
𝑥 2 − 4 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 2) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥)
When 𝑥 = 0,
−4 = 2𝐴
𝐴 = −2
1=𝐴+𝐵
1 = −2 + 𝐵 (since 𝐴 = −2)
𝐵=3
Equating coefficients of 𝑥 yields:
𝐶=0
Thus,
𝑥2 − 4 3𝑥 2
3
= 2 −
𝑥 + 2𝑥 𝑥 + 2 𝑥
Hence,
√2 𝑥2 − 4
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥
√2 3𝑥 2
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥2+2 𝑥

3 √2 2𝑥 √2 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 1 𝑥2 + 2 1 𝑥
3
= [ln(𝑥 2 + 2)]1√2 − 2[ln|𝑥|]1√2 (since 𝑥 2 + 2 is positive)
2
3
= (ln 4 − ln 3) − 2(ln √2 − ln 1)
2
3 3
= ln 4 − ln 3 − 2 ln √2 + 0
2 2
3 3 2
= ln 4 − ln 3 − ln(√2)
2 2
1 3
= 3 ln(4)2 − ln 3 − ln 2
2
3
= 3 ln 2 − ln 2 − ln 3
2
3
= 2 ln 2 − ln 3
2
3
= ln 22 − ln 3
2
3
= ln 4 − ln 3
2


6a
2𝑥 + 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(2𝑥 − 3)
2𝑥 + 3 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(2𝑥 − 3) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2 2𝑥 − 3
Using cover-up rule:
2(1) + 3
𝐴= =5
(1 − 2)(2(1) − 3)
2(2) + 3
𝐵= =7
(2 − 1)(2(2) − 3)
3
2 (2) + 3
𝐶= = −24
3 3
(2 − 1) (2 − 2)
Hence
2𝑥 + 3 5 7 24
= + −
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(2𝑥 − 3) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2 2𝑥 − 3
2𝑥 + 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(2𝑥 − 3)
5 7 24
= ∫( + − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2 2𝑥 − 3
= 5 ln|𝑥 − 1| + 7 ln|𝑥 − 2| − 12 ln|2𝑥 − 3| + 𝐶
6b
4𝑥 + 12
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 − 6𝑥 2 + 8
4𝑥 + 12
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8)
4𝑥 + 12
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 2)
4𝑥 + 12 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑥(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 𝑥 − 4 𝑥 − 2

4(0) + 12 3
𝐴= =
(0 − 4)(0 − 2) 2
4(4) + 12 7
𝐵= =
(4)(4 − 2) 2
4(2) + 12
𝐶= = −5
(2)(2 − 4)
Hence
3 7
4𝑥 + 12 2 2 5
= + −
𝑥(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 (𝑥 − 4) 𝑥 − 2
4𝑥 + 12
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 2)
3 7 5
= ∫( + − ) 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 2(𝑥 − 4) 𝑥 − 2
3 7
= ln|𝑥| + ln|𝑥 − 4| − 5 ln|𝑥 − 2| + 𝐶
2 2
7a
7
3𝑥 + 5
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1)
3𝑥 + 5 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 1
3(1) + 5 4
𝐴= =
(1 + 2)(1 + 1) 3
3(−2) + 5 1
𝐵= =−
(−2 − 1)(−2 + 1) 3
3(−1) + 5
𝐶= = −1
(−1 − 1)(−1 + 2)
Hence
4 1
3𝑥 + 5 3 1
= − 3 −
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 1

7
3𝑥 + 5
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1)
4 1
7
1
=∫ ( 3 − 3 − ) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥−1 𝑥+2 𝑥+1
7
4 1
= [ ln|𝑥 − 1| − ln|𝑥 + 2| − ln|𝑥 + 1|]
3 3 2
4 1 4 1
= ln 6 − ln 9 − ln 8 − ln 1 + ln 4 + ln 3
3 3 3 3
4 4 2 2
= ln 3 + ln 2 − ln 3 − 3 ln 2 + ln 2 + ln 3
3 3 3 3
5
= ln 3 − ln 2
3
7b
2
13𝑥 + 6
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥3 − 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥
2
13𝑥 + 6
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6)
2
13𝑥 + 6
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2)
13𝑥 + 6 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑥(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 2
13(0) + 6
𝐴= = −1
(0 − 3)(0 + 2)
13(3) + 6
𝐵= =3
3(3 + 2)
13(−2) + 6
𝐶= = −2
(−2)(−2 − 3)
Hence
13𝑥 + 6 1 3 2
=− + −
𝑥(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 𝑥−3 𝑥+2

2
13𝑥 + 6
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2)
2
1 3 2
= ∫ (− + − ) 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥 𝑥−3 𝑥+2
= [− ln|𝑥| + 3 ln|𝑥 − 3| − 2 ln|𝑥 + 2|]12

= − ln 2 + 3 ln 1 − 2 ln 4 + ln 1 − 3 ln 2 + 2 ln 3
= −4 ln 2 − 4 ln 2 + 2 ln 3
= −8 ln 2 + 2 ln 3
8a i
2𝑥 2 + 1 𝐵 𝐶
=𝐴+ +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥−1 𝑥+2
2𝑥 2 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶(𝑥 − 1)
Let 𝑥 = −2,
9 = −3𝐶
𝐶 = −3
Let 𝑥 = 1,
3 = 3𝐵
𝐵=1
Let 𝑥 = 0,
1 = −2𝐴 + 2 + 3
𝐴=2
Hence
2𝑥 2 + 1 1 3
=2+ −
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥−1 𝑥+2

8a ii
2𝑥 2 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)
1 3
= ∫ (2 + − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1 𝑥+2
= 2𝑥 + ln|𝑥 − 1| − 3 ln|𝑥 + 2| + 𝐶
8b i
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 𝐵 𝐶
=𝐴+ +
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥+1 𝑥−2
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐶(𝑥 + 1)
Let 𝑥 = 2,
3 = 3𝐶
𝐶=1
Let 𝑥 = −1,
6 = −3𝐵
𝐵 = −2
Let 𝑥 = 0,
3 = −2𝐴 + 4 + 1
𝐴=1
Hence
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 2 1
=1− +
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥+1 𝑥−2
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)
2 1
= ∫ (1 − + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1 𝑥−2
= 𝑥 − 2 ln|𝑥 + 1| + ln|𝑥 − 2| + 𝐶

8b ii
3𝑥 2 − 66
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 5)
3𝑥 2 − 66 𝐵 𝐶
=𝐴+ +
(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 5) 𝑥+4 𝑥−5
3𝑥 2 − 66 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 5) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 5) + 𝐶(𝑥 + 4)
Let 𝑥 = 5,
9 = 9𝐶
𝐶=1
Let 𝑥 = −4,
−18 = −9𝐵
𝐵=2
Let 𝑥 = 0,
−66 = −20𝐴 − 10 + 4
𝐴=3
Hence
3𝑥 2 − 66 2 1
=3+ +
(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 5) 𝑥+4 𝑥−5
3𝑥 2 − 66
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 5)
2 1
= ∫ (3 + + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+4 𝑥−5
= 3𝑥 + 2 ln|𝑥 + 4| + ln|𝑥 − 5| + 𝐶
9a i
𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 4 𝐶 𝐷
= 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 + +
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3) 𝑥+1 𝑥−3
𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 4 = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3) + 𝐶(𝑥 − 3) + 𝐷(𝑥 + 1)
Equating 𝑥 3 coefficients gives 𝐴 = 1.
Let 𝑥 = 3,
−4 = 4𝐷
𝐷 = −1
Let 𝑥 = −1,
−8 = −4𝐶
𝐶=2
Let 𝑥 = 0,
−4 = −3𝐵 − 6 − 1
𝐵 = −1
9a ii
1
𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 4
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3)
1
2 1
= ∫ (𝑥 − 1 + − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥+1 𝑥−3
1
1 2
= [ 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 2 ln|𝑥 + 1| − ln|𝑥 − 3|]
2 0
1
= − 1 + 2 ln 2 − ln 2 + ln 3
2
1
= ln 2 + ln 3 −
2
9b
4
𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1)
𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 𝐶 𝐷
= 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 + +
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥+2 𝑥−1
𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐷(𝑥 + 2)
Equating 𝑥 3 coefficients gives 𝐴 = 1.
Let 𝑥 = 1,
3 = 3𝐷
𝐷=1
Let 𝑥 = −2,

3 = −3𝐶
𝐶 = −1
Let 𝑥 = 0,
−3 = −2𝐵 + 1 + 2
𝐵=3
Hence
4
𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1)
4
1 1
= ∫ (𝑥 + 3 − + ) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥+2 𝑥−1
4
1
= [ 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − ln|𝑥 + 2| + ln|𝑥 − 1|]
2 2
= 8 + 12 − ln 6 + ln 3 − 2 − 6 + ln 4 − ln 1
= 12 + ln 2
10ai
3𝑥 2 − 10 𝐵 𝐶
= 𝐴 + +
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 2)2
3𝑥 2 − 10 𝐵 𝐶
= 𝐴 + +
(𝑥 − 2)2 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 2)2
3𝑥 2 − 10 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝐵(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐶
Let 𝑥 = 2,
12 − 10 = 𝐶
𝐶=2
3𝑥 2 − 10 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) + 𝐵𝑥 − 2𝐵 + 2
3𝑥 2 − 10 = 𝐴𝑥 2 − 4𝐴𝑥 + 4𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 − 2𝐵 + 2
3𝑥 2 − 10 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + (𝐵 − 4𝐴)𝑥 + 4𝐴 − 2𝐵 + 2
Equating 𝑥 2 coefficients give 𝐴 = 3.
Equating 𝑥 coefficients give:
𝐵 − 12 = 0

𝐵 = 12
10a ii
3𝑥 2 − 10
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4
12 2
= ∫ (3 + + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 2)2
2
= 3𝑥 + 12 ln|𝑥 − 2| − +𝐶
𝑥−2
10b i
3𝑥 + 7 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
= + + +
(𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 2)2 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)2 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 2)2
3𝑥 + 7 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝐵(𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝐶(𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 2) + 𝐷(𝑥 − 1)2
Let 𝑥 = 1,
3+7=𝐵
𝐵 = 10
Let 𝑥 = 2,
6+7=𝐷
𝐷 = 13
3𝑥 + 7 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)2 + 10(𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝐶(𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 2) + 13(𝑥 − 1)2
Equating 𝑥 3 coefficients gives 𝐴 + 𝐶 = 0
Let 𝑥 = 0,
7 = −4𝐴 + 40 − 2𝐶 + 13
−46 = −4𝐴 − 2𝐶
23 = 2𝐴 + 𝐶
𝐴 = −𝐶 from previous calculation
23 = −2𝐶 + 𝐶 = −𝐶
𝐶 = −23

𝐴 = 23
10b ii
3𝑥 + 7
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 2)2
23 10 23 13
= ∫( + 2
− + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 2)2
10 13
= 23 ln|𝑥 − 1| − − 23 ln|𝑥 − 2| − +𝐶
𝑥−1 𝑥−2
𝑥−1 10 13
= 23 ln | |− − +𝐶
𝑥−2 𝑥−1 𝑥−2
11a
6
𝑥2 − 8
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
4 𝑥 + 4𝑥
6
𝑥2 − 8
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
4 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 4)
𝑥2 − 8 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
= +
𝑥(𝑥 2 + 4) 𝑥 𝑥 2 + 4
𝑥 2 − 8 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 4) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)𝑥
𝑥 2 − 8 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 4𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥
𝑥 2 − 8 = (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 + 4𝐴
4𝐴 = −8
𝐴 = −2
−2 + 𝐵 = 1
𝐵=3
𝐶=0
Hence
6
𝑥2 − 8
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
4 𝑥(𝑥 + 4)

6
−2 3𝑥
=∫ ( + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
4 𝑥 𝑥 +4
6
3
= [−2 ln|𝑥| + ln|𝑥 2 + 4|]
2 4
3 3
= −2 ln 6 + ln 40 + 2 ln 4 − ln 20
2 2
2 3
= 2 ln + ln 2
3 2
3 3
= ln 2 − 2 ln
2 2
11b
2
1 + 4𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 (4 − 𝑥)(𝑥 2 + 1)
1 + 4𝑥 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
2
= + 2
(4 − 𝑥)(𝑥 + 1) 4 − 𝑥 𝑥 + 1
1 + 4𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(4 − 𝑥)
Let 𝑥 = 4,
17 = 17𝐴
𝐴=1
1 + 4𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 1 − 𝐵𝑥 2 + 4𝐵𝑥 − 𝐶𝑥 + 4𝐶
1 + 4𝑥 = (1 − 𝐵)𝑥 2 + (4𝐵 − 𝐶)𝑥 + 4𝐶 + 1
∴ 1−𝐵 = 0
𝐵=1
4−𝐶 =4
𝐶=0
Hence
2
1 + 4𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 (4 − 𝑥)(𝑥 2 + 1)
2
1 𝑥
=∫ ( + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
0 4−𝑥 𝑥 +1

2
1 2
= [− ln|4 − 𝑥| + ln|𝑥 + 1|]
2 0
1 1
= − ln 2 + ln 5 + ln 4 − ln 1
2 2
1
= − ln 2 + ln 5 + 2 ln 2
2
1 1
= ln 4 + ln 5
2 2
1
= ln 20
2
12a
𝑥2 − 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷
= + +
𝑥4 + 𝑥2 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥2 + 1
𝑥2 − 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷
2 2
= + 2+ 2
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 +1
𝑥 2 − 1 = 𝐴𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷)𝑥 2
𝑥 2 − 1 = 𝐴𝑥 3 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵 + 𝐶𝑥 3 + 𝐷𝑥 2
𝑥 2 − 1 = (𝐴 + 𝐶)𝑥 3 + (𝐵 + 𝐷)𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
Equating coefficients gives:
𝐴+𝐶 =0
𝐵+𝐷 =1
𝐴=0
𝐵 = −1
𝐶=0
𝐷=2

12b
√3 𝑥2 − 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥4 + 𝑥2
√3
√3 2 1
=∫ ( 2 − 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥 +1 𝑥
√3
−1 (𝑥)
1 √3
= [2 tan + ]1
𝑥
√3
1 1
= 2 tan−1(√3) + − 2 tan−1 ( ) − √3
√3 √3
2𝜋 1 𝜋
= + − − √3
3 √3 3
𝜋 √3 3√3
= + −
3 3 3
𝜋 2√3
= −
3 3
1
= (𝜋 − 2√3)
3
13a
𝑥2 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 − 1
𝑥2 + 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
𝑥2 + 1 𝐵 𝐶
=𝐴+ +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥−1 𝑥+1
𝑥 2 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶(𝑥 − 1)
𝑥 2 + 1 = 𝐴𝑥 2 − 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐵 + 𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶
𝑥 2 + 1 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)𝑥 + 𝐵 − 𝐴 − 𝐶
𝐴=1
𝐵+𝐶 =0

𝐵−1−𝐶 = 1
𝐵−𝐶 =2
∴𝐵=1
∴ 𝐶 = −1
Hence
𝑥2 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
1 1
= ∫ (1 + − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1 𝑥+1
= 𝑥 + ln|𝑥 − 1| − ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶
13b
𝑥2 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 − 𝑥
𝑥2 + 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 − 1)
𝑥2 + 1 𝐵 𝐶
=𝐴+ +
𝑥(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 𝑥−1
Using cover-up method:
02 + 1
𝐵= = −1
(0 − 1)
12 + 1
𝐶= =2
1
𝑥 2 + 1 = 𝐴𝑥(𝑥 − 1) − (𝑥 − 1) + 2𝑥
Let 𝑥 = 2,
5 = 2𝐴 − 1 + 4
𝐴=1
Hence
𝑥2 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 − 1)
1 2
= ∫ (1 − + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥−1

= 𝑥 − ln|𝑥| + 2 ln|𝑥 − 1| + 𝐶
13c
𝑥3 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 + 𝑥
𝑥3 + 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑥3 + 1 𝐵 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷
2
=𝐴+ + 2
𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 +1
𝑥 3 + 1 = 𝐴𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷)𝑥
𝑥 3 + 1 = 𝐴𝑥 3 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵 + 𝐶𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥
𝑥 3 + 1 = 𝐴𝑥 3 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)𝑥 2 + (𝐴 + 𝐷)𝑥 + 𝐵
Equating coefficients:
𝐴=1
𝐵=1
𝐵+𝐶 =0
𝐶 = −1
1+𝐷 =0
𝐷 = −1
Hence
𝑥3 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)
1 −𝑥 − 1
= ∫ (1 + + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥2 + 1
1 𝑥 1
= ∫ (1 + − 2 − 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 +1 𝑥 +1
1
= 𝑥 + ln|𝑥| − ln(𝑥 2 + 1) − tan−1 (𝑥) + 𝐶
2

13d
𝑥2
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 6
𝑥2
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑥2 𝐵 𝐶
=𝐴+ +
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) 𝑥−2 𝑥−3
22
𝐵= = −4
2−3
32
𝐶= =9
3−2
𝑥 2 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) − 4(𝑥 − 3) + 9(𝑥 − 2)
Equating 𝑥 2 coefficients gives 𝐴 = 1
Hence
𝑥2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3)
4 9
= ∫ (1 − + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−2 𝑥−3
= 𝑥 − 4 ln|𝑥 − 2| + 9 ln|𝑥 − 3| + 𝐶
13e
𝑥3 + 5
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 𝑥
𝑥3 + 5
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
𝑥3 + 5 𝐶 𝐷
= 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 + +
𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥+1
03 + 5
𝐶= =5
0+1
−13 + 5
𝐷= = −4
−1
𝑥 3 + 5 = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)𝑥(𝑥 + 1) + 5(𝑥 + 1) − 4𝑥

Let 𝑥 = 1,
6 = (1 + 𝐵)2 + 10 − 4
𝐵 = −1
Hence
𝑥3 + 5
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
5 4
= ∫ (𝑥 − 1 + − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥+1
1 2
= 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 5 ln|𝑥| − 4 ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶
2
13f
𝑥4
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2
𝑥4
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1)
𝑥4 𝐷 𝐸
= 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 + +
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥−2 𝑥−1
24
𝐷= = 16
2−1
14
𝐸= = −1
1−2
𝑥 4 = (𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1) + 16(𝑥 − 1) − (𝑥 − 2)
Equating 𝑥 3 coefficients gives 𝐵 − 3𝐴 = 0
𝐵=3
Let 𝑥 = 0,
0 = 2𝐶 − 16 + 2

𝐶=7
Hence
𝑥4
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1)
16 1
= ∫ (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 7 + − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−2 𝑥−1
1 3 3 2
= 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 16 ln|𝑥 − 2| − ln|𝑥 − 1| + 𝐶
3 2


1a
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
9 + 𝑥2
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
32 + 𝑥 2
1 3
= ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
3 3 + 𝑥2
1 𝑥
= tan−1 + 𝐶
3 3
1b
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√9 − 𝑥 2
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√32 − 𝑥 2
𝑥
= sin−1 + 𝐶
3
1c
1 1
=
𝑥2 − 9 (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3)
1 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 3
1 𝐴(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 3)
=
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3)
1 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 3)
When 𝑥 = 3,
1 = 6𝐴
1
𝐴=
6
When 𝑥 = −3,
1 = −6𝐵

1
𝐵=−
6
Hence,
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 −9
1 1
= ∫( − ) 𝑑𝑥
6(𝑥 − 3) 6(𝑥 + 3)
1 1 1
= ∫( − ) 𝑑𝑥
6 𝑥−3 𝑥+3
1
= (ln|𝑥 − 3| − ln|𝑥 + 3|) + 𝐶
6
1 𝑥−3
= ln | |+𝐶
6 𝑥+3
1d
1 1
2
=
9−𝑥 (3 − 𝑥)(3 + 𝑥)
1 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(3 − 𝑥)(3 + 𝑥) 3 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥
1 𝐴(3 + 𝑥) + 𝐵(3 − 𝑥)
=
(3 − 𝑥)(3 + 𝑥) (3 − 𝑥)(3 + 𝑥)
1 = 𝐴(3 + 𝑥) + 𝐵(3 − 𝑥)
When 𝑥 = 3,
1 = 6𝐴
1
𝐴=
6
When 𝑥 = −3,
1 = 6𝐵
1
𝐵=
6
Hence,
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
9 − 𝑥2

1 1
= ∫( + ) 𝑑𝑥
6(3 − 𝑥) 6(3 + 𝑥)
1 1 1
= ∫ (− + ) 𝑑𝑥
6 𝑥−3 𝑥+3
1
= (− ln|3 − 𝑥| + ln|3 + 𝑥|) + 𝐶
6
1 3+𝑥
= ln | |+𝐶
6 3−𝑥
Alternatively:
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
9 − 𝑥2
1
= −∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 − 9
1 𝑥−3
= − ln | |+𝐶 (using answer from part c)
6 𝑥+3
1 𝑥 − 3 −1
= ln | | +𝐶
6 𝑥+3
1 𝑥+3
= ln | |+𝐶
6 𝑥−3
1 3+𝑥
= ln | |+𝐶
6 3−𝑥
1e
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√9 + 𝑥 2
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√32 + 𝑥 2
= ln (𝑥 + √9 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶 (using standard integral)

1f
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 9
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 32
= ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 9| + 𝐶 (using standard integral)
2a
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 4𝑥 + 5
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4) + 1
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 2)2 + 12
= tan−1 (𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶
2b
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 20
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) + 16
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 2)2 + 42
1 4
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
4 (𝑥 − 2)2 + 42
1 𝑥−2
= tan−1 ( )+𝐶
4 4

2c
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√9 + 8𝑥 − 𝑥 2
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√−(𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 9)
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√−((𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16) − 25)
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√−((𝑥 − 4)2 − 25)
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√25 − (𝑥 − 4)2
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√52 − (𝑥 − 4)2
𝑥−4
= sin−1 +𝐶
5
2d
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√20 − 8𝑥 − 𝑥 2
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√−(𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 20)
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√−((𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 16) − 36)
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√−((𝑥 + 4)2 − 36)
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√36 − (𝑥 + 4)2
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√62 − (𝑥 + 4)2
𝑥+4
= sin−1 +𝐶
6

2e
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 13
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√(𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9) + 4
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√(𝑥 − 3)2 + 4
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√(𝑥 − 3)2 + 22
= ln ((𝑥 − 3) + √(𝑥 − 3)2 + 22 ) + 𝐶 (using standard integral)
= ln (𝑥 − 3 + √𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 13) + 𝐶
Note: we don’t need to take absolute values here, because the log expression is
always positive:
(𝑥 − 3)2 + 22 > (𝑥 − 3)2 ≥ 0
√(𝑥 − 3)2 + 22 > √(𝑥 − 3)2
√(𝑥 − 3)2 + 22 > |(𝑥 − 3)|
√(𝑥 − 3)2 + 22 + (𝑥 − 3) > 0
2f
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√4𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 6
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√4 (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3)
2
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1
√4 ((𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) + )
2
1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 1
√(𝑥 + 1)2 +2

1 1
= ln |(𝑥 + 1) + √(𝑥 + 1)2 + | + 𝐶 (using standard integral)
2 2
1 3
= ln |𝑥 + 1 + √𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + | + 𝐶
2 2
3a
3
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥2 − 2𝑥 + 5
3
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) + 4
3
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 (𝑥 − 1)2 + 4
3
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 (𝑥 − 1)2 + 22
1 3 2
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 1 (𝑥 − 1)2 + 22
1 −1
𝑥−1 3
= [tan ]
2 2 1
1
= (tan−1 1 − tan−1 0)
2
1 𝜋
= ( − 0)
2 4
𝜋
=
8

3b
5
4
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 13
5
4
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 (𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9) + 4
5
4
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 (𝑥 − 3)2 + 4
5
2
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 (𝑥 − 3)2 + 22
𝑥−3 5
= 2 [tan−1 ]
2 1
= 2(tan−1 1 − tan−1(−1))
𝜋 𝜋
= 2 ( − (− ))
4 4
𝜋
=2×
2
=𝜋
3c
0
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √3 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2
0
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √−(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3)
0
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1
√−((𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) − 4)
0
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
− 1)2 − 4)
−1 √−((𝑥
0
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √4 − (𝑥 − 1)2
1 0 2
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 −1 √22 − (𝑥 − 1)2
1 𝑥−1 0
= [sin−1 ]
2 2 −1

1 1
= (sin−1 (− ) − sin−1(−1))
2 2
1 𝜋 𝜋
= (− − (− ))
2 6 2
1 𝜋 𝜋
= (− + )
2 6 2
𝜋
=
6
3d
1
3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√3 + 4𝑥 − 4𝑥 2
0
1
3
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √−(4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 3)
1
3
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 2
√−((4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 1) − 4)
1
3
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √−((2𝑥 − 1)2 − 4)
1
3
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√4 − (2𝑥 − 1)2
0
3 1 2
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 0 √22 − (2𝑥 − 1)2
3 2𝑥 − 1 1
= [sin−1 ]
2 2 0
3 1 1
= (sin−1 ( ) − sin−1 (− ))
2 2 2
3 𝜋 𝜋
= ( − (− ))
2 6 6
3 𝜋 𝜋
= ( + )
2 6 6
3 𝜋
= ×
2 3
𝜋
=
2

3e
3
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 + 2𝑥 + 10
−1 √𝑥
3
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √(𝑥 2
+ 2𝑥 + 1) + 9
3
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √(𝑥 + 1)2 + 32
3
= [ln ((𝑥 + 1) + √(𝑥 + 1)2 + 9)] (using standard integral)
−1
= ln 9 − ln 3
9
= ln ( )
3
= ln 3
3f
1
2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1
√𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1
2
1
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1
1
2 √(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + ) +
3
4 4
1
1
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 2
2
√(𝑥 − 1) + (√3)
2
2 2
1
2
1 1 3
= 2 [ln (𝑥 − ) + √(𝑥 − ) + ]
2 2 4
( ) 1
2
3 √3
= 2 (ln ( ) − ln ( ))
2 2
3 √3
= 2 ln ( ) − 2ln ( )
2 2
2
3 2 √3
= ln ( ) − ln ( )
2 2

9 3
= ln ( ) − ln ( )
4 4
9 3
= ln ( ÷ )
4 4
= ln 3


4a
2𝑥 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 2
2𝑥 + 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 1
2𝑥 + 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1)2 + 1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 =𝑢−1
Hence
2𝑥 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1)2 + 1
2(𝑢 − 1) + 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢2 + 1
2𝑢 − 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢2 + 1
2𝑢 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢 − ∫ 2 𝑑𝑢
𝑢2+1 𝑢 +1
= ln|𝑢2 + 1| − tan−1 𝑢 + 𝐶
= ln((𝑥 + 1)2 + 1) − tan−1 (𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶
= ln(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2) − tan−1(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶
4b
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 10
𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 9
𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1)2 + 9
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1

𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 =𝑢−1
Hence
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1)2 + 9
𝑢−1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢2 + 9
𝑢 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢 − ∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢2 + 9 𝑢2 + 9
1 2𝑢 1 3
= ∫ 2 𝑑𝑢 − ∫ 2 𝑑𝑢
2 𝑢 +9 3 𝑢 +9
1 1 𝑢
= ln(𝑢2 + 9) − tan−1 ( ) + 𝐶
2 3 3
1 1 𝑥+1
= ln((𝑥 + 1)2 + 9) − tan−1 ( )+𝐶
2 3 3
1 1 𝑥+1
= ln(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 10) − tan−1 ( )+𝐶
2 3 3
4c
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√6𝑥 − 𝑥 2
𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√−(𝑥 2 − 6𝑥)
𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√−((𝑥 − 3)2 − 9)
𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√9 − (𝑥 − 3)2
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 3
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 =𝑢+3
Hence
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√9 − (𝑥 − 3)2

𝑢+3
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
√9 − 𝑢2
𝑢 3
=∫ 𝑑𝑢 + ∫ 𝑑𝑢
√9 − 𝑢2 √9 − 𝑢2
𝑢 𝑢
=∫ 𝑑𝑢 + 3 sin−1 ( )
√9 − 𝑢2 3
Let 𝑤 = 9 − 𝑢2
𝑑𝑤 = −2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Hence
𝑢
∫ 𝑑𝑢
√9 − 𝑢2
1 1
=− ∫ 𝑑𝑤
2 √𝑤
1
= − × 2√𝑤
2
= −√𝑤
Hence
𝑢 𝑢
∫ 𝑑𝑢 + 3 sin−1 ( )
√9 − 𝑢2 3
𝑢
= −√𝑤 + 3 sin−1 ( ) + 𝐶
3
𝑢
= −√9 − 𝑢2 + 3 sin−1 ( ) + 𝐶
3
𝑥−3
= −√6𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 3 sin−1 ( )+𝐶
3
4d
𝑥+3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√4 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2
𝑥+3
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√−(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 4)
𝑥+3
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√−((𝑥 + 1)2 − 5)

𝑥+3
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√5 − (𝑥 + 1)2
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 =𝑢−1
Hence
𝑥+3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√5 − (𝑥 + 1)2
𝑢−1+3
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
√5 − 𝑢2
𝑢 2
=∫ 𝑑𝑢 + ∫ 𝑑𝑢
√5 − 𝑢2 √5 − 𝑢2
𝑢
= −√5 − 𝑢2 − 2 sin−1 ( ) + 𝐶
√5
𝑥+1
= −√4 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 2 sin−1 ( )+𝐶
√5
4e
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 10
𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√(𝑥 + 1)2 + 9
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 =𝑢−1
Hence
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√(𝑥 + 1)2 + 9
𝑢−1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
√𝑢2 + 9
𝑢 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢 − ∫ 𝑑𝑢
√𝑢2 + 9 √𝑢2 + 9

= √𝑢2 + 9 − ln (𝑢 + √𝑢2 + 9) + 𝐶
= √𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 10 − ln (𝑥 + 1 + √𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 10) + 𝐶
4f
𝑥+3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 4
𝑥+3
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√(𝑥 − 1)2 − 5
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 =𝑢+1
Hence
𝑥+3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√(𝑥 − 1)2 − 5
𝑢+4
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
√𝑢2 − 5
𝑢 4
=∫ 𝑑𝑢 + ∫ 𝑑𝑢
√𝑢2 − 5 √𝑢2 − 5
= √𝑢2 − 5 + 4 ln |𝑢 + √𝑢2 − 5| + 𝐶
= √𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 4 + 4 ln |𝑥 − 1 + √𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 4| + 𝐶
5a
2
𝑥+1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥2 + 4
2
𝑥 1
=∫ + 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥2 + 4 𝑥2 + 4
2
𝑥 1 2
=∫ + 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥2 + 4 2 𝑥2 + 4
1 1 𝑥 2
= [ ln|𝑥 2 + 4| + tan−1 ( )]
2 2 2 0

1 𝜋 1
= ln 8 + − ln 4
2 8 2
1 𝜋
= ln 2 +
2 8
5b
2
𝑥+1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5
2
𝑥+1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 (𝑥 − 2)2 + 1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 2
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 2, 𝑢 = 0
𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = −1
𝑥 =𝑢+2
Hence
2
𝑥+1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 (𝑥 − 2)2 + 1
0
𝑢+3
=∫ 2
𝑑𝑢
−1 𝑢 + 1
0
𝑢 3
=∫ ( 2 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑢
−1 𝑢 + 1 𝑢 +1
0
1 2 −1
= [ ln(𝑢 + 1) + 3 tan 𝑢]
2 −1
1
= − ln 2 − 3 tan−1 (−1)
2
1 3𝜋
= − ln 2 +
2 4
1 3𝜋
= − × 2 ln 2 +
4 4
1 3𝜋
= − ln 4 +
4 4

1
= (3𝜋 − ln 4)
4
5c
2
2𝑥 − 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥2 − 2𝑥 + 2
2
2𝑥 − 3
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 (𝑥 − 1)2 + 1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 2, 𝑢 = 1
𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 0
𝑥 =𝑢+1
Hence
2
2𝑥 − 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 (𝑥 − 1)2 + 1
1
2(𝑢 + 1) − 3
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
0 𝑢2 + 1
1
2𝑢 − 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
0 𝑢2 + 1
1
2𝑢 1
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑢
0 𝑢2 + 1 𝑢2 + 1
= [ln(𝑢2 + 1) − tan−1 𝑢]10

𝜋
= ln 2 −
4
5d
0
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √3 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2
0
𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √−(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3)

0
𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √−((𝑥 + 1)2 − 4)
0
𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √4 − (𝑥 + 1)2
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
𝑥 = −1, 𝑢 = 0
𝑥 =𝑢−1
Hence
0
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √4 − (𝑥 + 1)2
1
𝑢−1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
0 √4 − 𝑢2
1
𝑢 1
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑢
0 √4 − 𝑢2 √4 − 𝑢2
𝑢 1
= [−√4 − 𝑢2 − sin−1 ( )]
2 0
𝜋
= −√3 − +2
6
5e
3
1 − 2𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3
3
1 − 2𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √(𝑥 + 1)2 + 2
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 3, 𝑢 = 4
𝑥 = −1, 𝑢 = 0
𝑥 =𝑢−1

Hence
3
1 − 2𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √(𝑥 + 1)2 + 2
4
1 − 2(𝑢 − 1)
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
0 √𝑢2 + 2
4
3 − 2𝑢
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
0 √𝑢2 + 2
4
3 2𝑢
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑢
0 √𝑢2 + 2 √𝑢2 + 2
4
= [3 ln |𝑢 + √𝑢2 + 2| − 2√𝑢2 + 2]
0
= 3 ln(4 + 3√2) − 6√2 − 3 ln(√2) + 2√2
4 + 3√2
= 3 ln ( ) − 4√2
√2
4
= 3 ln ( + 3) − 4√2
√2
= 3 ln(2√2 + 3) − 4√2
5f
1
𝑥+3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1
1
𝑥+3
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √(𝑥 + 2)2 − 3
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 2
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 3
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 2
𝑥 =𝑢−2
Hence
1
𝑥+3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √(𝑥 + 2)2 − 3

3
𝑢+1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
2 √𝑢2 − 3
3
𝑢 1
=∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑢
2 √𝑢2 − 3 √𝑢2 − 3
3
= [√𝑢2 − 3 + ln |𝑢 + √𝑢2 − 3|]
2
= √6 + ln(3 + √6) − 1 − ln 3
3 + √6
= ln ( ) + √6 − 1
3
2
= ln (1 + √ ) + √6 − 1
3
6a
1+𝑥
∫√ 𝑑𝑥
1−𝑥
1+𝑥 1+𝑥
= ∫√ ×√ 𝑑𝑥
1−𝑥 1+𝑥
1+𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
1 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
= sin−1 𝑥 − √1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
6b
3−𝑥
∫√ 𝑑𝑥
2+𝑥
3−𝑥 3−𝑥
= ∫√ ×√ 𝑑𝑥
2+𝑥 3−𝑥

3−𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√6 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2
3−𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√−(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6)
3−𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√−(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6)
3−𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
2
√25 − (𝑥 − 1)
4 2
1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 −
2
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑥=𝑢+
2
Hence
3−𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2
√25 − (𝑥 − 1)
4 2
1
3−𝑢−2
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
√25 − 𝑢2
4
5
−𝑢
=∫ 2 𝑑𝑢
25
√ − 𝑢2
4
5
2 𝑢
=∫ − 𝑑𝑢
√ 25 2 25
√ − 𝑢2
( 4 −𝑢 4 )
5 −1 2𝑢 25
= sin ( ) + √ − 𝑢2 + 𝐶
2 5 4
5 −1 2𝑥 − 1
= sin ( ) + √6 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
2 5

6c
𝑥−1
∫√ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
= ∫√ ×√ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1 𝑥−1
𝑥−1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 1
𝑥 1
= ∫( − ) 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 1 √𝑥 2 − 1
= √𝑥 2 − 1 − ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1| + 𝐶
7a
0
1−𝑥
∫ √ 𝑑𝑥
−1 𝑥+3
0
1−𝑥 1−𝑥
=∫ √ ×√ 𝑑𝑥
−1 𝑥 + 3 1−𝑥
0
1−𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √3 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2
0
1−𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √4 − (𝑥 + 1)2
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
𝑥 = −1, 𝑢 = 0
𝑥 =𝑢−1
1
1−𝑢+1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
0 √4 − 𝑢2
1
2−𝑢
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
0 √4 − 𝑢2

1
2 𝑢
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑢
0 √4 − 𝑢2 √4 − 𝑢2
𝑢 1
= [2 sin−1 ( ) + √4 − 𝑢2 ]
2 0
𝜋
= + √3 − 2
3
7b
0
𝑥+2
∫ √ 𝑑𝑥
−1 1−𝑥
0
𝑥+2 𝑥+2
=∫ √ ×√ 𝑑𝑥
−1 1 − 𝑥 𝑥+2
0
𝑥+2
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √2 − 𝑥 − 𝑥2
0
𝑥+2
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 √2 − 𝑥 − 𝑥2
0
𝑥+2
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
2
−1
√9 − (𝑥 + 1)
4 2
1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 +
2
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 =
2
1
𝑥 = −1, 𝑢 = −
2
1
𝑥=𝑢−
2
Hence
0
𝑥+2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2
−1
√9 − (𝑥 + 1)
4 2

1 1
2 𝑢−2+2
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
1
−
2 √9 − 𝑢2
4
1 3
2 𝑢+2
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
1
−
2√
9
𝑢2
4−
1 3
2 𝑢 2
=∫ + 𝑑𝑢
1
−
√9 2 √9 − 𝑢 2
( 4−𝑢
2
4 )
1
2 𝑢
∫ 𝑑𝑢 is an odd function. Therefore it equals 0.
1
−
2√
9
𝑢2
4−
1 3
2 𝑢 2
∫ + 𝑑𝑢
1
−
√9 2 √9 − 𝑢 2
( 4−𝑢
2
4 )
1 3
2 2
=∫ 𝑑𝑢 This is an even function.
1
−
2 √9 − 𝑢2
4
1
2 3
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
0
√9 − 𝑢2
4
1
2𝑢 2
= [3 sin−1 ( )]
3 0
1
= 3 sin−1 ( )
3

7c
1
𝑥+1
∫ √ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥+3
1
𝑥+1 𝑥+1
=∫ √ ×√ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥+3 𝑥+1
1
𝑥+1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3
1
𝑥+1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √(𝑥 + 2)2 − 1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 2
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 3
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 2
𝑥 =𝑢−2
Hence
1
𝑥+1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √(𝑥 + 2)2 − 1
3
𝑢−2+1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
2 √𝑢2 − 1
3
𝑢−1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
2 √𝑢2 − 1
3
𝑢 1
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑢
2 √𝑢2 − 1 √𝑢2 − 1
3
= [√𝑢2 − 1 − ln |𝑢 + √𝑢2 − 1|]
2
= 2√2 − ln(3 + 2√2) − √3 + ln(2 + √3)
2 + √3
= 2√2 − √3 + ln ( )
3 + 2√2


1a
∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑢𝑣′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥
Hence
= 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
= 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
1b
∫ 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = −𝑒 −𝑥
Hence
∫ 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= −𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= −𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐶
= −𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶

1c
∫(𝑥 + 1)𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1, 𝑣 ′ = 𝑒 3𝑥
1
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = 𝑒 3𝑥
3
Hence
∫(𝑥 + 1)𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1
= (𝑥 + 1)𝑒 3𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 3
1 1 1
= (𝑥 + 1)𝑒 3𝑥 − ( 𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 𝐶
3 3 3
1 1
= (𝑥 + 1)𝑒 3𝑥 − 𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝐶
3 9
1 3𝑥
= 𝑒 (3𝑥 + 3 − 1) + 𝐶
9
1 3𝑥
= 𝑒 (3𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶
9
1d
∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = cos 𝑥
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = sin 𝑥
Hence

= 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − (− cos 𝑥) + 𝐶
= 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
1e
∫ (𝑥 − 1) sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥 − 1, 𝑣 ′ = sin 2𝑥
1
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = − cos 2𝑥
2
Hence
∫ (𝑥 − 1) sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1
= − (𝑥 − 1) cos 2𝑥 + ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 1
= − (𝑥 − 1) cos 2𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 + 𝐶
2 4
1f
∫ (2𝑥 − 3) sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 3, 𝑣 ′ = sec 2 𝑥
𝑢′ = 2, 𝑣 = tan 𝑥
Hence
∫ (2𝑥 − 3) sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= (2𝑥 − 3) tan 𝑥 − ∫ 2 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−sin 𝑥
= (2𝑥 − 3) tan 𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥
= (2𝑥 − 3) tan 𝑥 + 2 ln|cos 𝑥| + 𝐶
2a
𝜋
∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = sin 𝑥
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = − cos 𝑥
Hence
𝜋
0
𝜋
= [−𝑥 cos 𝑥]𝜋0 + ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
= (−𝜋 cos 𝜋 − 0) + [sin 𝑥]𝜋0

= 𝜋 + [sin 𝑥]𝜋0
= 𝜋 + sin 𝜋 − sin 0
=𝜋
2b
𝜋
2
0
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = cos 𝑥

𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = sin 𝑥
Hence
𝜋
2
0
𝜋
𝜋
2
= [𝑥 sin 𝑥]02 − ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
= sin − 0 − [− cos 𝑥]02
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
= − (− cos + cos 0)
2 2
𝜋
= −1
2
2c
𝜋
4
∫ 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = sec 2 𝑥
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = tan 𝑥
Hence
𝜋
4
0
𝜋
𝜋
4
= [𝑥 tan 𝑥]04 − ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 4 −sin 𝑥
= tan − 0 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
4 4 0 cos 𝑥
𝜋
𝜋
= + [ln|cos 𝑥|]04
4
𝜋 𝜋
= + (ln (cos ) − ln(cos 0))
4 4

𝜋 1
= + (ln ( ) − ln 1)
4 √2
𝜋 1
= + (− ln 2 − 0)
4 2
𝜋 1
= − ln 2
4 2
2d
1
∫ 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = 𝑒 2𝑥
1
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = 𝑒 2𝑥
2
Hence
1
∫ 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
1 2𝑥 1 1 1 2𝑥
= [ 𝑥𝑒 ] − ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
2 0 2 0
1 2 1 1 2𝑥 1
= 𝑒 − [ 𝑒 ]
2 2 2 0
1 2 1 1 2 1
= 𝑒 − ( 𝑒 − )
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1
= 𝑒 − 𝑒 +
2 4 4
1 2 1
= 𝑒 +
4 4
1 2
= (𝑒 + 1)
4

2e
1
∫ (1 − 𝑥)𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = 1 − 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑢′ = −1, 𝑣 = −𝑒 −𝑥
Hence
1
∫ (1 − 𝑥)𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
1
= [(1 − 𝑥)(−𝑒 −𝑥 )]10 − ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
= [(𝑥 − 1)𝑒 −𝑥 ]10 − [−𝑒 −𝑥 ]10

= 0 − (−1) + [𝑒 −𝑥 ]10
= 1 + 𝑒 −1 − 1
1
=
𝑒
2f
0
∫ (𝑥 + 2)𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−2
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥 + 2, 𝑣 ′ = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥
Hence
0
∫ (𝑥 + 2)𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−2

0
= [(𝑥 + 2)𝑒 𝑥 ]0−2 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−2
= 2 − 0 − [𝑒 𝑥 ]0−2
= 2 − (1 − 𝑒 −2 )
= 1 + 𝑒 −2
3a
∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
𝑢 = ln 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = 1
1
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
𝑥
Hence
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
= 𝑥(ln 𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
3b
∫ ln(𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
𝑢 = ln(𝑥 2 ) = 2 ln 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = 1
2
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
𝑥

Hence
∫ ln(𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 ln(𝑥 2 ) − ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 ln(𝑥 2 ) − 2𝑥 + 𝐶
= 2𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 𝐶
= 2𝑥(ln 𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
3c
∫ cos −1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
𝑢 = cos−1 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = 1
−1
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
Hence
−𝑥
= 𝑥 cos−1 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
Let 𝑢 = 1 − 𝑥 2
Therefore
1 −2𝑥
= 𝑥 cos−1 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 √1 − 𝑥 2
1 1
= 𝑥 cos−1 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑢
2 √𝑢

1
= 𝑥 cos−1 𝑥 − (2√𝑢) + 𝐶
2
= 𝑥 cos−1 𝑥 − √𝑢 + 𝐶
= 𝑥 cos−1 𝑥 − √1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
4a
1
∫ tan−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = tan−1 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = 1
1
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
Hence
1
0
1
𝑥
= [𝑥 tan−1 𝑥]10 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + 𝑥2
−1 (1)
1 1 2𝑥
= tan −0− ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 0 1 + 𝑥2
𝜋 1
= − [ln|1 + 𝑥 2 |]10
4 2
𝜋 1
= − (ln 2 − ln 1)
4 2
𝜋 1
= − ln 2
4 2

4b
𝑒
1
= [𝑥(ln 𝑥 − 1)]1𝑒 (using the result from question 3a)

= 𝑒(ln 𝑒 − 1) − (ln 1 − 1)
= 𝑒(1 − 1) − (0 − 1)
=1
4c
𝑒
∫ ln √𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
Therefore
1
𝑢 = ln √𝑥 = ln 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = 1
2
1
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
2𝑥
Hence
𝑒
1
𝑒
𝑒 1
= [𝑥 ln √𝑥]1 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 2
𝑒
1 1 𝑒
= [ 𝑥 ln 𝑥] − [ 𝑥]
2 1 2 1
1 1 1
= ( 𝑒 − 0) − ( 𝑒 − )
2 2 2
1
=
2
Alternatively:
1
Since ln √𝑥 = ln 𝑥
2

𝑒
1
1 𝑒
= ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 1
1
= ×1 (using the result from question 4b)
2
1
=
2
5a
∫ 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
𝑢 = ln 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = 𝑥
1 1
𝑢′ = , 𝑣 = 𝑥2
𝑥 2
Hence
1 2 1
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 2 1
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
2 4
1 2
= 𝑥 (2 ln 𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
4
5b
∫ 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore

𝑢 = ln 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = 𝑥 2
1 1
𝑢′ = , 𝑣 = 𝑥3
𝑥 3
Hence
1 3 1
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
3 3
1 3 1
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 𝐶
3 9
1 3
= 𝑥 (3 ln 𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
9
5c
ln 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
Therefore
1
𝑢 = ln 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ =
𝑥2
1 1
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = −
𝑥 𝑥
Hence
ln 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
1 1
= − ln 𝑥 − ∫ (− 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
1 1
= − ln 𝑥 − + 𝐶
𝑥 𝑥
1
= − (ln 𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶
𝑥


6a
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥2, 𝑣 ′ = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑢′ = 2𝑥, 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥
Hence
= 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Consider ∫ 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
𝑢 = 2𝑥, 𝑣′ = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑢′ = 2, 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥
Hence
∫ 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 2𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
= 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + ∫ 2𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
6b
∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑣 ′ = cos 𝑥
𝑢′ = 2𝑥, 𝑣 = sin 𝑥
Hence
= 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 − ∫ 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Consider ∫ 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
𝑢 = 2𝑥, 𝑣′ = sin 𝑥
𝑢′ = 2, 𝑣 = − cos 𝑥
Hence
∫ 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −2𝑥 cos 𝑥 + ∫ 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
= 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 + 2𝑥 cos 𝑥 − ∫ 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 + 2𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
6c
∫(ln 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
𝑢 = (ln 𝑥)2 , 𝑣 ′ = 1
2 ln 𝑥
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
𝑥
Hence

= 𝑥(ln 𝑥)2 − ∫ 2 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥(ln 𝑥)2 − 2 ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Consider ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
𝑢 = ln 𝑥 , 𝑣′ = 1
1
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
𝑥
Hence
∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
= 𝑥(ln 𝑥)2 − 2𝑥 ln 𝑥 + 2 ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥(ln 𝑥)2 − 2𝑥 ln 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 𝐶
7a Using integration by parts:

1
∫ 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)5 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = (𝑥 − 1)5
1
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = (𝑥 − 1)6
6
Hence
1
∫ 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)5 𝑑𝑥
0

1 1
𝑥 1
= [ (𝑥 − 1) ] − ∫ (𝑥 − 1)6 𝑑𝑥
6
6 0 0 6
1
1
= 0−[ (𝑥 − 1)7 ]
42 0
1
=−
42
By substitution:
1
∫ 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)5 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 =𝑢+1
𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 0
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = −1
Hence
1
∫ 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)5 𝑑𝑥
0
0
= ∫ (𝑢 + 1)𝑢5 𝑑𝑢
−1
0
= ∫ (𝑢6 + 𝑢5 ) 𝑑𝑢
−1
0
1 1
= [ 𝑢7 + 𝑢6 ]
7 6 −1
1 1 1 1
= ( (0)7 + (0)6 ) − ( (−1)7 + (−1)6 )
7 6 7 6
1 1
= −
7 6
1
=−
42

7b Using integration by parts:

1
∫ 𝑥√𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = √𝑥 + 1
2 3
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = (𝑥 + 1)2
3
Hence
1
∫ 𝑥√𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥
0
2 3 1 1
2 3
= [ 𝑥(𝑥 + 1) ] − ∫ (𝑥 + 1)2 𝑑𝑥
2
3 0 0 3
2 3 4 5 1
= (2)2 − [ (𝑥 + 1)2 ]
3 15 0
4√2 4 5 4
= − ( (2)2 − )
3 15 15
4√2 16√2 4
= −( − )
3 15 15
20√2 16√2 − 4
= −
15 15
4√2 + 4
=
15
4
= (√2 + 1)
15
By substitution:
1
∫ 𝑥√𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = √𝑥 + 1
𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = √2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1

𝑥 = 𝑢2 − 1
Hence
1
∫ 𝑥√𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥
0
√2
= ∫ (𝑢2 − 1)𝑢 × 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
1
√2
= 2 ∫ (𝑢4 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
1
√2
1 1
= 2 [ 𝑢5 − 𝑢3 ]
5 3 1
4 2 1 1
= 2 ( √2 − √2 − + )
5 3 5 3
8√2 − 2 4√2 − 2
= −
5 3
24√2 − 6 − 20√2 + 10
=
15
4√2 + 4
=
15
4
= (√2 + 1)
15
7c Using integration by parts:

4
∫ 𝑥√4 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = √4 − 𝑥
2 3
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = − (4 − 𝑥)2
3
Hence

4
∫ 𝑥√4 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
2 3 4 4
2 3
= [− 𝑥(4 − 𝑥)2 ] + ∫ (4 − 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
3 0 0 3
4 5 4
= 0 + [− (4 − 𝑥)2 ]
15 0
4 5
= (0) − (− (4 − 0)2 )
15
4 × 32
=
15
128
=
15
By substitution:
4
∫ 𝑥√4 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = √4 − 𝑥
𝑥 = 4, 𝑢 = 0
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 2
𝑥 = 4 − 𝑢2
𝑑𝑥 = −2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Hence
4
∫ 𝑥√4 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
0
= ∫ (4 − 𝑢2 )𝑢 × −2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2
2
= 2 ∫ (4 − 𝑢2 )𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
0
2
= 2 ∫ (4𝑢2 − 𝑢4 ) 𝑑𝑢
0
4 3 1 5 2
= 2[ 𝑢 − 𝑢 ]
3 5 0

4 1
= 2 [ × 8 − × 32]
3 5
128
=
15
8a
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = cos 𝑥
𝑢′ = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑣 = sin 𝑥
Hence
= 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Consider ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑣′ = sin 𝑥
𝑢′ = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑣 = − cos 𝑥
Hence
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥
Therefore

𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥
= +𝐶
2
8b
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑒 −𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = sin 𝑥
𝑢′ = −𝑒 −𝑥 , 𝑣 = − cos 𝑥
Hence
= −𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Consider ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
𝑢 = 𝑒 −𝑥 , 𝑣′ = cos 𝑥
𝑢′ = −𝑒 −𝑥 , 𝑣 = sin 𝑥
Hence
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥
Therefore
𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥
=− +𝐶
2

9a
𝜋
2
∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑒 2𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = cos 𝑥
𝑢′ = 2𝑒 2𝑥 , 𝑣 = sin 𝑥
Hence
𝜋
2
∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
𝜋
2
= [𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝑥]02 − 2 ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
Consider ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
0
𝑢 = 𝑒 2𝑥 , 𝑣′ = sin 𝑥
𝑢′ = 2𝑒 2𝑥 , 𝑣 = −cos 𝑥
Hence
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋
2 2
2𝑥 [−𝑒 2𝑥
∫ 𝑒 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝑥]02 + 2 ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0
Therefore
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
2 2
2𝑥 [𝑒 2𝑥
∫ 𝑒 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥]02 − 2[−𝑒 2𝑥
cos 𝑥]02 − 4 ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0
𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
2
2𝑥 [𝑒 2𝑥
5∫ 𝑒 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥]02 − 2[−𝑒 2𝑥
cos 𝑥]02
0
𝜋
2 1 𝜋
∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑒 − 2(0 − 1))
0 5
1 𝜋
= (𝑒 + 2)
5

9b
𝜋
4
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = sin 2𝑥
1
𝑢′ = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑣 = − cos 2𝑥
2
Hence
𝜋
4
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋 𝜋
1 4 1 4
= [−𝑒 𝑥 cos 2𝑥] + ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0 2 0
𝜋
4
Consider ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
0
𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑣′ = cos 2𝑥
1
𝑢′ = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑣 = sin 2𝑥
2
Hence
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
4 1 4 1 4
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑒 𝑥 sin 2𝑥] − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 2 0 2 0
Therefore
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
4 1 4 1 1 4 1 4
∫ 𝑒 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [−𝑒 cos 2𝑥] + [𝑒 𝑥 sin 2𝑥] − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
0 2 0 2 2 0 4 0
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
5 4 𝑥 1 4 1 1 4
∫ 𝑒 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [−𝑒 𝑥 cos 2𝑥] + [𝑒 𝑥 sin 2𝑥]
4 0 2 0 2 2 0
𝜋
4 4 1 1 1 𝜋
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (((0) − (− )) + (( 𝑒 4 ) − (0)))
0 5 2 2 2
4 1 1 𝜋
= ( + 𝑒4)
5 2 4

2 1 𝜋
= + 𝑒4
5 5
1 𝜋
= (𝑒 4 + 2)
5
10a
√3
2
∫ sin−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = sin−1 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = 1
1
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
Hence
√3
2
∫ sin−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
√3
√3 2 𝑥
= [𝑥 sin−1 𝑥]02 −∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √1 − 𝑥 2
√3
√3 𝜋 2
= × − [−√1 − 𝑥 2 ]
2 3 0
√3
√3 𝜋 2
= × + [√1 − 𝑥 2 ]
2 3 0
𝜋√3 1
= + −1
6 2
𝜋√3 1
= −
6 2
3𝜋 3√3
= −
6√3 6√3
3𝜋 − 3√3
=
6√3

1
= (𝜋 − √3)
2√3
10b
√3
2
∫ cos−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
√3
−
2
Therefore
𝑢 = cos−1 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = 1
−1
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
Hence
√3
2
∫ cos−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
√3
−
2
√3
√3 2 −𝑥
= [𝑥 cos 𝑥] 2
−1
−∫ 𝑑𝑥
√3 √3 √1 − 𝑥2
− −
2 2
√3
√3 𝜋 √3 5𝜋 2
= ( × ) − (− × ) − [√1 − 𝑥 2 ] √3
2 6 2 6 −
2
𝜋√3 5𝜋√3 1 1
= + − +
12 12 2 2
6𝜋√3
=
12
𝜋√3
=
2

10c
1
∫ 4𝑥tan−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = tan−1 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = 4𝑥
1
𝑢′ = , 𝑣 = 2𝑥 2
𝑥2 +1
Hence
1
∫ 4𝑥tan−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
1
𝑥2
= [2𝑥 2 tan −1
𝑥]10 − 2∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥 +1
1 2
𝜋 𝑥 +1−1
= −2∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 0 𝑥2 + 1
1
𝜋 1
= −2∫ 1− 2 𝑑𝑥
2 0 𝑥 +1
𝜋
= − 2[𝑥 − tan−1 𝑥]10
2
𝜋 𝜋
= − 2 (1 − )
2 4
𝜋 𝜋
= −2+
2 2
= 𝜋−2
11a
𝜋
∫ 𝑥 2 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑣 ′ = cos 2𝑥

1
𝑢′ = 2𝑥, 𝑣 = sin 2𝑥
2
Hence
𝜋
0
𝜋 𝜋
1
= [𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥] − ∫ 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0 0
𝜋
Consider ∫ 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
0
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣′ = sin 2𝑥
1
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = − cos 2𝑥
2
Hence
𝜋 𝜋
1 1 𝜋
∫ 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [−𝑥 cos 2𝑥] + ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 2 0 2 0
Therefore
𝜋
0
𝜋 𝜋
1 1 1 𝜋
= [𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥] − [−𝑥 cos 2𝑥] − ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0 2 0 2 0
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
1 2
1 1 1
= [𝑥 sin 2𝑥] + [𝑥 cos 2𝑥] − [ sin 2𝑥]
2 0 2 0 2 2 0
𝜋 1
= 0+ − (0)
2 2
𝜋
=
2
11b
𝜋
1
∫ 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 2
Therefore

1
𝑢 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑣 ′ = sin 𝑥
2
1
𝑢′ = 2𝑥, 𝑣 = −2 cos 𝑥
2
Hence
𝜋
1
0 2
2
1 𝜋 𝜋
1
= [−2𝑥 cos 𝑥] + 4 ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0 0 2
𝜋
1
Consider ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
0 2
1
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣′ = cos 𝑥
2
1
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = 2 sin 𝑥
2
Hence
𝜋
1 1 𝜋 𝜋
1
∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [2𝑥 sin 𝑥] − 2 ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 2 2 0 0 2
Therefore
𝜋
1
0 2
2
1 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋
1
= [−2𝑥 cos 𝑥] + 4 ([2𝑥 sin 𝑥] − 2 ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
2 0 2 0 0 2
1 𝜋
= 0 + 8𝜋 − 8 [−2 cos 𝑥]
2 0
1 𝜋
= 8𝜋 + 16 [cos 𝑥]
2 0
= 8𝜋 + 16(−1)
= 8𝜋 − 16

11c
𝑒
∫ sin(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1
Therefore
𝑢 = sin(ln 𝑥) , 𝑣 ′ = 1
cos(ln 𝑥)
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
𝑥
Hence
𝑒
1
𝑒
= [𝑥 sin(ln 𝑥)]1𝑒 − ∫ cos(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑒
Consider ∫ cos(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥,
1
𝑢 = cos(ln 𝑥) , 𝑣′ = 1
−sin(ln 𝑥)
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
𝑥
Hence
𝑒 𝑒
∫ cos(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 cos(ln 𝑥)]1𝑒 + ∫ sin(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1 1
Therefore
𝑒 𝑒
∫ sin(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 sin(ln 𝑥)]1𝑒 − [𝑥 cos(ln 𝑥)]1𝑒 − ∫ sin(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1 1
𝑒
2 ∫ sin(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 sin(ln 𝑥)]1𝑒 − [𝑥 cos(ln 𝑥)]1𝑒
1
𝑒
1
1
= ([𝑥 sin(ln 𝑥)]1𝑒 − [𝑥 cos(ln 𝑥)]1𝑒 )
2
1
= (𝑒 sin 1 − 0 − 𝑒 cos 1 + 1)
2

1 1
= 𝑒(sin 1 − cos 1) +
2 2
11d
𝑒
∫ cos(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1
Therefore
𝑢 = cos(ln 𝑥) , 𝑣 ′ = 1
−sin(ln 𝑥)
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
𝑥
Hence
𝑒
1
𝑒
= [𝑥 cos(ln 𝑥)]1𝑒 + ∫ sin(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑒
Consider ∫ sin(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥,
1
𝑢 = sin(ln 𝑥) , 𝑣′ = 1
cos(ln 𝑥)
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
𝑥
Hence
𝑒 𝑒
∫ sin(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 sin(ln 𝑥)]1𝑒 − ∫ cos(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1 1
Therefore
𝑒 𝑒
∫ cos(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 cos(ln 𝑥)]1𝑒 + [𝑥 sin(ln 𝑥)]1𝑒 − ∫ cos(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1 1
𝑒
2 ∫ cos(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 cos(ln 𝑥)]1𝑒 + [𝑥 sin(ln 𝑥)]1𝑒
1
𝑒
1

1
= ([𝑥 cos(ln 𝑥)]1𝑒 + [𝑥 sin(ln 𝑥)]1𝑒 )
2
1
= (𝑒 cos 1 − 1 + 𝑒 sin 1)
2
1 1
= 𝑒(cos 1 + sin 1) −
2 2
12a
Therefore
𝑢 = ln 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = 𝑥
1 1
𝑢′ = , 𝑣 = 𝑥2
𝑥 2
Hence
1 2 1
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 2 1 1
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ( 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶
2 2 2
1 2 1
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
2 4
12b
∫ 𝑥(ln 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
𝑢 = (ln 𝑥)2 , 𝑣 ′ = 𝑥

2 ln 𝑥 1
𝑢′ = , 𝑣 = 𝑥2
𝑥 2
Hence
∫ 𝑥(ln 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
1 2
= 𝑥 (ln 𝑥)2 − ∫ 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
1 2 1 1
= 𝑥 (ln 𝑥)2 − 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
2 2 4
13a
𝜋
2
∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
1 2
= ∫ 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = sin 2𝑥
1
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = − cos 2𝑥
2
Hence
𝜋
1 2
∫ 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋 𝜋
1 1 2 1 2
= ([− 𝑥 cos 2𝑥] + ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
2 2 0 2 0
𝜋
1 𝜋 1 1 2
= ( + [ sin 2𝑥] )
2 4 2 2 0
𝜋
= −0
8
𝜋
=
8

13b
𝜋
2
∫ 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
12
= ∫ 𝑥 ( (1 − cos 2𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
0 2
𝜋
1 2
= ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑥 cos 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋 𝜋
1 2 1 2
= ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0 2 0
𝜋
1 2 𝜋2 1 2
= [𝑥 ]0 − ∫ 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4 2 0
𝜋
𝜋2 1 2
= − ∫ 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
16 2 0
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = cos 2𝑥
1
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = sin 2𝑥
2
Hence
𝜋
2
∫ 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋 𝜋
1 2 1 2
= [ 𝑥 sin 2𝑥] − ∫ sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0 2 0
𝜋
1 1 2
= 0 − [− cos 2𝑥]
2 2 0
𝜋
1
= [cos 2𝑥]02
4
1
= (−1 − 1)
4

1
=−
2
Therefore
𝜋
2
∫ 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
𝜋2 1 2
= − ∫ 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
16 2 0
𝜋2 1 1
= − (− )
16 2 2
𝜋2 1
= +
16 4
1 2
= (𝜋 + 4)
16
13c
𝜋
4
∫ 𝑥 tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ 𝑥(sec 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ (𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋 𝜋
4 1 4
= ∫ 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − [ 𝑥 2 ]
0 2 0
𝜋
4 𝜋2
= ∫ 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 −
0 32
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = sec 2 𝑥
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = tan 𝑥
Hence

𝜋
4
0
𝜋
𝜋
4
= [𝑥 tan 𝑥]04 − ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋 𝜋
= [𝑥 tan 𝑥]04 + [ln|cos 𝑥|]04
𝜋 1
= − 0 + ln ( ) − 0
4 √2
𝜋 1
= − ln 2
4 2
Therefore
𝜋
4
∫ 𝑥 tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋 𝜋2 1
= − − ln 2
4 32 2
13d
𝜋
∫ 𝑥 2 (cos2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
= ∫ 𝑥 2 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑣 ′ = cos 2𝑥
1
𝑢′ = 2𝑥, 𝑣 = sin 2𝑥
2
Hence
𝜋
0
𝜋 𝜋
1 2
= [ 𝑥 sin 2𝑥] − ∫ 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0 0

𝜋
Consider ∫ 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
0
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣′ = sin 2𝑥
1
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = − cos 2𝑥
2
Hence
𝜋 𝜋
1 1 𝜋
∫ 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [− 𝑥 cos 2𝑥] + ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 2 0 2 0
Therefore
𝜋
0
𝜋 𝜋
1
= [ 𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥] − ∫ 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0 0
𝜋
1 1 𝜋
= 0 − [− 𝑥 cos 2𝑥] − ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0 2 0
𝜋
1 𝜋
1 1
= [𝑥 cos 2𝑥]0 − [ sin 2𝑥]
2 2 2 0
1
= (𝜋 − 0) − 0
2
𝜋
=
2


1a
∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
1b
∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
1c
∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥
Hence
sin 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥
1
= ∫ − 𝑑𝑢
𝑢
= − ln|𝑢| + 𝐶
= − ln|cos 𝑥| + 𝐶
1d
∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥

Hence
cos 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢
= ln|𝑢| + 𝐶
= ln|sin 𝑥| + 𝐶
2a
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥
Hence
= ∫ 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
1 3
= 𝑢 +𝐶
3
1 3
= sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
3
2b
∫ cos 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥
Hence

= − ∫ 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
1
= − 𝑢3 + 𝐶
3
1
= − cos3 𝑥 + 𝐶
3
2c
∫ sin3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ sin2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(1 − cos2 𝑥) sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥
Hence
∫(1 − cos2 𝑥) sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(𝑢2 − 1) 𝑑𝑢
1 3
= 𝑢 −𝑢+𝐶
3
1
= cos3 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
3
2d
∫ cos 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ cos2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(1 − sin2 𝑥) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥

Hence
∫(1 − sin2 𝑥) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(1 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
1
= 𝑢 − 𝑢3 + 𝐶
3
1
= sin 𝑥 − sin3 𝑥 + 𝐶
3
2e
= ∫ cos4 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(cos2 𝑥)2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(1 − sin2 𝑥)2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥
Hence
∫(1 − sin2 𝑥)2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(1 − 𝑢2 )2 𝑑𝑢
= ∫(1 − 2𝑢2 + 𝑢4 ) 𝑑𝑢
2 1
= 𝑢 − 𝑢3 + 𝑢5 + 𝐶
3 5
2 1
= sin 𝑥 − sin3 𝑥 + sin5 𝑥 + 𝐶
3 5

2f
∫ sin3 𝑥 cos3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ sin3 𝑥 (1 − sin2 𝑥) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥
Hence
∫ sin3 𝑥 (1 − sin2 𝑥) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑢3 (1 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
= ∫(𝑢3 − 𝑢5 ) 𝑑𝑢
1 4 1 6
= 𝑢 − 𝑢 +𝐶
4 6
1 4 1
= sin 𝑥 − sin6 𝑥 + 𝐶
4 6
3a
𝜋
2
0
𝜋
21
=∫ (1 − cos 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0 2
𝜋
1 2
= ∫ (1 − cos 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋
1 1 2
= [𝑥 − sin 2𝑥]
2 2 0
1 𝜋
= (( − 0) − (0 − 0))
2 2
𝜋
=
4

3b
𝜋
3
∫ cos2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
6
𝜋
31
=∫ (1 + cos 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 2
6
𝜋
1 3
= ∫ (1 + cos 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝜋
6
𝜋
1 1 3
= [𝑥 + sin 2𝑥]𝜋
2 2
6
1 𝜋 √3 𝜋 √3
= (( + ) − ( + ))
2 3 4 6 4
1 𝜋
= ( )
2 6
𝜋
=
12
3c
𝜋
0
𝜋 2
1
= ∫ ( sin 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0 2
1 𝜋 2
= ∫ sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4 0
1 𝜋1
= ∫ (1 − cos 4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4 0 2
1 𝜋
= ∫ (1 − cos 4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
8 0
𝜋
1 1
= [𝑥 − sin 4𝑥]
8 4 0
1
= ((𝜋 − 0) − (0 − 0))
8

𝜋
=
8
4a
= tan 𝑥 + 𝐶
4b
∫ tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(sec 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
= tan 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
4c
= ∫ sec 2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(1 + tan2 𝑥) sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = tan 𝑥
Hence
∫(1 + tan2 𝑥) sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(1 + 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
1
= 𝑢 + 𝑢3 + 𝐶
3
1
= tan 𝑥 + tan3 𝑥 + 𝐶
3

4d
= ∫ tan2 𝑥 tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ tan2 𝑥 (sec 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(tan2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 − tan2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(tan2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 − (sec 2 𝑥 − 1)) 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫(sec 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = tan 𝑥
Hence
∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫(sec 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢 − ∫(sec 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
1 3
= 𝑢 − (tan 𝑥 − 𝑥) + 𝐶
3
1
= tan3 𝑥 − tan 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝐶
3

Solutions to Exercise 4G Development questions

5a
𝜋
2
∫ cos3 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥
𝜋
𝑥= ,𝑢 = 0
2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
𝜋
2
∫ cos3 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
0
= − ∫ 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢
1
1
= ∫ 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢
0
1
1
= [ 𝑢4 ]
4 0
1
=
4
5b
𝜋
6
∫ cos3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
6
= ∫ cos 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
6
= ∫ cos 𝑥 (1 − sin2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥

𝜋 1
𝑥= ,𝑢 =
6 2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 0
Hence
𝜋
6
∫ cos 𝑥 (1 − sin2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
1
2
= ∫ (1 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
0
1
1 2
= [𝑢 − 𝑢3 ]
3 0
1 1
= −
2 24
11
=
24
5c
𝜋
3
∫ sin3 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥
𝜋 √3
𝑥= ,𝑢 =
3 2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 0
Hence
𝜋
3
∫ sin3 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
√3
2
=∫ 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢
0
√3
1 2
= [ 𝑢4 ]
4 0

1 9
= ( )
4 16
9
=
64
5d
𝜋
3
0
𝜋
3
= ∫ sin 𝑥 sin4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
3
= ∫ sin 𝑥 (1 − cos 2 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥
𝜋 1
𝑥= ,𝑢 =
3 2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
𝜋
3
∫ sin 𝑥 (1 − cos2 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
0
1
2
= − ∫ (1 − 𝑢2 )2 𝑑𝑢
1
1
2
= − ∫ (1 − 2𝑢2 + 𝑢4 ) 𝑑𝑢
1
1
= ∫ (1 − 2𝑢2 + 𝑢4 ) 𝑑𝑢
1
2
2 3 1 5 1
= [𝑢 − 𝑢 + 𝑢 ]1
3 5
2
2 1 1 2 1 1 1
= 1− + − + ( )− ( )
3 5 2 3 8 5 32

53
=
480
5e
𝜋
0
𝜋
= ∫ sin 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
= ∫ sin 𝑥 (1 − cos 2 𝑥) cos2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥
𝑥 = 𝜋, 𝑢 = −1
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
𝜋
∫ sin 𝑥 (1 − cos2 𝑥) cos 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
−1
= − ∫ (1 − 𝑢2 )𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
1
1
= ∫ (𝑢2 − 𝑢4 ) 𝑑𝑢
−1
1
1 1
= [ 𝑢3 − 𝑢5 ]
3 5 −1
1 1 1 1
= − + −
3 5 3 5
4
=
15

5f
𝜋
4
∫ sin2 𝑥 cos 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ cos 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ cos 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 (1 − sin2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥
𝜋 1
𝑥= ,𝑢 =
4 √2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
𝜋
4
∫ cos 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 (1 − sin2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
1
√2
=∫ 𝑢2 (1 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
0
1
√2
= ∫ (𝑢2 − 𝑢4 ) 𝑑𝑢
0
1
1 1 √2
= [ 𝑢3 − 𝑢5 ]
3 5 0
1 1 3 1 1 5
= ( ) − ( )
3 √2 5 √2
1 1
= −
6√2 20√2
10 3
= −
60√2 60√2
7
=
60√2

6a
= ∫ cos2 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1
= ∫ ( (1 + cos 2𝑥)) ( (1 + cos 2𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1
= ∫(1 + cos 2𝑥)(1 + cos 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4
1
= ∫(1 + 2 cos 2𝑥 + cos 2 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4
1 1
= ∫ (1 + 2 cos 2𝑥 + (1 + cos 4𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
4 2
1 3 1
= ∫ ( + 2 cos 2𝑥 + cos 4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4 2 2
1 3 1
= ( 𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 + sin 4𝑥) + 𝐶
4 2 8
1
= (12𝑥 + 8 sin 2𝑥 + sin 4𝑥) + 𝐶
32
6b
= ∫ sin2 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1
= ∫ ( (1 − cos 2𝑥)) ( (1 − cos 2𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1
= ∫(1 − cos 2𝑥)(1 − cos 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4
1
= ∫(1 − 2 cos 2𝑥 + cos 2 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4
1 1
= ∫ (1 − 2 cos 2𝑥 + (1 + cos 4𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
4 2

1 3 1
= ∫ ( − 2 cos 2𝑥 + cos 4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4 2 2
1 3 1
= ( 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 + sin 4𝑥) + 𝐶
4 2 8
1
= (12𝑥 − 8 sin 2𝑥 + sin 4𝑥) + 𝐶
32
6c
= ∫(sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥)4 𝑑𝑥
4
1
= ∫ ( sin 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2
1
= ∫ sin4 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
16
1
= ∫ sin2 2𝑥 sin2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
16
1 1 1
= ∫ ( (1 − cos 4𝑥)) ( (1 − cos 4𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
16 2 2
1
= ∫(1 − cos 4𝑥)(1 − cos 4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
64
1
= ∫(1 − 2 cos 4𝑥 + cos2 4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
64
1 1
= ∫ (1 − 2 cos 4𝑥 + (1 + cos 8𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
64 2
1 3 1
= ∫ ( − 2 cos 4𝑥 + cos 8𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
64 2 2
1 3 1 1
= ( 𝑥 − sin 4𝑥 + sin 8𝑥) + 𝐶
64 2 2 16
1
= (24𝑥 − 8 sin 4𝑥 + sin 8𝑥) + 𝐶
1024

7a
𝜋
3
∫ sec 2 𝑥 tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = tan 𝑥
𝜋
𝑥= , 𝑢 = √3
3
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
𝜋
3
0
√3
= ∫ 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
0
1 3 √3
=[ 𝑢 ]
3 0
= √3
7b
𝜋
3
𝜋
−
6
Let 𝑢 = tan 𝑥
𝜋
𝑥= , 𝑢 = √3
3
𝜋 1
𝑥 = − ,𝑢 = −
6 √3
Hence
𝜋
3
𝜋
−
6

√3
=∫ 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢
1
−
√3
√3
1
= [ 𝑢4 ] 1
4 −
√3
1 1
= (9 − )
4 9
1 80
= ( )
4 9
20
=
9
2
=2
9
7c
𝜋
4
∫ sec 4 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ sec 3 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = sec 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
𝑥= , 𝑢 = √2
4
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
𝜋
4
∫ sec 3 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
√2
= ∫ 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢
1
√2
1
= [ 𝑢4 ]
4 1
1 1
= (4) −
4 4
3
=
4
7d
𝜋
4
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ (sec 2 𝑥 − 1) tan3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ (sec 2 𝑥 tan3 𝑥 − tan3 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ (sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 (sec 2 𝑥 − 1) − (sec 2 𝑥 − 1) tan 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋 𝜋
4 4
= ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 (sec 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ (sec 2 𝑥 − 1) tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
4 4 4
= ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 (sec 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ sec 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0 0
Let 𝑢 = sec 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
𝑥= , 𝑢 = √2
4
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
4 4 4
∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 (sec 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ sec 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0 0
𝜋
√2 √2 4
= ∫ 𝑢(𝑢2 − 1) 𝑑𝑢 − ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 + ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1 0
𝜋
√2 √2 4
= ∫ (𝑢3 − 𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 − ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 + ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1 0
𝜋
√2 4
=∫ (𝑢3 − 2𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 + ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 0

√2 𝜋
1 4
= [ 𝑢 − 𝑢 ] + ln|cos 𝑥|]04
2 [−
4 1
1 1 1
= (4) − 2 − + 1 − ln ( )
4 4 √2
1 1 1
= − − ln ( )
4 2 2
1 1
= ln 2 −
2 4
1
= (2 ln 2 − 1)
4
8a
𝜋
2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + sin 𝑥
𝑥
Let 𝑡 = tan ( )
2
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑡2
𝜋
𝑥 = ,𝑡 = 1
2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑡 = 0
2𝑡
sin 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
Hence
𝜋
2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + sin 𝑥
1
1 2
=∫ × 𝑑𝑡
2𝑡 1 + 𝑡2
0 1+
1 + 𝑡2
1
1
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 1 + 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡
1
1
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 (𝑡 + 1)2

1 1
= 2 [− ]
𝑡+1 0
1
= 2 (− + 1)
2
=1
8b
𝜋
2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 4 + 5 cos 𝑥
𝑥
Let 𝑡 = tan ( )
2
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑡2
𝜋
𝑥 = ,𝑡 = 1
2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑡 = 0
1 − 𝑡2
cos 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
Hence
𝜋
2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 4 + 5 cos 𝑥
1
1 2
=∫ 2 𝑑𝑡
0 1 − 𝑡 1 + 𝑡2
4 + 5( )
1 + 𝑡2
1
1
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 4(1 + 𝑡2) + 5(1 − 𝑡 2 )
1
1
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 4 + 4𝑡 2 + 5 − 5𝑡 2
1
1
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 9 − 𝑡2
1
1
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 (3 − 𝑡)(3 + 𝑡)

1 1
1 6
= + 6 (using cover − up method)
(3 − 𝑡)(3 + 𝑡) 3 − 𝑡 3 + 𝑡
1
1
2∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 (3 − 𝑡)(3 + 𝑡)
1 11
= 2∫ ( 6 + 6 ) 𝑑𝑡
0 3−𝑡 3+𝑡
1
= [− ln|3 − 𝑡| + ln|3 + 𝑡|]10
3
1 3+𝑡 1
= [ln | |]
3 3−𝑡 0
1
= ln 2
3
8c
𝜋
2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
− 5 + 3 sin 𝑥
𝜋
2
𝑥
Let 𝑡 = tan ( )
2
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑡2
𝜋
𝑥 = ,𝑡 = 1
2
𝜋
𝑥 = − , 𝑡 = −1
2
2𝑡
sin 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
Hence
𝜋
2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
− 5 + 3 sin 𝑥
𝜋
2
1
1 2
=∫ × 𝑑𝑡
−1 5
2𝑡 1 + 𝑡2
+3
1 + 𝑡2

1
1
= 2∫ 2
𝑑𝑡
−1 5(1 + 𝑡 ) + 6𝑡
1
1
= 2∫ 2
𝑑𝑡
−1 5 + 5𝑡 + 6𝑡
2 1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑡
5 −1 𝑡 2 + 6 𝑡 + 1
5
2 1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑡
5 −1 3 2 16
(𝑡 + ) +
5 25
4
1 1 5
= ∫ 𝑑𝑡
2 −1 3 2 4 2
(𝑡 + ) + ( )
5 5
1
3
1 5 (𝑡 + )
= [tan−1 ( 5 )]
2 4
−1
1 −1
5𝑡 + 3 1
= [tan ( )]
2 4 −1
1 1
= (tan−1(2) − tan−1 (− ))
2 2
1 1
= (tan−1(2) + tan−1 ( ))
2 2
𝜋
This can be further simplified by utilising the tangent addition formula to 4 ,
however the above expression is acceptable.
9a
1
∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑥 = sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
𝑥 = 1, 𝜃 =
2
𝑥 = 0, 𝜃 = 0
Hence
1
∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
= ∫ √1 − sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
2
= ∫ cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
2
= ∫ cos2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
1 2
= ∫ (1 + cos 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
2 0
𝜋
1 1 2
= [𝜃 + sin 2𝜃]
2 2 0
1 𝜋
= ( )
2 2
𝜋
=
4
9b
1
∫ 𝑥 3 √1 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑥 = tan 𝜃
𝜋
𝑥 = 1, 𝜃 =
4
𝑥 = 0, 𝜃 = 0
Hence
1
∫ 𝑥 3 √1 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ tan3 𝜃 √1 + tan2 𝜃 sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0

𝜋
4
= ∫ tan3 𝜃 sec 3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 (sec 2 𝜃 − 1) sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
Let 𝑢 = sec 𝜃
𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
𝜃= , 𝑢 = √2
4
𝜃 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
𝜋
4
∫ sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 (sec 2 𝜃 − 1) sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
√2
= ∫ (𝑢2 − 1)𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
1
√2
= ∫ (𝑢4 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
1
1 5 1 3 √2
=[ 𝑢 − 𝑢 ]
5 3 1
4√2 2√2 1 1
= − − +
5 3 5 3
4√2 − 1 1 − 2√2
= +
5 3
12√2 − 3 + 5 − 10√2
=
15
2√2 + 2
=
15
2
= (1 + √2)
15

9c
1
∫ 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑥 = sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
𝑥 = 1, 𝜃 =
2
𝑥 = 0, 𝜃 = 0
Hence
1
∫ 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
= ∫ sin2 𝜃 √1 − sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
2
= ∫ sin2 𝜃 cos2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
1 2
= ∫ sin2 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
4 0
𝜋
1 2
= ∫ (1 − cos 4𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
8 0
𝜋
1 1 2
= [𝜃 − sin 4𝜃]
8 4 0
1 𝜋
= ( )
8 2
𝜋
=
16
10a
∫ sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥

Hence
= ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
1 2
= 𝑢 +𝐶
2
1 2
= sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
2
10b
1
= ∫ sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
1
= − cos 2𝑥 + 𝐶
4
10c
1 2
sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
2
1 1
= ( (1 − cos 2𝑥)) + 𝐶
2 2
1
= (1 − cos 2𝑥) + 𝐶
4
1 1
= − cos 2𝑥 + 𝐶
4 4
1
+ 𝐶 is still a constant, 𝐶
4
1 1
− cos 2𝑥 + 𝐶
4 4
1
= − cos 2𝑥 + 𝐶
4

11a
𝜋
4
∫ (tan3 𝑥 + tan 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ tan 𝑥 (tan2 𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ tan 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = tan 𝑥
𝜋
𝑥= ,𝑢 = 1
4
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 0
Hence
𝜋
4
∫ tan 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
1
= ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
0
1 21
=[ 𝑢 ]
2 0
1
=
2
11b
𝜋
3
∫ (cos 𝑥 − cos3 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
−
3
𝜋
3
= ∫ cos 𝑥 (1 − cos 2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
−
3
𝜋
3
= ∫ cos 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
−
3
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥

𝜋 √3
𝑥= ,𝑢 =
3 2
𝜋 √3
𝑥 = − ,𝑢 = −
3 2
Hence
𝜋
3
𝜋
−
3
√3
2
=∫ 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
√3
−
2
√3
1 2
= [ 𝑢3 ] √3
3 −
2
1 3√3 3√3
= ( + )
3 8 8
2√3
=
8
√3
=
4
12a
𝜋
3
∫ sin3 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
3 sin3 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 cos2 𝑥
𝜋
3 sin 𝑥 sin2 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 cos2 𝑥
𝜋
3 sin 𝑥 (1 − cos 2 𝑥)
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 cos 2 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥

𝜋 1
𝑥= ,𝑢 =
3 2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
𝜋
3 sin 𝑥 (1 − cos2 𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 cos2 𝑥
1
21 − 𝑢2
= −∫ 𝑑𝑢
1 𝑢2
1
1
=∫ ( − 1) 𝑑𝑢
1 𝑢2
2
1
1
= [− − 𝑢]1
𝑢
2
1
= −2 − (−2 − )
2
5
= −2 +
2
1
=
2
12b
𝜋
3
∫ sin3 𝑥 sec 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
3 sin3 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 cos4 𝑥
𝜋
3 sin 𝑥 sin2 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 cos4 𝑥
𝜋
3 sin 𝑥 (1 − cos 2 𝑥)
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 cos 4 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥

𝜋 1
𝑥= ,𝑢 =
3 2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
𝜋
3 sin 𝑥 (1 − cos2 𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 cos4 𝑥
1
21 − 𝑢2
= −∫ 𝑑𝑢
1 𝑢4
1
1 1
=∫ ( 4
− 2 ) 𝑑𝑢
1 𝑢 𝑢
2
1 11
= [− 3 + ]1
3𝑢 𝑢
2
1 1
= − + 1 + (8) − 2
3 3
7
= −1
3
4
=
3
13a
∫ sin 3𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
= ∫(sin(3𝑥 − 𝑥) + sin(3𝑥 + 𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
2
1
= ∫(sin 2𝑥 + sin 4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1 1
= (− cos 2𝑥 − cos 4𝑥) + 𝐶
2 2 4
1 1
= − cos 4𝑥 − cos 2𝑥 + 𝐶
8 4

13b
∫ cos 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
= ∫(sin(𝑥 − 3𝑥) + sin(𝑥 + 3𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
2
1
= ∫(− sin 2𝑥 + sin 4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1 1
= ( cos 2𝑥 − cos 4𝑥) + 𝐶
2 2 4
1 1
= − cos 4𝑥 + cos 2𝑥 + 𝐶
8 4
13c
∫ cos 6𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
= ∫(cos(6𝑥 − 2𝑥) + cos(6𝑥 + 2𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
2
1
= ∫(cos 4𝑥 + cos 8𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1 1
= ( sin 4𝑥 + sin 8𝑥) + 𝐶
2 4 8
1 1
= sin 8𝑥 + sin 4𝑥 + 𝐶
16 8
14a
𝜋
4
∫ sin 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
1 4
= ∫ (cos(3𝑥 − 𝑥) − cos(3𝑥 + 𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋
1 4
= ∫ (cos 2𝑥 − cos 4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋
1 1 1 4
= [ sin 2𝑥 − sin 4𝑥]
2 2 4 0

1 1
= ( − 0 − 0 + 0)
2 2
1
=
4
14b
𝜋
4
∫ cos 4𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
1 4
= ∫ (cos(4𝑥 − 2𝑥) + cos(4𝑥 + 2𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋
1 4
= ∫ (cos 2𝑥 + cos 6𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋
1 1 1 4
= [ sin 2𝑥 + sin 6𝑥]
2 2 6 0
1 1 1
= ( − − 0 − 0)
2 2 6
1 1
= ( )
2 3
1
=
6
14c
𝜋
3
∫ sin 4𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
1 3
= ∫ (sin(4𝑥 − 2𝑥) + sin(4𝑥 + 2𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋
1 3
= ∫ (sin 2𝑥 + sin 6𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋
1 1 1 3
= [− cos 2𝑥 − cos 6𝑥]
2 2 6 0
1 1 1 1 1
= ( − + + )
2 4 6 2 6

1 3
= ( )
2 4
3
=
8
15a
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + cos 𝑥
𝑥
Let 𝑡 = tan ( )
2
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑡2
1 − 𝑡2
cos 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
Hence
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + cos 𝑥
1 2
=∫ × 𝑑𝑡
1 − 𝑡2 1 + 𝑡2
1+
1 + 𝑡2
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
1+ 𝑡2 + 1 − 𝑡2
2
= ∫ 𝑑𝑡
2
= ∫ 1 𝑑𝑡
=𝑡+𝐶
𝑥
= tan + 𝐶
2
15b
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥
𝑥
Let 𝑡 = tan ( )
2

2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑡2
2𝑡
sin 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
1 − 𝑡2
cos 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
Hence
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥
1 2
=∫ × 𝑑𝑡
2𝑡 1− 𝑡2 1 + 𝑡2
1+ 2 −
1+𝑡 1 + 𝑡2
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 − 1 + 𝑡 2
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
2𝑡 2 + 2𝑡
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑡(𝑡 + 1)
1 1
= ∫( − ) 𝑑𝑡 (using cover − up method)
𝑡 𝑡+1
= ln|𝑡| − ln|𝑡 + 1| + 𝐶
𝑡
= ln | |+𝐶
𝑡+1
𝑥
tan (2)
= ln | 𝑥 |+𝐶
tan (2) + 1
15c
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 sin 𝑥 + 4 cos 𝑥
𝑥
Let 𝑡 = tan ( )
2
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑡2
2𝑡
sin 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
1 − 𝑡2
cos 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
Hence
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 sin 𝑥 + 4 cos 𝑥
1 2
=∫ × 𝑑𝑡
2𝑡 1− 𝑡2 1 + 𝑡2
3( ) + 4( )
1 + 𝑡2 1 + 𝑡2
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
6𝑡 + 4 − 4𝑡 2
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
3𝑡 + 2 − 2𝑡 2
1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑡
2 3 𝑡 + 1 − 𝑡2
2
1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑡
2 25 3 2
16 − (𝑡 − 4)
1 1
= ∫ 2 𝑑𝑡
2 5 3 2
(4) − (𝑡 − 4)
1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑡
2 (5 − 𝑡 + 3) (5 + 𝑡 − 3)
4 4 4 4
1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑡
2 (2 − 𝑡) (1 + 𝑡)
2
2 2
1 5
= ∫( + 5 ) 𝑑𝑡 (using cover − up method)
2 1 2−𝑡
2+𝑡
4 2
1 5
= ∫( + 5 ) 𝑑𝑡
2 1 + 2𝑡 2 − 𝑡
1 2 1
= ∫( + ) 𝑑𝑡
5 1 + 2𝑡 2 − 𝑡
1
= (ln|1 + 2𝑡| − ln|2 − 𝑡|) + 𝐶
5

1 1 + 2𝑡
= ln | |+𝐶
5 2−𝑡
𝑥
1 1 + 2 tan (2)
= ln | 𝑥 |+𝐶
5 2 − tan (2)
16a
∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥
𝑥
Let 𝑡 = tan ( )
2
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑡2
1 − 𝑡2
cos 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
Hence
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥
1 + 𝑡2 2
=∫ 2
× 𝑑𝑡
1−𝑡 1 + 𝑡2
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
1 − 𝑡2
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
(1 − 𝑡)(1 + 𝑡)
1 1
= ∫( + ) 𝑑𝑡 (using cover − up method)
1−𝑡 1+𝑡
= − ln|1 − 𝑡| + ln|1 + 𝑡| + 𝐶
1+𝑡
= ln | |+𝐶
1−𝑡
𝑥
1 + tan (2)
= ln | 𝑥 |+𝐶
1 − tan (2)

16b
𝑥
1 + tan (2)
ln | 𝑥 |+𝐶
1 − tan (2)
𝑥 𝑥
1 + tan (2) 1 + tan (2)
= ln | 𝑥 × 𝑥 |+𝐶
1 − tan (2) 1 + tan (2)
𝑥 𝑥
1 + 2 tan (2) + tan2 (2)
= ln | 𝑥 |+𝐶
1 − tan2 (2)
𝑥 𝑥
1 + tan2 (2) 2 tan (2)
= ln | 𝑥 + 𝑥 |+𝐶
1 − tan2 (2) 1 − tan2 (2)
𝑥
2 tan (2)
tan 𝑥 = 𝑥
1 − tan2 (2)
𝑥
1 − tan2 (2)
cos 𝑥 = 𝑥
1 + tan2 (2)
Hence
𝑥 𝑥
1 + tan2 (2) 2 tan (2)
ln | 𝑥 + 𝑥 |+𝐶
1 − tan2 (2) 1 − tan2 (2)
1
= ln | + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶
cos 𝑥
= ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶

Solutions to Exercise 4H Foundation questions

1a
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ tan𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ tan𝑛−2 𝑥 tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ tan𝑛−2 𝑥 (sec 2 𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥
= ∫ tan𝑛−2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ tan𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ tan𝑛−2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐼𝑛−2
Let 𝑢 = tan 𝑥
Hence
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑢𝑛−2 𝑑𝑢 − 𝐼𝑛−2
𝑢𝑛−1
= − 𝐼𝑛−2
𝑛−1
tan𝑛−1 𝑥
= − 𝐼𝑛−2
𝑛−1
1b
tan𝑛−1 𝑥
𝐼𝑛 = − 𝐼𝑛−2
𝑛−1
𝐼0 = ∫ tan0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
=𝑥
tan2−1 𝑥
𝐼2 = − 𝐼0
2−1
= tan 𝑥 − 𝑥

tan4−1 𝑥
𝐼4 = − 𝐼2
4−1
1
= tan3 𝑥 − tan 𝑥 + 𝑥
3
tan6−1 𝑥
𝐼6 = − 𝐼4
6−1
1 1
= tan5 𝑥 − tan3 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
5 3
2a
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥𝑛, 𝑣′ = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑢′ = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 , 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥
Hence
𝐼𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑛𝐼𝑛−1
2b 𝐼𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑛𝐼𝑛−1
𝐼0 = ∫ 𝑥 0 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑒𝑥
𝐼1 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝐼0
= 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥
𝐼2 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝐼1
= 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑒 𝑥

𝐼3 = 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 − 3𝐼2
= 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 6𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 6𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
= (𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 6)𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
3a
𝑒
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(ln 𝑥)𝑛 𝑑𝑥
1
Therefore
𝑢 = (ln 𝑥)𝑛 , 𝑣 ′ = 𝑥
′
𝑛(ln 𝑥)𝑛−1 1
𝑢 = , 𝑣 = 𝑥2
𝑥 2
Hence
𝑒 𝑒
1 2 1
𝐼𝑛 = [ 𝑥 (ln 𝑥) ] − 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥(ln 𝑥)𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
𝑛
2 1 2 1
1 1
= ( 𝑒 2 − 0) − 𝑛𝐼𝑛−1
2 2
1 1
= 𝑒 2 − 𝑛𝐼𝑛−1
2 2
3b
𝑒
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(ln 𝑥)𝑛 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑒
𝐼0 = ∫ 𝑥(ln 𝑥)0 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑒
= ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
1 2 𝑒
=[ 𝑥 ]
2 1
1 1
= 𝑒2 −
2 2

1 1
𝐼𝑛 = 𝑒 2 − 𝑛𝐼𝑛−1
2 2
1 2 1
𝐼1 = 𝑒 − 𝐼0
2 2
1 1 1
= 𝑒2 − 𝑒2 +
2 4 4
1 1
= 𝑒2 +
4 4
1 2
𝐼2 = 𝑒 − 𝐼1
2
1 1 1
= 𝑒2 − 𝑒2 −
2 4 4
1 1
= 𝑒2 −
4 4
1 2 3
𝐼3 = 𝑒 − 𝐼2
2 2
1 3 1 1
= 𝑒2 − ( 𝑒2 − )
2 2 4 4
4 3 3
= 𝑒2 − 𝑒2 +
8 8 8
1 3
= 𝑒2 +
8 8
1 2
𝐼4 = 𝑒 − 2𝐼3
2
1 1 3
= 𝑒2 − 2 ( 𝑒2 + )
2 8 8
1 1 3
= 𝑒2 − 𝑒2 −
2 4 4
1 3
= 𝑒2 −
4 4
1
= (𝑒 2 − 3)
4

4a
𝜋
2
𝑢𝑛 = ∫ cos𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
= ∫ cos 𝑛−1 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = cos𝑛−1 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = cos 𝑥
𝑢′ = −(𝑛 − 1) cos𝑛−2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 , 𝑣 = sin 𝑥
Hence
𝜋
𝜋
2
𝑛−1
𝑢𝑛 = [sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥]02 + (𝑛 − 1) ∫ cos𝑛−2 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
= (0 − 0) + (𝑛 − 1) ∫ cos𝑛−2 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
= (𝑛 − 1) ∫ cos 𝑛−2 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
4b
𝜋
2
𝑢𝑛 = (𝑛 − 1) ∫ cos 𝑛−2 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
= (𝑛 − 1) ∫ cos 𝑛−2 𝑥 (1 − cos 2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋 𝜋
2 2
𝑛−2
= (𝑛 − 1) (∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ cos𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
0 0
= (𝑛 − 1)(𝑢𝑛−2 − 𝑢𝑛 )

4c
𝑢𝑛 = (𝑛 − 1)(𝑢𝑛−2 − 𝑢𝑛 )
= (𝑛 − 1)𝑢𝑛−2 − (𝑛 − 1)𝑢𝑛
𝑢𝑛 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑢𝑛 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑢𝑛−2
𝑛𝑢𝑛 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑢𝑛−2
𝑛−1
𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢𝑛−2
𝑛
𝜋
2
𝑢1 = ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
= [sin 𝑥]02
=1
3−1
𝑢3 = 𝑢0
3
2
=
3
5−1
𝑢5 = 𝑢3
5
8
=
15

Solutions to Exercise 4H Development questions

5a
𝜋
4
𝑇𝑛 = ∫ sec 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
4
𝑇𝑛 = ∫ sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 × sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = sec 2 𝑥

𝑢′ = (𝑛 − 2) sec 𝑛−3 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 , 𝑣 = tan 𝑥
Hence
𝜋
𝜋
4
𝑇𝑛 = [sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 tan 𝑥]04 − ∫ (𝑛 − 2) sec 𝑛−3 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 × tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
𝑛−2 4
𝑇𝑛 = √2 − (𝑛 − 2) ∫ sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
𝑛−2 4
𝑇𝑛 = √2 − (𝑛 − 2) ∫ sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 (sec 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
𝑛−2 4
𝑇𝑛 = √2 − (𝑛 − 2) ∫ (sec 𝑛 𝑥 − sec 𝑛−2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑛−2
𝑇𝑛 = √2 − (𝑛 − 2)(𝑇𝑛 − 𝑇𝑛−2 )
𝑛−2
𝑇𝑛 = √2 − ((𝑛 − 2)𝑇𝑛 − (𝑛 − 2)𝑇𝑛−2 )
𝑛−2
𝑇𝑛 = √2 − (𝑛 − 2)𝑇𝑛 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑇𝑛−2
𝑛−2
𝑇𝑛 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑇𝑛 = √2 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑇𝑛−2
𝑛−2
𝑇𝑛 (1 + 𝑛 − 2) = √2 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑇𝑛−2
𝑛−2
𝑇𝑛 (𝑛 − 1) = √2 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑇𝑛−2
𝑛−2
√2 𝑛−2
𝑇𝑛 = + 𝑇
𝑛 − 1 𝑛 − 1 𝑛−2

5b
𝑛−2
√2 𝑛−2
𝑇𝑛 = + 𝑇
𝑛 − 1 𝑛 − 1 𝑛−2
𝜋
4
𝑇0 = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
𝑇0 = [𝑥]04
𝜋
𝑇0 =
4
2−2
√2 2−2
𝑇2 = + 𝑇
2−1 2−1 0
𝑇2 = 1 + 0 = 1
4−2
√2 4−2
𝑇4 = + 𝑇
4−1 4−1 2
2 2 4
𝑇4 = + =
3 3 3
6−2
√2 6−2
𝑇6 = + 𝑇
6−1 6−1 4
4 4 4 28
𝑇6 = + × =
5 5 3 15
6a
𝜋
2
𝐶𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑣 ′ = cos 𝑥
𝑢′ = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 , 𝑣 = sin 𝑥
Hence
𝜋
𝜋
2
𝐶𝑛 = [𝑥 sin 𝑥]02
𝑛
− ∫ 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

𝜋
𝜋 𝑛 2
𝐶𝑛 = ( ) − 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋
2
Consider ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑛−1 , 𝑣 ′ = sin 𝑥
𝑢′ = (𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 , 𝑣 = − cos 𝑥
Hence
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋
2 2
∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [−𝑥 𝑛−1
cos 𝑥]02 + ∫ (𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0
𝜋 𝜋
2 2
∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0
Therefore
𝜋
𝜋 𝑛 2
𝐶𝑛 = ( ) − 𝑛 ∫ (𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋
𝜋 𝑛 2
𝐶𝑛 = ( ) − 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋 𝑛
𝐶𝑛 = ( ) − 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝐶𝑛−2
2
6b
𝜋
2
𝐶0 = ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
= [sin 𝑥]02
=1
𝜋 2
𝐶2 = ( ) − 2(2 − 1)𝐶0
2
𝜋 2
𝐶2 = ( ) − 2
2
𝜋 4
𝐶4 = ( ) − 4(4 − 1)𝐶2
2

𝜋 4 𝜋 2
𝐶4 = ( ) − 12 (( ) − 2)
2 2
𝜋 4 𝜋 2
𝐶4 = ( ) − 12 ( ) + 24
2 2
𝜋 6
𝐶6 = ( ) − 6(6 − 1)𝐶4
2
𝜋 6 𝜋 4 𝜋 2
𝐶6 = ( ) − 30 (( ) − 12 ( ) + 24)
2 2 2
𝜋 6 𝜋 4 𝜋 2
𝐶6 = ( ) − 30 ( ) + 360 ( ) − 720
2 2 2
7a
𝑥𝑛
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑥 2
1 + 𝑥2
𝑥 𝑛−2 (1 + 𝑥 2 − 1)
1 + 𝑥2
𝑥 𝑛−2 (1 + 𝑥 2 ) 𝑥 𝑛−2
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2 1 + 𝑥2
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐼𝑛−2
𝑥 𝑛−1
𝐼𝑛 = − 𝐼𝑛−2
𝑛−1
7b
𝑥
𝐼1 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
1
𝐼1 = ln(1 + 𝑥 2 )
2
𝑥2
𝐼3 = −𝐼
3−1 1
𝑥2 1
𝐼3 = − ln(1 + 𝑥 2 )
2 2

𝑥4
𝐼5 = − 𝐼3
5−1
𝑥4 𝑥2 1
𝐼5 = − + ln(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶
4 2 2
8a
1
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑛 𝑑𝑥
0
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑛 , 𝑣 ′ = 1
𝑢′ = −2𝑛𝑥(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑛−1 , 𝑣 = 𝑥
Hence
1
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑛 𝑑𝑥
0
1
𝐼𝑛 = [𝑥(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑛 ]10 + 2𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
0
1
𝐼𝑛 = 2𝑛 ∫ (1 − (1 − 𝑥 2 ))(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
0
1
𝐼𝑛 = 2𝑛 ∫ (1 − (1 − 𝑥 2 ))(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
0
1
𝐼𝑛 = 2𝑛 ∫ ((1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑛−1 − (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑛 ) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝐼𝑛 = 2𝑛(𝐼𝑛−1 − 𝐼𝑛 )
𝐼𝑛 = 2𝑛𝐼𝑛−1 − 2𝑛𝐼𝑛
𝐼𝑛 (1 + 2𝑛) = 2𝑛𝐼𝑛−1
2𝑛𝐼𝑛−1
𝐼𝑛 =
1 + 2𝑛
2𝑛
𝐼𝑛 = 𝐼
2𝑛 + 1 𝑛−1

8b
1
𝐼0 = ∫ (1 − 𝑥 2 )0 𝑑𝑥
0
1
= ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
0
=1
2(1)
𝐼1 = 𝐼
2(1) + 1 0
2 2
𝐼1 = ×1=
3 3
2(2)
𝐼2 = 𝐼
2(2) + 1 1
4 2 8
𝐼2 = × =
5 3 15
2(3)
𝐼3 = 𝐼
2(3) + 1 2
6 8 16
𝐼3 = × =
7 15 35
2(4)
𝐼4 = 𝐼
2(4) + 1 3
8 16 128
𝐼4 = × =
9 35 315
9a
1
𝑢𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(1 − 𝑥 3 )𝑛 𝑑𝑥
0
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = (1 − 𝑥 3 )𝑛 , 𝑣 ′ = 𝑥
1 2
𝑢′ = −3𝑛𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥 3 )𝑛−1 , 𝑣 = 𝑥
2
Hence
1
𝑢𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(1 − 𝑥 3 )𝑛 𝑑𝑥
0

1 1
1 2 3
𝑢𝑛 = [ 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥 ) , ] + 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 3 (1 − 𝑥 3 )𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
3 𝑛
2 0 2 0
1
3
𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛 ∫ (1 − (1 − 𝑥 3 ))(1 − 𝑥 3 )𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
2 0
1
3
𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛 ∫ ((1 − 𝑥 3 )𝑛−1 − (1 − 𝑥 3 )𝑛 ) 𝑑𝑥
2 0
3
𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑢𝑛−1 − 𝑢𝑛 )
2
3 3
𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1 − 𝑛𝑢𝑛
2 2
3 3
𝑢𝑛 (1 + 𝑛) = 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1
2 2
3
𝑛 2
𝑢𝑛 = 2 𝑢𝑛−1 ×
3 2
1 + 2𝑛
3𝑛
𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢
3𝑛 + 2 𝑛−1
9b
1
𝑢0 = ∫ 𝑥(1 − 𝑥 3 )0 𝑑𝑥
0
1
= ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
1 2 1
=[ 𝑥 ]
2 0
1
=
2
3(1)
𝑢1 = 𝑢
3(1) + 2 0
3 1 3
𝑢1 = × =
5 2 10
3(2)
𝑢2 = 𝑢
3(2) + 2 1

6 3 9
𝑢2 = × =
8 10 40
3(3)
𝑢3 = 𝑢
3(3) + 2 2
9 9 81
𝑢3 = × =
11 40 440
3(4)
𝑢4 = 𝑢
3(4) + 2 3
12 81 243
𝑢4 = × =
14 440 1540
10a
𝑥𝑛
𝐽𝑛 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑥
𝐽𝑛 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑛−1 , 𝑣 ′ =
√1 − 𝑥 2
𝑢′ = (𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 , 𝑣 = −√1 − 𝑥 2

Hence
𝐽𝑛 = −𝑥 𝑛−1 √1 − 𝑥 2 + (𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−2 √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
𝐽𝑛 = −𝑥 𝑛−1 √1 − 𝑥 2 + (𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−2 √1 − 𝑥 2 × 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
𝑛−1 √
𝑥 𝑛−2 (1 − 𝑥 2 )
𝐽𝑛 = −𝑥 1− 𝑥2 + (𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
𝑛−1 √
𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑥𝑛
𝐽𝑛 = −𝑥 1− 𝑥2 + (𝑛 − 1) ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
𝐽𝑛 = −𝑥 𝑛−1 √1 − 𝑥 2 + (𝑛 − 1)(𝐽𝑛−2 − 𝐽𝑛 )
𝐽𝑛 = −𝑥 𝑛−1 √1 − 𝑥 2 + (𝑛 − 1)𝐽𝑛−2 − (𝑛 − 1)𝐽𝑛
𝐽𝑛 + (𝑛 − 1)𝐽𝑛 = −𝑥 𝑛−1 √1 − 𝑥 2 + (𝑛 − 1)𝐽𝑛−2

𝑛𝐽𝑛 = −𝑥 𝑛−1 √1 − 𝑥 2 + (𝑛 − 1)𝐽𝑛−2

1
𝐽𝑛 = ((𝑛 − 1)𝐽𝑛−2 − 𝑥 𝑛−1 √1 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑛
10b
𝑥2
𝐽2 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
𝑥0
𝐽0 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
= sin−1 𝑥
1
𝐽2 = ((2 − 1)𝐽0 − 𝑥 2−1 √1 − 𝑥 2 )
2
1
𝐽2 = (sin−1 𝑥 − 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶
2
11a
𝜋
2
𝑢𝑛 = ∫ sin𝑛 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
𝑢𝑛 = ∫ sin𝑛−1 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = sin𝑛−1 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = sin 𝑥 cos2 𝑥

1
𝑢′ = (𝑛 − 1) sin𝑛−2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 , 𝑣 = − cos3 𝑥
3
Hence
𝜋 𝜋
1 2 1 2
𝑢𝑛 = [− sinn−1 𝑥 cos 3 𝑥] + ∫ (𝑛 − 1) sin𝑛−2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 0 3 0
𝜋
𝑛 − 1 2 𝑛−2
𝑢𝑛 = ∫ sin 𝑥 cos4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 0

𝜋
𝑛 − 1 2 𝑛−2
𝑢𝑛 = ∫ sin 𝑥 (1 − sin2 𝑥) cos2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 0
𝜋
𝑛−1 2
𝑢𝑛 = ∫ (sin𝑛−2 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 − sin𝑛 𝑥 cos2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
3 0
𝑛−1
𝑢𝑛 = (𝑢𝑛−2 − 𝑢𝑛 )
3
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢𝑛−2 − 𝑢𝑛
3 3
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑢𝑛 + 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢𝑛−2
3 3
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑢𝑛 (1 + )= 𝑢𝑛−2
3 3
𝑛+2 𝑛−1
𝑢𝑛 ( )= 𝑢𝑛−2
3 3
𝑛−1
𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢
𝑛 + 2 𝑛−2
11b
𝜋
2
𝑢0 = ∫ sin0 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
= ∫ cos 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
1 2
= ∫ (1 + cos 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋
1 1 2
= [𝑥 + sin 2𝑥]
2 2 0
1 𝜋
= ( )
2 2
𝜋
=
4
2−1
𝑢2 = 𝑢
2+2 0
1 𝜋 𝜋
𝑢2 = × =
4 4 16
4−1
𝑢4 = 𝑢
4+2 2
3 𝜋 𝜋
𝑢4 = × =
6 16 32
12a
1
𝑥𝑛
0 √1 + 𝑥
1
1
𝐼0 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √1 + 𝑥
1 1
= ∫ (1 + 𝑥)−2 𝑑𝑥
0
1
= [2√1 + 𝑥]0
= 2√2 − 2
12b
1
𝑥𝑛
0 √1 + 𝑥
1
𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑥
0 √1 + 𝑥
1
𝑥 𝑛−1 (1 + 𝑥 − 1)
0 √1 + 𝑥
1
𝑥 𝑛−1 (1 + 𝑥) − 𝑥 𝑛−1
0 √1 + 𝑥
1
𝑥 𝑛−1
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ (𝑥 𝑛−1 √1 + 𝑥 − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 √1 + 𝑥
1
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 √1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐼𝑛−1
0
1
𝐼𝑛−1 + 𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 √1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

12c
1
𝐼𝑛−1 + 𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 √1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
1
Consider ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 √1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = √1 + 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = 𝑥 𝑛−1
1 1 𝑛
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
2√1 + 𝑥 𝑛
Hence
1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 √1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
1
1 𝑛 1 1 𝑥𝑛
= [ 𝑥 √1 + 𝑥] − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑛 0 2𝑛 0 √1 + 𝑥
1 1
= √2 − 𝐼
𝑛 2𝑛 𝑛
Hence
1 1
𝐼𝑛−1 + 𝐼𝑛 = √2 − 𝐼
𝑛 2𝑛 𝑛
1 1
𝐼𝑛 + 𝐼𝑛 = √2 − 𝐼𝑛−1
2𝑛 𝑛
1 1
𝐼𝑛 (1 + ) = √2 − 𝐼𝑛−1
2𝑛 𝑛
1
√2 − 𝐼𝑛−1
𝐼𝑛 = 𝑛
1
1 + 2𝑛
2√2 − 2𝑛𝐼𝑛−1
𝐼𝑛 =
2𝑛 + 1

12d
2√2 − 2(1)𝐼0
𝐼1 =
2(1) + 1
2√2 − 2(2√2 − 2)
=
3
2√2 − 4√2 + 4
=
3
4 − 2√2
=
3
2√2 − 2(2)𝐼1
𝐼2 =
2(2) + 1
4 − 2√2
2√2 − 4 ( 3 )
=
5
16 − 8√2
2√2 −
= 3
5
6√2 − 16 + 8√2
=
15
14√2 − 16
=
15
13a
(1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛−1 + 𝑡 2 (1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛−1
= (1 + 𝑡 2 )(1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛−1
= (1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛
13b
𝑥
𝑃𝑛 = ∫ (1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑥
𝑃𝑛 = ∫ ((1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛−1 + 𝑡 2 (1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛−1 ) 𝑑𝑡
0

𝑥 𝑥
𝑃𝑛 = ∫ (1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑡 2 (1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡
0 0
𝑥
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃𝑛−1 + ∫ 𝑡 2 (1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑥
Consider ∫ 𝑡 2 (1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡
0
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = 𝑡, 𝑣 ′ = 𝑡(1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛−1
′
(1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛
𝑢 = 1, 𝑣 =
2𝑛
Hence
𝑥
∫ 𝑡 2 (1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑥
𝑡(1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛 1 𝑥
=[ ] − ∫ (1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛 𝑑𝑡
2𝑛 0
2𝑛 0
Therefore
𝑥
𝑡(1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛 1 𝑥
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃𝑛−1 + [ ] − ∫ (1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑛 𝑑𝑡
2𝑛 0
2𝑛 0
𝑥(1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑛 1
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃𝑛−1 + − 𝑃
2𝑛 2𝑛 𝑛
1 𝑥(1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑛
𝑃𝑛 + 𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃𝑛−1 +
2𝑛 2𝑛
1 𝑥(1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑛
𝑃𝑛 (1 + ) = 𝑃𝑛−1 +
2𝑛 2𝑛
2𝑛 + 1 𝑥(1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑛
𝑃𝑛 ( ) = 𝑃𝑛−1 +
2𝑛 2𝑛
2𝑛 𝑥(1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑛
𝑃𝑛 = (𝑃𝑛−1 + )
2𝑛 + 1 2𝑛
1
𝑃𝑛 = ((1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑛 𝑥 + 2𝑛𝑃𝑛−1 )
2𝑛 + 1

13c i
𝑥
𝑃0 = ∫ (1 + 𝑡 2 )0 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑥
= ∫ 1 𝑑𝑡
0
=𝑥
1
𝑃1 = ((1 + 𝑥 2 )1 𝑥 + 2(1)𝑃0 )
2(1) + 1
1
= ((1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑥 + 2𝑥)
3
1 1
𝑃2 = ((1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑥 + 2(2) ((1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑥 + 2𝑥))
2(2) + 1 3
1 4
= ((1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑥 + ((1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑥 + 2𝑥))
5 3
1 4 8
= ((1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑥 + 𝑥)
5 3 3
1 4 8
= ((1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑥 + 𝑥)
5 3 3
1
𝑃3 = ((1 + 𝑥 2 )3 𝑥 + 2(3)𝑃2 )
2(3) + 1
1 6 4 8
= ((1 + 𝑥 2 )3 𝑥 + ((1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑥 + 𝑥))
7 5 3 3
1 6 24 16
= ((1 + 𝑥 2 )3 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑥 + 𝑥)
7 5 15 5
1 6 24 16
= (1 + 𝑥 2 )3 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑥 + 𝑥
7 35 105 35
1
𝑃4 = ((1 + 𝑥 2 )4 𝑥 + 2(4)𝑃3 )
2(4) + 1
1 1 6 24 16
= ((1 + 𝑥 2 )4 𝑥 + 8 ( (1 + 𝑥 2 )3 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑥 + 𝑥))
9 7 35 105 35
1 8 48 64 128
= ((1 + 𝑥 2 )4 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )3 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑥 + 𝑥)
9 7 35 35 35

13c ii
𝑥
𝑃4 = ∫ (1 + 𝑡 2 )4 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑥
= ∫ (1 + 4𝑡 2 + 6𝑡 4 + 4𝑡 6 + 𝑡 8 ) 𝑑𝑡
0
4 3 6 5 4 7 1 9 𝑥
= [𝑡 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 ]
3 5 7 9 0
4 6 4 1
= 𝑥 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥5 + 𝑥7 + 𝑥9
3 5 7 9
13d
1 8 48 64 128
𝑃4 = ((1 + 𝑥 2 )4 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )3 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑥 + 𝑥)
9 7 35 35 35
4 6 4 1
= 𝑥 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥5 + 𝑥7 + 𝑥9
3 5 7 9
4 6 4 1
𝑥 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥5 + 𝑥7 + 𝑥9
3 5 7 9
1 8 48 64 128
= ((1 + 𝑥 2 )4 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )3 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑥 + 𝑥)
9 7 35 35 35
4 6 4 1
𝑥 (1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 6 + 𝑥 8 )
3 5 7 9
1 8 48 64 128
= ((1 + 𝑥 2 )4 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )3 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑥 + 𝑥)
9 7 35 35 35
Therefore
4 6 4 1
1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥4 + 𝑥6 + 𝑥8
3 5 7 9
1 8 48 64 128
= ((1 + 𝑥 2 )4 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )3 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )2 + (1 + 𝑥 2 ) + )
9 7 35 35 35

14a
1
𝑇𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 √1 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑣 ′ = √1 − 𝑥
2
𝑢′ = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 , 𝑣 = − (1 − 𝑥)√1 − 𝑥
3
Hence
1
2 2𝑛 1 𝑛−1
𝑇𝑛 = [− 𝑥 𝑛 (1 − 𝑥)√1 − 𝑥] + ∫ 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥)√1 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 0 3 0
1
2 𝑛 2𝑛 1 𝑛−1
𝑇𝑛 = [− 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥)√1 − 𝑥] + ∫ 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑛 √1 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 0 3 0
2𝑛
𝑇𝑛 = (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑛 )
3 𝑛−1
2𝑛 2𝑛
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑇𝑛−1 − 𝑇
3 3 𝑛
2𝑛 2𝑛
𝑇𝑛 + 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑇
3 3 𝑛−1
2𝑛 2𝑛
𝑇𝑛 (1 + )= 𝑇
3 3 𝑛−1
2𝑛 + 3 2𝑛
𝑇𝑛 ( )= 𝑇
3 3 𝑛−1
2𝑛
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑇
2𝑛 + 3 𝑛−1
14b
1
𝑇0 = ∫ 𝑥 0 √1 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
1
= ∫ √1 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
2 3 1
= [− (1 − 𝑥)2 ]
3 0

2
=
3
2(1)
𝑇1 = 𝑇
2(1) + 3 0
2 2 4
𝑇1 = × =
5 3 15
2(2)
𝑇2 = 𝑇
2(2) + 3 1
4 4 16
𝑇2 = × =
7 15 105
2(3)
𝑇3 = 𝑇
2(3) + 3 2
6 16 32
𝑇3 = × =
9 105 315
14c
𝑛! (𝑛 + 1)! 𝑛+1
𝑇𝑛 = 4
(2𝑛 + 3)!
(𝑛 − 1)! 𝑛! (𝑛 − 1)! 𝑛! 𝑛
𝑇𝑛−1 = 4𝑛 = 4
(2(𝑛 − 1) + 3)! (2𝑛 + 1)!
2𝑛
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑇
2𝑛 + 3 𝑛−1
𝑛! (𝑛 + 1)! 𝑛+1 2𝑛
4 = 𝑇
(2𝑛 + 3)! 2𝑛 + 3 𝑛−1
𝑛! (𝑛 + 1)! 𝑛+1
LHS = 4
(2𝑛 + 3)!
2𝑛
RHS = 𝑇
2𝑛 + 3 𝑛−1
2𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)! 𝑛! 𝑛
= 4
2𝑛 + 3 (2𝑛 + 1)!
2 𝑛! 𝑛! 2𝑛 + 2
= 4𝑛 ×
2𝑛 + 3 (2𝑛 + 1)! 2𝑛 + 2
4(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛! 𝑛!
= 4𝑛
(2𝑛 + 2)(2𝑛 + 3) (2𝑛 + 1)!

(𝑛 + 1)! 𝑛! 𝑛+1
= 4
(2𝑛 + 3)!
= LHS
Thus, the formula has been proven by induction via the reduction formula.

Solutions to Exercise 4I Foundation questions

1a
1
𝑥2
∫ 3 2
𝑑𝑥
−1 (5 + 𝑥 )
Let 𝑢 = 5 + 𝑥 3
𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 6
𝑥 = −1, 𝑢 = 4
Hence
1
𝑥2
∫ 3 2
𝑑𝑥
−1 (5 + 𝑥 )
1 6 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑢
3 4 𝑢2
1 1 6
= [− ]
3 𝑢 4
1 1 1
= (− + )
3 6 4
1
=
36
1b
𝜋
0
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = sin 𝑥
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = − cos 𝑥
Hence
𝜋
0

𝜋
= [−𝑥 cos 𝑥]𝜋0 + ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
= (𝜋 − 0) + [sin 𝑥]𝜋0
= 𝜋 + (0 − 0)
=𝜋
1c
2𝑥 + 2 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 − 1
2𝑥 + 2 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 3)
When 𝑥 = −3,
−4 = −4𝐴
𝐴=1
When 𝑥 = 1,
4 = 4𝐵
𝐵=1
Hence
2𝑥 + 2 1 1
= +
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 − 1
3
2𝑥 + 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1)
3
1 1
=∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥+3 𝑥−1
= [ln|𝑥 + 3| + ln|𝑥 − 1|]32

= (ln 6 + ln 2) − (ln 5 + ln 1)
6×2
= ln ( )
5×1
12
= ln
5

1d
2
𝑥−1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥+1
2
𝑥+1−2
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥+1
2
2
= ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥+1
= [𝑥 − 2 ln|𝑥 + 1|]20
= (2 − 2 ln 3) − (0 − 0)
= 2 − 2 ln 3
1e
𝜋
2 3 cos 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 sin4 𝑥
4
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥
𝜋
When 𝑥 = ,𝑢 = 1
2
𝜋 √2
When 𝑥 = ,𝑢 =
4 2
Hence
𝜋
2 3 cos 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 sin4 𝑥
4
1
3
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
√2 𝑢 4
2
3 1
= [− ]
3𝑢3 √2
2
1 1
= [− 3 ]√2
𝑢
2

8
= −1 +
2√2
4
= −1 +
√2
4 √2
= −1 + ×
√2 √2
= −1 + 2√2
= 2√2 − 1
1f
1
3 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √4 − 9𝑥 2
1
1 3 3
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 0 √22 − (3𝑥)2
1
1 3𝑥 3
= [sin−1 ( )]
3 2 0
1 𝜋
= ( − 0)
3 6
𝜋
=
18
2a
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 + 𝑥 2
Let 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑥 2
Hence
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 + 𝑥 2
1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑢
2 √𝑢

1
= × 2 √𝑢 + 𝐶
2
= √𝑢 + 𝐶
= √1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
2b
1+𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
1 𝑥
= ∫( 2
+ ) 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
1 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2 1 + 𝑥2
1 1 2𝑥
=∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑥 2 1 + 𝑥2
1
= tan−1 𝑥 + ln(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶 (since 1 + 𝑥 2 is positive)
2
2c
∫ sin 𝑥 cos4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥
Hence
∫ sin 𝑥 cos4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= − ∫ 𝑢4 𝑑𝑢
1
= − 𝑢5 + 𝐶
5
1
= − cos5 𝑥 + 𝐶
5

2d
1 1
=
2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 + 1)
1 𝐴 𝐵
Let = +
(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 + 1
1 = 𝐴(2𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)
When 𝑥 = −1,
1 = −𝐴
𝐴 = −1
1
When 𝑥 = −
2
1
1= 𝐵
2
𝐵=2
Hence
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 + 1)
−1 2
= ∫( + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 + 1
= − ln|𝑥 + 1| + ln|2𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶
2𝑥 + 1
= ln | |+𝐶
𝑥+1
2e
Therefore
𝑢 = ln 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = 𝑥 3
1 1
𝑢′ = , 𝑣 = 𝑥4
𝑥 4
Hence

1 4 1
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
4 4
1 4 1 1
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ( 𝑥 4 ) + 𝐶
4 4 4
1 4 1
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 4 + 𝐶
4 16
2f
∫ sin3 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ sin2 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(1 − cos2 2𝑥) sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = cos 2𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = −2 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Hence
∫(1 − cos2 2𝑥) sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
= − ∫(1 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
2
1 1
= − (𝑢 − 𝑢3 ) + 𝐶
2 3
1 1
= − cos 2𝑥 + cos 3 2𝑥 + 𝐶
2 6
1 1
= cos3 2𝑥 − cos 2𝑥 + 𝐶
6 2

2g
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 6𝑥 + 25
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 + 16
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 3)2 + 42
𝑥+3
= tan−1 ( )+𝐶
4
2h
∫ 3𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Therefore
𝑢 = 3𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = cos 3𝑥
1
𝑢′ = 3, 𝑣 = sin 3𝑥
3
Hence
∫ 3𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 sin 3𝑥 − ∫ sin 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
= 𝑥 sin 3𝑥 + cos 3𝑥 + 𝐶
3
2i
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√4 + 𝑥
4+𝑥−4
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
√4 + 𝑥
4+𝑥 4
= ∫( − ) 𝑑𝑥
√4 + 𝑥 √4 + 𝑥

4
= ∫ (√4 + 𝑥 − ) 𝑑𝑥
√4 + 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 4 + 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
Hence
4
∫ (√4 + 𝑥 − ) 𝑑𝑥
√4 + 𝑥
4
= ∫ ( √𝑢 − ) 𝑑𝑢
√𝑢
1 1
= ∫ (𝑢2 − 4𝑢−2 ) 𝑑𝑢
2 3 1
= 𝑢2 − 8𝑢2 + 𝐶
3
2 3
= (√4 + 𝑥) − 8√4 + 𝑥 + 𝐶
3
2
= √4 + 𝑥 ( (4 + 𝑥) − 8) + 𝐶
3
2 2
= √4 + 𝑥 ( (4 + 𝑥) − (12)) + 𝐶
3 3
2
= (𝑥 − 8)√4 + 𝑥 + 𝐶
3
3a
1
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑣 ′ = 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑢′ = 2𝑥, 𝑣 = −𝑒 −𝑥
Hence
1
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

1
= [−𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 ]10 + ∫ 2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
1
1
= − + ∫ 2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 0
Therefore
𝑢 = 2𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑢′ = 2, 𝑣 = −𝑒 −𝑥
Hence
1
1
− + ∫ 2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 0
1
1
= − − [2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 ]10 + ∫ 2𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 0
1 2
= − − + [−2𝑒 −𝑥 ]10
𝑒 𝑒
3 2
=− − +2
𝑒 𝑒
5
= 2−
𝑒
3b
𝜋
2
0
𝜋
2
= ∫ sin2 𝑥 cos5 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
= ∫ (1 − cos2 𝑥) cos 5 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥
𝜋
When 𝑥 = ,𝑢 = 0
2

When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
𝜋
2
∫ (1 − cos2 𝑥) cos 5 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
0
= − ∫ (1 − 𝑢2 )𝑢5 𝑑𝑢
1
1
= ∫ (𝑢5 − 𝑢7 ) 𝑑𝑢
0
1
1 1
= [ 𝑢6 − 𝑢8 ]
6 8 0
1 1
= −
6 8
1
=
24
3c
𝑥 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
Let = +
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 2 + 1
𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 + 1)
When 𝑥 = −1,
−1 = 2𝐴
1
𝐴=−
2
When 𝑥 = 0,
0=𝐴+𝐶
𝐶 = −𝐴
1
𝐶=
2
When 𝑥 = 1,
1 = 2𝐴 + 2𝐵 + 2𝐶
1 = −1 + 2𝐵 + 1

1
𝐵=
2
Hence
1
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 1)
1 1 1
1 𝑥+2−2
=∫ ( + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥 + 1 𝑥2 + 1
1 1 1 𝑥+1
= ∫ (− + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
2 0 𝑥+1 𝑥 +1
1 1 1 𝑥 1
= ∫ (− + 2 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
2 0 𝑥+1 𝑥 +1 𝑥 +1
1
1 1 2 −1
= [− ln|𝑥 + 1| + ln(𝑥 + 1) + tan 𝑥] (since 𝑥 2 + 1 is positive)
2 2 0
1 1 𝜋 1
= (− ln 2 + ln 2 + ) − (0 + 0 + 0)
2 2 4 2
1
= (−4 ln 2 + 2 ln 2 + 𝜋)
8
1
= (𝜋 − 2 ln 2)
8
3d
1
2 3
∫ (1 − 𝑥 2 )−2 𝑑𝑥
0
1
2 1
=∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
0 (√1 − 𝑥 2 )
Let 𝑥 = sin 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
1 𝜋
When 𝑥 = ,𝑢 =
2 6
When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 0
Therefore

1
2 1
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
0 (√1 − 𝑥 2 )
𝜋
6 cos 𝑢
=∫ 3 𝑑𝑢
0 (√1 − sin2 𝑢)
𝜋
6 cos 𝑢
=∫ 𝑑𝑢 (noting that in this interval cos 𝑢 is the positive square root)
0 √cos6 𝑢
𝜋
6 cos 𝑢
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
0 cos3 𝑢
𝜋
6 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
0 cos2 𝑢
𝜋
6
= ∫ sec 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
0
𝜋
= [tan 𝑢]06
1
=
√3
3e
1
1 − 𝑥2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + 𝑥2
1
1 𝑥2
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + 𝑥2 1 + 𝑥2
1
1 1 + 𝑥2 − 1
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + 𝑥2 1 + 𝑥2
1
1 1 + 𝑥2 1
= (∫ 2
− 2
+ ) 𝑑𝑥
0 1+𝑥 1+𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
1
2
=∫ ( − 1) 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + 𝑥2
= [2 tan−1 𝑥 − 𝑥]10
𝜋
= −1
2

3f
4
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 √6𝑥 − 8 − 𝑥 2
4
𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 √1 − (𝑥 − 3)2
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 3
𝑥 =𝑢+3
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
When 𝑥 = 4, 𝑢 = 1
When 𝑥 = 2, 𝑢 = −1
Hence
4
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 √1 − (𝑥 − 3)2
1
𝑢+3
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
−1 √1 − 𝑢2
1
𝑢 3
=∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑢
2 √1 − 𝑢2
−1 √1 − 𝑢
1
1
= [− √1 − 𝑢2 + 3 sin−1 𝑢]
2 −1
𝜋 𝜋
= (0 + 3 × ) − (0 + 3 × − )
2 2
3𝜋 3𝜋
= +
2 2
= 3𝜋
3g
1
√𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1+𝑥
Let 𝑢 = √𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑢2

When 𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 1
When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 0
Hence
1
√𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1+𝑥
1
𝑢
=∫ 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
0 1 + 𝑢2
1
𝑢2
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑢
0 1 + 𝑢2
1
1 + 𝑢2 − 1
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑢
0 1 + 𝑢2
1
1 + 𝑢2 1
= 2∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑢
0 1 + 𝑢2 1 + 𝑢2
1
1
= 2 ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑢
0 1 + 𝑢2
= 2[𝑢 − tan−1 𝑢]10

𝜋
= 2 (1 − ) − 2(0 − 0)
4
1
= (4 − 𝜋)
2
3h
√3
0
Therefore
𝑢 = tan−1 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = 1
1
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
Hence

√3
0
√3 𝑥
= [𝑥 tan−1 𝑥]√3
0 −∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + 𝑥2
1 2𝑥 √3
√3𝜋
=( − 0) − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 2 0 1 + 𝑥2
√3𝜋 1
= − [ln|1 + 𝑥 2 |]√3
0
3 2
𝜋 1
= − ( ln 4 − 0)
√3 2
𝜋
= − ln 2
√3
3i
𝜋
4
0
𝜋
41
=∫ (sin(2𝑥 − 3𝑥) + sin(2𝑥 + 3𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
0 2
𝜋
1 4
= ∫ (− sin 𝑥 + sin 5𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋
1 1 4
= [cos 𝑥 − cos 5𝑥]
2 5 0
1 √2 1 √2 1
= (( − (− )) − (1 − ))
2 2 5 2 5
1 3√2 4
= ( − )
2 5 5
1
= (3√2 − 4)
10

3j
𝜋
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = cos 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑢′ = − sin 𝑥 , 𝑣 = −𝑒 −𝑥
Hence
𝜋
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
= [−𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥]𝜋0 − ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
Consider ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝑢 = sin 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑢′ = cos 𝑥 , 𝑣 = −𝑒 −𝑥
Hence
𝜋
0
𝜋
= [−𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥]𝜋0 + ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Therefore
𝜋 𝜋
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥
cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [−𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥]𝜋0 − ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0
𝜋 𝜋
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [−𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥]𝜋0 − [−𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥]𝜋0 − ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0
𝜋
2 ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [−𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥]𝜋0 + [𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥]𝜋0
0

𝜋
2 ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑒 −𝜋 + 1) + (0 + 0)
0
𝜋
2 ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝜋 + 1
0
𝜋
1
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (1 + 𝑒 −𝜋 )
0 2

Solutions to Exercise 4I Development questions

4a
𝑥−1 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
3
= + 2
𝑥 +1 𝑥+1 𝑥 −𝑥+1
𝑥 − 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 + 1)
𝑥 − 1 = 𝐴𝑥 2 − 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥 − 1 = (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 2 + (𝐵 + 𝐶 − 𝐴)𝑥 + 𝐴 + 𝐶
𝐴+𝐵 =0
𝐵+𝐶−𝐴=1
𝐴 + 𝐶 = −1
𝐵 = −𝐴
𝐶 = −1 − 𝐴
(−𝐴) + (−1 − 𝐴) − 𝐴 = 1
−3𝐴 = 2
2
∴𝐴=−
3
2
∴𝐵=
3
1
∴𝐶=−
3
4b
1
𝑥3 + 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥3 + 1
1
𝑥3 + 1 + 𝑥 − 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥3 + 1
1
𝑥−1
= ∫ (1 + ) 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥3 + 1

2 2 1
1 𝑥−3
= ∫ (1 − 3 + 3 ) 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥 + 1 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1
1
2 1 1 2𝑥 − 1
∫ (1 − × + × 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
0 3 𝑥+1 3 𝑥 −𝑥+1
1
2 1
= [𝑥 − ln|𝑥 + 1| + ln(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)]
3 3 0
2
= 1 − ln 2
3
5
2
∫ 𝑥 3 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑢 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑣 ′ = 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥
1 2
𝑢′ = 2𝑥, 𝑣 = − 𝑒 −𝑥
2
Hence
2
∫ 𝑥 3 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 2 2
= − 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
1 2 1 2
= − 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
2 2
1 2
= − 𝑒 −𝑥 (1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶
2
6a
𝜋
3
0
𝜋
3
∫ sec 2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

𝜋
3
∫ (1 + tan2 𝑥) sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = tan 𝑥
𝜋
𝑥= , 𝑢 = √3
3
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 0
Hence
𝜋
3
∫ (1 + tan2 𝑥) sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
√3
= ∫ (1 + 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
0
1 3 √3
= [𝑢 + 𝑢 ]
3 0
= √3 + √3
= 2√3
6b
𝜋
3
0
𝜋
3
= ∫ sec 4 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
3
= ∫ sec 4 𝑥 (1 + tan2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋 𝜋
3 3
= ∫ sec 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ sec 4 𝑥 tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0
𝜋
3
= 2√3 + ∫ sec 2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
3
= 2√3 + ∫ sec 2 𝑥 (1 + tan2 𝑥) tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

Let 𝑢 = tan 𝑥
𝜋
𝑥= , 𝑢 = √3
3
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 0
Hence
𝜋
3
2√3 + ∫ sec 2 𝑥 (1 + tan2 𝑥) tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
√3
= 2√3 + ∫ (1 + 𝑢2 )𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
0
√3
= 2√3 + ∫ (𝑢2 + 𝑢4 ) 𝑑𝑢
0
√3
1 1
= 2√3 + [ 𝑢3 + 𝑢5 ]
3 5 0
9
= 2√3 + √3 + √3
5
10 5 9
= √3 + √3 + √3
5 5 5
24√3
=
5
7a
𝜋
2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 3 + 5 cos 𝑥
𝑥
Let 𝑡 = tan ( )
2
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑡2
𝜋
𝑥 = ,𝑡 = 1
2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑡 = 0
1 − 𝑡2
cos 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2

Hence
𝜋
2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 3 + 5 cos 𝑥
1
1 2
=∫ 2 × 𝑑𝑡
0 1−𝑡 1 + 𝑡2
3+5
1 + 𝑡2
1
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 3 + 3𝑡 2 + 5 − 5𝑡 2
1
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 8 − 2𝑡 2
1
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 4 − 𝑡2
1 1
1
=∫ ( 4 + 4 ) 𝑑𝑡 (using cover − up rule)
0 2−𝑡 2+𝑡
1 1 1 1
= ∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑡
4 0 2−𝑡 2+𝑡
1
= [− ln|2 − 𝑡| + ln|2 + 𝑡|]10
4
1
= (ln 3 + ln 2 − ln 2)
4
1
= ln 3
4
7b
𝜋
2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 cos 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 + 3
𝑥
Let 𝑡 = tan ( )
2
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑡2
𝜋
𝑥 = ,𝑡 = 1
2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑡 = 0

1 − 𝑡2
cos 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
2𝑡
sin 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
Hence
𝜋
2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 cos 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 + 3
1
1 2
=∫ × 𝑑𝑡
0 1− 𝑡2 2𝑡 1 + 𝑡2
2 −2× +3
1+𝑡 1 + 𝑡2
1
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 1− 𝑡2 − 4𝑡 + 3 + 3𝑡 2
1
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 2𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 + 4
1
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑡2 − 2𝑡 + 2
1
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 (𝑡 − 1)2 + 1
= [tan−1(𝑡 − 1)]10
= tan−1 0 − tan−1(−1)
𝜋
=
4
8a
4𝑡 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶𝑡 + 𝐷
2 2
= + 2
+
(1 + 𝑡) (1 + 𝑡 ) 1 + 𝑡 (1 + 𝑡) 1 + 𝑡2
4𝑡 = 𝐴(1 + 𝑡)(1 + 𝑡 2 ) + 𝐵(1 + 𝑡 2 ) + (𝐶𝑡 + 𝐷)(1 + 𝑡)2
4𝑡 = 𝐴(𝑡 3 + 𝑡 2 + 𝑡 + 1) + 𝐵 + 𝐵𝑡 2 + (𝐶𝑡 + 𝐷)(1 + 2𝑡 + 𝑡 2 )
4𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 3 + 𝐴𝑡 2 + 𝐴𝑡 + 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐵𝑡 2 + 𝐶𝑡 + 2𝐶𝑡 2 + 𝐶𝑡 3 + 𝐷 + 2𝐷𝑡 + 𝐷𝑡 2
4𝑡 = (𝐴 + 𝐶)𝑡 3 + (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 2𝐶 + 𝐷)𝑡 2 + (𝐴 + 𝐶 + 2𝐷)𝑡 + 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐷
𝐴+𝐶 =0

𝐴 + 𝐵 + 2𝐶 + 𝐷 = 0
𝐴 + 𝐶 + 2𝐷 = 4
𝐴+𝐵+𝐷 =0
(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐷) + 2𝐶 = 0
2𝐶 = 0
∴𝐶=0
∴𝐴=0
∴𝐷=2
∴ 𝐵 = −2
8b
𝜋
2 sin 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + sin 𝑥
𝑥
Let 𝑡 = tan ( )
2
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑡2
𝜋
𝑥 = ,𝑡 = 1
2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑡 = 0
2𝑡
sin 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
Hence
1
sin 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + sin 𝑥
2𝑡
1
=∫ 1 + 𝑡 2 × 2 𝑑𝑡
0 1+
2𝑡 1 + 𝑡2
1+𝑡 2
4𝑡
1
=∫ 1 + 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
2
0 1 + 𝑡 + 2𝑡

4𝑡1
=∫ 1 + 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
2
0 (1 + 𝑡)
1
4𝑡
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 (1 + 𝑡)2 (1 + 𝑡 2 )
1
−2 2
=∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑡
0 (1 + 𝑡)2 1 + 𝑡 2
1
2 −1 (𝑡)]
=[ + 2 tan
1+𝑡 0
2 𝜋
= +2× −2
1+1 4
𝜋
= 1+ −2
2
𝜋
= −1
2
9
64
1
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
1 √𝑥 + √𝑥
6
Let 𝑢 = √𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑢6
𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑢5 𝑑𝑢
𝑥 = 64, 𝑢 = 2
𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
64
1
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
1 √𝑥 + √𝑥
2
1
=∫ 3 × 6𝑢5 𝑑𝑢
1 √𝑢6 + √𝑢6
2
1
=∫ × 6𝑢5 𝑑𝑢
1 𝑢3 + 𝑢2
2
𝑢3
= 6∫ 𝑑𝑢
1 𝑢+1

2
𝑢3 + 1 − 1
= 6∫ 𝑑𝑢
1 𝑢+1
2 (𝑢
+ 1)(𝑢2 − 𝑢 + 1) − 1
= 6∫ 𝑑𝑢
1 𝑢+1
2
1
= 6 ∫ (𝑢2 − 𝑢 + 1 − ) 𝑑𝑢
1 𝑢+1
2
1 3 1 2
= 6 [ 𝑢 − 𝑢 + 𝑢 − ln|𝑢 + 1|]
3 2 1
8 1 1
= 6 ( − 2 + 2 − ln 3 − + − 1 + ln 2)
3 3 2
7 1 2
= 6 ( − + ln )
3 2 3
2
= 14 − 3 + 6 ln
3
3
= 11 − 6 ln
2
10a
∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
Let 𝜃 = sin−1 ( )
𝑎
𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Hence
∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ √𝑎2 − (𝑎 sin 𝜃)2 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= ∫ √𝑎2 (1 − sin2 𝜃) 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= ∫ √𝑎2 cos 2 𝜃 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= ∫ 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= 𝑎2 ∫ cos2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
1
= 𝑎2 ∫ (1 + cos 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
2
𝑎2
= ∫(1 + cos 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
2
𝑎2 1
= (𝜃 + sin 2𝜃) + 𝐶
2 2
𝑎2 1
= (𝜃 + sin 2𝜃) + 𝐶
2 2
𝑎2 𝑥 1 𝑥
= (sin−1 ( ) + sin (2 sin−1 ( ))) + 𝐶
2 𝑎 2 𝑎
𝑎2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
= (sin−1 ( ) + sin (sin−1 ( )) cos (sin−1 ( ))) + 𝐶
2 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎2 𝑥 𝑥 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
= (sin−1 ( ) + × )+𝐶
2 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎2 𝑥 𝑥√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
= (sin−1 ( ) + )+𝐶
2 𝑎 𝑎2
𝑎2 −1 𝑥 𝑥
= sin ( ) + √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
2 𝑎 2
10b
∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑣 ′ = 1
−𝑥
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
Hence
∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑥2
= 𝑥√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
= 𝑥√𝑎2 − 𝑥2 −∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑎2
= 𝑥√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
𝑥
= 𝑥√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 − ∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎2 sin−1 ( )
𝑎
𝑥
2 ∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 sin−1 ( )
𝑎
𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥
∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + sin−1 ( ) + 𝐶
2 2 𝑎
11a
1
5 − 5𝑥 2
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
0 (1 + 2𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 )
5 − 5𝑥 2 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
= +
(1 + 2𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 ) 1 + 2𝑥 1 + 𝑥 2
2
5 − 5𝑥 2 = 𝐴(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(1 + 2𝑥)

5 − 5𝑥 2 = 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 + 2𝐵𝑥 2 + 2𝐶𝑥
5 − 5𝑥 2 = (𝐴 + 2𝐵)𝑥 2 + (𝐵 + 2𝐶)𝑥 + 𝐴 + 𝐶
𝐴 + 2𝐵 = −5
𝐵 + 2𝐶 = 0
𝐴+𝐶 =5
𝐵 = −2𝐶
𝐴 =5−𝐶
∴ 5 − 𝐶 + 2(−2𝐶) = −5
5 − 𝐶 − 4𝐶 = −5
−5𝐶 = −10

∴𝐶=2
∴ 𝐵 = −4
∴𝐴=3
Hence
1
5 − 5𝑥 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 (1 + 2𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 2 )
1
3 −4𝑥 + 2
=∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + 2𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
1
3 2 2𝑥 2
=∫ ( × −2× + ) 𝑑𝑥
0 2 1 + 2𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 1 + 𝑥2
1
3 2| −1
= [ ln|1 + 2𝑥| − 2 ln|1 + 𝑥 + 2 tan 𝑥]
2 0
3 𝜋
= ln 3 − 2 ln 2 +
2 2
𝜋
= ln √27 − ln 4 +
2
𝜋
= ln √27 − ln √16 +
2
1 27 𝜋
= ln +
2 16 2
1 27
= (𝜋 + ln )
2 16
11b
𝜋
2 cos 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + cos 𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥
𝑥
Let 𝑡 = tan ( )
2
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑡2
𝜋
𝑥 = ,𝑡 = 1
2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑡 = 0

1 − 𝑡2
cos 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
2𝑡
sin 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
Hence
𝜋
2 cos 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + cos 𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥
1
1 − 𝑡2
1 + 𝑡2 2
=∫ 2 × 𝑑𝑡
0 1+1−𝑡 +2× 2𝑡 1 + 𝑡2
1 + 𝑡2 1 + 𝑡2
1 − 𝑡2
1 2×
=∫ 1 + 𝑡2 𝑑𝑡
2 2
0 1 + 𝑡 + 1 − 𝑡 + 4𝑡
1 − 𝑡2
1
2
= ∫ 1 + 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 1 + 2𝑡
1
1 − 𝑡2
=∫ 2
𝑑𝑡
0 (1 + 2𝑡)(1 + 𝑡 )
1 1 5 − 5𝑡 2
= ∫ 𝑑𝑡
5 0 (1 + 2𝑡)(1 + 𝑡 2 )
1 1 27
= ( (𝜋 + ln ))
5 2 16
1 27
= (𝜋 + ln )
10 16
12a
8 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 − 2 = 𝑃(3 sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 − 1) + 𝑄(3 cos 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥)
8 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 − 2 = 3𝑃 sin 𝑥 + 2𝑃 cos 𝑥 − 𝑃 + 3𝑄 cos 𝑥 − 2𝑄 sin 𝑥
𝑃=2
3𝑃 − 2𝑄 = 8
2𝑃 + 3𝑄 = 1
−2𝑄 = 2

∴ 𝑄 = −1
12b
8 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 − 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 − 1
2(3 sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 − 1) − (3 cos 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥)
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 − 1
3 cos 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥
= ∫ (2 − ) 𝑑𝑥
3 sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 − 1
Let 𝑢 = 3 sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 − 1
𝑑𝑢 = 3 cos 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Hence
∫ (2 − ) 𝑑𝑥
3 sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 − 1
= ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 − 1
1
= ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢
= 2𝑥 − ln|𝑢| + 𝐶
= 2𝑥 − ln|3 sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 − 1| + 𝐶
13a
𝜋
𝑇𝑛 = ∫ sin𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
𝑇𝑛 = ∫ sin𝑛−1 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = sin𝑛−1 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = sin 𝑥
𝑢′ = (𝑛 − 1) sin𝑛−2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 , 𝑣 = − cos 𝑥

Hence
𝜋
𝑇𝑛 = [− sin𝑛−1 𝑥 cos 𝑥]𝜋0 + ∫ (𝑛 − 1) sin𝑛−2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
𝑇𝑛 = (𝑛 − 1) ∫ sin𝑛−2 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
𝑇𝑛 = (𝑛 − 1) ∫ sin𝑛−2 𝑥 (1 − sin2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
𝑇𝑛 = (𝑛 − 1) ∫ (sin𝑛−2 𝑥 − sin𝑛 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑇𝑛 = (𝑛 − 1)(𝑇𝑛−2 − 𝑇𝑛 )
𝑇𝑛 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑇𝑛−2 − (𝑛 − 1)𝑇𝑛
𝑇𝑛 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑇𝑛 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑇𝑛−2
𝑛𝑇𝑛 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑇𝑛−2
𝑛−1
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑇𝑛−2
𝑛
13b
𝜋
𝑇0 = ∫ sin0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
= ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
0
=𝜋
𝜋
𝑇1 = ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
= [− cos 𝑥]𝜋0
=2
2−1
𝑇2 = 𝑇0
2
1 𝜋
𝑇2 = ×𝜋 =
2 2
4−1
𝑇4 = 𝑇2
4

3 𝜋 3𝜋
𝑇4 = × =
4 2 8
6−1
𝑇6 = 𝑇
6 4
5 3𝜋 5𝜋
𝑇6 = × =
6 8 16
3−1
𝑇3 = 𝑇1
3
2 4
𝑇3 = ×2=
3 3
5−1
𝑇5 = 𝑇3
5
4 4 16
𝑇5 = × =
5 3 15
Therefore
5𝜋 16
𝑇5 𝑇6 = ×
16 15
𝜋
=
3
14a
𝑒
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ (ln 𝑥)𝑛 𝑑𝑥
1
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = (ln 𝑥)𝑛 , 𝑣 ′ = 1
𝑛(ln 𝑥)𝑛−1
𝑢′ = ,𝑣 = 𝑥
𝑥
Hence
𝑒
𝐼𝑛 = [𝑥(ln 𝑥)𝑛 ]1𝑒 − ∫ 𝑛(ln 𝑥)𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑒
𝐼𝑛 = 𝑒 − 𝑛 ∫ (ln 𝑥)𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
1
𝐼𝑛 = 𝑒 − 𝑛𝐼𝑛−1

14b
𝑒
𝐼0 = ∫ (ln 𝑥)0 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑒
= ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
1
=𝑒−1
𝐼1 = 𝑒 − (1)𝐼0
=1
𝐼2 = 𝑒 − (2)𝐼1
=𝑒−2
𝐼3 = 𝑒 − (3)𝐼2
= 𝑒 − 3𝑒 + 6
= 6 − 2𝑒

Solutions to Exercise 4J Chapter review

1a
2
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2
Hence
2
1 2
= ∫ 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
1
= ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2
1 𝑢
= 𝑒 +𝐶
2
1 𝑥2
= 𝑒 +𝐶
2
1b
3𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2+1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 1
Hence
3𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2+1
3 2𝑥
= ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥 +1
3 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑢
2 𝑢
3
= ln|𝑢| + 𝐶
2

3
= ln(𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐶
2
1c
∫ 𝑥(1 + 𝑥 2 )5 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑥 2
Hence
∫ 𝑥(1 + 𝑥 2 )5 𝑑𝑥
1
= ∫ 2𝑥(1 + 𝑥 2 )5 𝑑𝑥
2
1
= ∫ 𝑢5 𝑑𝑢
2
1 1 6
= ( 𝑢 )+𝐶
2 6
1 6
= 𝑢 +𝐶
12
1
= (1 + 𝑥 2 )6 + 𝐶
12
1d
Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥
Hence
= − ∫ 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢
1
= − 𝑢4 + 𝐶
4

1
= − cos4 𝑥 + 𝐶
4
1e
4𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 − 2𝑥 − 3
4𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1)
4𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 1
4(3)
𝐴= =3
3+1
4(−1)
𝐵= =1
−1 − 3
Hence
4𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1)
3 1
= ∫( + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−3 𝑥+1
= 3 ln|𝑥 − 3| + ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶
1f
∫ 𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = 𝑒 −2𝑥
1
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = − 𝑒 −2𝑥
2
Hence
∫ 𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 1
= − 𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 1 1
= − 𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥 + (− 𝑒 −2𝑥 ) + 𝐶
2 2 2
1 1
= − 𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥 − 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 𝐶
2 4
2a
= ∫(sec 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
= tan 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
2b
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√3 + 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 3 + 𝑥
𝑥 =𝑢−3
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
Hence
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√3 + 𝑥
𝑢−3
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
√𝑢
1 1
= ∫ (𝑢2 − 3𝑢−2 ) 𝑑𝑢
2 3 1
= 𝑢2 − 6𝑢2 + 𝐶
3
2 3 1
= (3 + 𝑥)2 − 6(3 + 𝑥)2 + 𝐶
3

2c
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 5
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1)2 + 4
1 2
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 (𝑥 + 1)2 + 22
1 𝑥+1
= tan−1 ( )+𝐶
2 2
2d
1
∫ 𝑥 cos ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
3
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = cos ( 𝑥)
3
1
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = 3 sin ( 𝑥)
3
Hence
1
∫ 𝑥 cos ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
3
1 1
= 3𝑥 sin ( 𝑥) − 3 ∫ sin ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
3 3
1 1
= 3𝑥 sin ( 𝑥) + 9 cos ( 𝑥) + 𝐶
3 3
2e
𝑥+2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
𝑥+1+1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
1
= ∫ (1 + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1

= 𝑥 + ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶
2f
3𝑥 2 + 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 + 𝑥
3𝑥 2 + 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)
3𝑥 2 + 2 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
2
= + 2
𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 + 1
3(0)2 + 2
𝐴= =2 (using cover − up method)
(0)2 + 1
3𝑥 2 + 2 = 2(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)𝑥
3𝑥 2 + 2 = 2𝑥 2 + 2 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥
3𝑥 2 + 2 = (𝐵 + 2)𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 + 2
𝐶=0
𝐵+2=3
∴𝐵=1
Hence
3𝑥 2 + 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)
2 𝑥
= ∫( + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 +1
2 1 2𝑥
= ∫( + × 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 𝑥 +1
1
= 2 ln|𝑥| + ln(𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐶
2

3a
1
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
(4 − 2
𝑥 )2
Hence
1
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
(4 − 𝑥 2 )2
1
=∫ 3 × 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
(4 − 4 sin2 𝜃)2
1
=∫ 3 × 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
(4 cos2 𝜃)2
1
=∫ × 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
(2 cos 𝜃)3
1
=∫ × 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
8 cos3 𝜃
1
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
4 cos2 𝜃
1
= ∫ sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
4
1
= tan 𝜃 + 𝐶
4
𝑥
𝜃 = sin−1 ( )
2
Hence
1
tan 𝜃 + 𝐶
4
1 𝑥
= tan (sin−1 ( )) + 𝐶
4 2
1 𝑥
= +𝐶
4 √4 − 𝑥 2
𝑥
= +𝐶
4√4 − 𝑥 2

3b
𝑒𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 2𝑥 − 1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Hence
𝑒𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 2𝑥 − 1
𝑒𝑥
=∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
(𝑒 ) − 1
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢2 −1
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
(𝑢 + 1)(𝑢 − 1)
1 1
−2
= ∫( + 2 ) 𝑑𝑢 (using cover − up method)
𝑢+1 𝑢−1
1 1 1
= ∫( − ) 𝑑𝑢
2 𝑢−1 𝑢+1
1
= (ln|𝑢 − 1| − ln|𝑢 + 1|) + 𝐶
2
1
= (ln|𝑒 𝑥 − 1| − ln|𝑒 𝑥 + 1|) + 𝐶
2
1 𝑒𝑥 − 1
= ln | 𝑥 |+𝐶
2 𝑒 +1
3c
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 + √𝑥
Let 𝑢 = √𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑢2
Hence

1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 + √𝑥
1
=∫ × 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2+𝑢
𝑢
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑢
2+𝑢
𝑢+2−2
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑢
2+𝑢
2
= 2 ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑢
2+𝑢
= 2𝑢 − 4 ln|2 + 𝑢| + 𝐶
= 2√𝑥 − 4 ln(2 + √𝑥) + 𝐶
3d
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
5 + 4 cos 𝑥
𝑥
Let 𝑡 = tan ( )
2
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑡2
𝜋
𝑥 = ,𝑡 = 1
2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑡 = 0
1 − 𝑡2
cos 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
Hence
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
5 + 4 cos 𝑥
1 2
=∫ 2 × 𝑑𝑡
1−𝑡 1 + 𝑡2
5+4
1 + 𝑡2
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
5+ 5𝑡 2 + 4 − 4𝑡 2
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑡2 + 9

2 3
= ∫ 2 𝑑𝑡
3 𝑡 + 32
2 𝑡
= tan−1 ( ) + 𝐶
3 3
𝑥
2 tan (2)
= tan−1 ( )+𝐶
3 3
2 1 1
= tan−1 ( tan 𝑥) + 𝐶
3 3 2
4a
2
∫ 𝑥 2 √𝑥 3 + 1 𝑑𝑥
−1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 3
𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑥 2
𝑥 = 2, 𝑢 = 8
𝑥 = −1, 𝑢 = −1
Hence
2
∫ 𝑥 2 √𝑥 3 + 1 𝑑𝑥
−1
1 8
= ∫ √𝑢 + 1 𝑑𝑢
3 −1
1 8 1
= ∫ (𝑢 + 1)2 𝑑𝑢
3 −1
1 2 3 8
= [ (𝑢 + 1)2 ]
3 3 −1
2 3 8
= [(𝑢 + 1)2 ]
9 −1
2
= (27 − 0)
9
=6

4b
5
2𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
4 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3
5
2𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
4 (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1)
2𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 − 1
2(3)
𝐴= =3
3−1
2(1)
𝐵= = −1
1−3
Hence
5
2𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
4 (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1)
5
3 1
=∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
4 𝑥−3 𝑥−1
= [3 ln|𝑥 − 3| − ln|𝑥 − 1|]54

= 3 ln 2 − ln 4 − 3 ln 1 + ln 3
= 3 ln 2 − 2 ln 2 + ln 3
= ln 2 + ln 3
= ln 6
4c
𝜋
3
0
𝜋
3
= ∫ sin 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
3
= ∫ sin 𝑥 (1 − cos 2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥

𝜋 1
𝑥= ,𝑢 =
3 2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
𝜋
3
∫ sin 𝑥 (1 − cos2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
1
2
= − ∫ (1 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
1
1
= ∫ (1 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
1
2
1 31
= [𝑢 − 𝑢 ]1 𝑑𝑢
3
2
1 1 1
= 1− − +
3 2 24
24 8 12 1
= − − +
24 24 24 24
5
=
24
4d
1
8𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 3 + 4𝑥
1
6 + 8𝑥 − 6
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 3 + 4𝑥
1
6
= ∫ (2 − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 3 + 4𝑥
1
6 4
= ∫ (2 − × ) 𝑑𝑥
0 4 3 + 4𝑥
1
3
= [2𝑥 − ln|3 + 4𝑥|]
2 0

3 3
= 2 − ln 7 + ln 3
2 2
3 3
= 2 + ln ( )
2 7
3 7
= 2 − ln ( )
2 3
4e
1
∫ 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = 1 − 𝑥
𝑥 = 1−𝑢
𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 0
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1
Hence
1
∫ 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
0 1
= − ∫ (1 − 𝑢)2 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
1
1 1
= ∫ (1 − 2𝑢 + 𝑢2 )𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
0
1 1 3 5
= ∫ (𝑢2 − 2𝑢2 + 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
0
2 3 4 5 2 71
= [ 𝑢2 − 𝑢2 + 𝑢2 ]
3 5 7 0
2 4 2
= − +
3 5 7
70 84 30
= − +
105 105 105
16
=
105

4f
𝜋
4
0
𝜋
1 4
= ∫ (sin(5𝑥 − 3𝑥) + sin(5𝑥 + 3𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋
1 4
= ∫ (sin 2𝑥 + sin 8𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋
1 1 1 4
= [− cos 2𝑥 − cos 8𝑥]
2 2 8 0
1 1 1 1
= (− + + )
2 8 2 8
1
=
4
5a
𝜋
3
0
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 ′ = sin 3𝑥
1
𝑢′ = 1, 𝑣 = − cos 3𝑥
3
Hence
𝜋
3
0
𝜋 𝜋
1 3 31
= [− 𝑥 cos 3𝑥] + ∫ cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 0 0 3
𝜋
𝜋 1 1 3
= + [ sin 3𝑥]
9 3 3 0
𝜋
𝜋 1
= + [sin 3𝑥]03
9 9

𝜋 1
= + (0)
9 9
𝜋
=
9
5b
2
3 − 7𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √4𝑥 − 𝑥 2
2
3 − 7𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √4 − (𝑥 − 2)2
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 2
𝑥 =𝑢+2
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 2, 𝑢 = 0
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = −2
Hence
2
3 − 7𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √4 − (𝑥 − 2)2
0
3 − 7(𝑢 + 2)
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
−2 √4 − 𝑢2
0
3 − 7𝑢 − 14
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
−2 √4 − 𝑢2
0
−11 − 7𝑢
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
−2 √4 − 𝑢2
0
11 7𝑢
= ∫ (− − ) 𝑑𝑢
−2 √4 − 𝑢2 √4 − 𝑢2
0
11 −2𝑢
= ∫ (− +7× ) 𝑑𝑢
−2 √4 − 𝑢2 2√4 − 𝑢2
𝑢 0
= [−11 sin−1 ( ) + 7√4 − 𝑢2 ]
2 −2
𝜋
= 14 + 11 (− )
2

11𝜋
= 14 −
2
5c
𝜋
2
0
𝜋
2
= ∫ sin2 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
= ∫ sin2 𝑥 (1 − sin2 𝑥) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥
𝜋
𝑥= ,𝑢 = 1
2
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 0
Hence
𝜋
2
∫ sin2 𝑥 (1 − sin2 𝑥) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
1
= ∫ 𝑢2 (1 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
0
1
= ∫ (𝑢2 − 𝑢4 ) 𝑑𝑢
0
1 3 1 51
=[ 𝑢 − 𝑢 ]
3 5 0
1 1
= −
3 5
2
=
15

5d
3
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 18
∫ 3 2
𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 81
3
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 18
=∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
0 (𝑥 + 9)(𝑥 + 9)
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 18 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
2
= + 2
(𝑥 + 9)(𝑥 + 9) 𝑥 + 9 𝑥 + 9
(−9)2 + (−9) + 18
𝐴= =1
(−9)2 + 9
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 18 = 𝑥 2 + 9 + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 + 9)
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 18 = 𝑥 2 + 9 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 + 9𝐵𝑥 + 9𝐶
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 18 = (𝐵 + 1)𝑥 2 + (9𝐵 + 𝐶)𝑥 + 9𝐶 + 9
𝐵+1=1
9𝐶 + 9 = 18
∴𝐵=0
∴𝐶=1
Hence
3
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 18
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 (𝑥 + 9)(𝑥 2 + 9)
3
1 1
=∫ ( + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥+9 𝑥 +9
1 −1
𝑥 3
= [ln|𝑥 + 9| + tan ( )]
3 3 0
𝜋
= ln 12 + − ln 9
12
𝜋 4
= + ln
12 3

5e
4
∫ √16 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2
Let 𝑥 = 4 sin 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 = 4 cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝜋
𝑥 = 4, 𝑢 =
2
𝜋
𝑥 = 2, 𝑢 =
6
Hence
4
∫ √16 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2
𝜋
2
= ∫ √16 − 16 sin2 𝑢 × 4 cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝜋
6
𝜋
2
= ∫ 4 cos 𝑢 4 cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝜋
6
𝜋
2
= 16 ∫ cos2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝜋
6
𝜋
2
= 8 ∫ (1 + cos 2𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
𝜋
6
𝜋
1 2
= 8 [𝑢 + sin 2𝑢]𝜋
2
6
𝜋 𝜋 √3
= 8( + 0 − − )
2 6 4
𝜋 √3
= 8( − )
3 4
8𝜋
= − 2√3
3

5f
1
2
∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = 𝑒 2𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = sin 𝜋𝑥
1
𝑢′ = 2𝑒 2𝑥 , 𝑣 = − cos 𝜋𝑥
𝜋
Hence
1
2
0
1 1
1 2 2 2
= [− 𝑒 2𝑥 cos 𝜋𝑥] + ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 cos 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0 𝜋 0
1
1 2 2
= + ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 cos 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋 0
1
2
Consider ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 cos 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = 𝑒 2𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = cos 𝜋𝑥
1
𝑢′ = 2𝑒 2𝑥 , 𝑣 = sin 𝜋𝑥
𝜋
Hence
1
2
∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 cos 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
1 1
1 2 2 2
= [ 𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝜋𝑥] − ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0 𝜋 0
1
𝑒 2 2
= − ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋 0
Therefore

1
2
0
1
1 2 2
= + ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 cos 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋 0
1
1 2 𝑒 2 2
= + ( − ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 0
1 1
2 1 2𝑒 4 2
∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 2 − 2 ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 0
1
4 2 1 2𝑒
(1 + 2 ) ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 2
𝜋 0 𝜋 𝜋
1
𝜋 2 + 4 2 2𝑥 1 2𝑒
2
∫ 𝑒 sin 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 2
𝜋 0 𝜋 𝜋
1
2
2𝑥
1 2𝑒 𝜋2
∫ 𝑒 sin 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ( + 2 ) ( 2 )
0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 +4
1
2 1
∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝜋 + 2𝑒)
0 𝜋2 + 4
1
2 2𝑒 + 𝜋
∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
0 4 + 𝜋2
6a
15
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
8 (𝑥 − 3)√𝑥 + 1
Let 𝑢 = √𝑥 + 1
𝑥 = 𝑢2 − 1
𝑥 = 15, 𝑢 = 4
𝑥 = 8, 𝑢 = 3
Hence

15
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
8 (𝑥 − 3)√𝑥 + 1
4
1
=∫ 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
3 (𝑢2 − 1 − 3)𝑢
4
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
3 𝑢2 − 4
4
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
3 (𝑢 − 2)(𝑢 + 2)
2 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑢 − 2)(𝑢 + 2) 𝑢 − 2 𝑢 + 2
2 1
𝐴= =
2+2 2
2 1
𝐵= =−
−2 − 2 2
Hence
4
2
∫ 𝑑𝑢
3 (𝑢 − 2)(𝑢 + 2)
1 4
1
=∫ ( 2 − 2 ) 𝑑𝑢
3 𝑢−2 𝑢+2
4
1 1
= [ ln|𝑢 − 2| − ln|𝑢 + 2|]
2 2 3
1 1 1 1
= ln 2 − ln 6 − ln 1 + ln 5
2 2 2 2
1
= (ln 2 − ln 3 − ln 2 + ln 5)
2
1
= (− ln 3 + ln 5)
2
1 5
= ln
2 3

6b
𝜋
3 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 9 − 8 sin2 𝑥
𝑡 = tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 = sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 = (1 + tan2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 = (1 + 𝑡 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑡2
𝜋
𝑥 = , 𝑡 = √3
3
𝑥 = 0, 𝑡 = 0
tan2 𝑥 𝑡2
sin2 𝑥 = =
1 + tan2 𝑥 1 + 𝑡 2
Hence
𝜋
3 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 9 − 8 sin2 𝑥
√3 1 1
=∫ × 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑡2 1 + 𝑡2
9−8
1 + 𝑡2
√3 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 9 + 9𝑡 2 − 8𝑡 2
√3 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑡2 +9
1 𝑡 √3
= [ tan−1 ( )]
3 3 0
𝜋
=
18

6c
2
∫ √𝑥(4 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑥 = 4 sin2 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = 8 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
𝑥 = 2, 𝜃 =
4
𝑥 = 0, 𝜃 = 0
Hence
2
∫ √𝑥(4 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ √4 sin2 𝜃 (4 − 4 sin2 𝜃) × 8 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ √4 sin2 𝜃 4 cos 2 𝜃 × 8 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ 4 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 8 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
4
= 32 ∫ sin2 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
4
= 32 ∫ (sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋 2
1 4
= 32 ∫ ( sin 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
0 2
𝜋
4
= 8 ∫ sin2 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
41
= 8∫ (1 − cos 4𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
0 2
𝜋
4
= 4 ∫ (1 − cos 4𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
0

𝜋
1 4
= 4 [𝜃 − sin 4𝜃]
4 0
𝜋
= 4( )
4
=𝜋
6d
𝜋
3 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 cos 𝑥
𝑥
Let 𝑡 = tan ( )
2
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑡2
𝜋 1
𝑥= ,𝑡 =
3 √3
𝑥 = 0, 𝑡 = 0
1 − 𝑡2
cos 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
Hence
𝜋
3 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 cos 𝑥
1
√3 1 2
=∫ 2 × 𝑑𝑡
0 1−𝑡 1 + 𝑡2
1 + 𝑡2
1
√3 1 + 𝑡2 2
=∫ 2
× 𝑑𝑡
0 1−𝑡 1 + 𝑡2
1
√3 2
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 1 − 𝑡2
1
√3 2
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 (1 − 𝑡)(1 + 𝑡)
1
√3 1 1
=∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑡
0 1−𝑡 1+𝑡

1
√3
= [− ln|1 − 𝑡| + ln|1 + 𝑡|]0
1 1
= − ln (1 − ) + ln (1 + )
√3 √3
1
1+
√3)
= ln (
1
1−
√3
√3 + 1
= ln ( )
√3 − 1
√3 + 1 √3 + 1
= ln ( × )
√3 − 1 √3 + 1
3 + 2√3 + 1
= ln ( )
2
= ln(2 + √3)
7a
1
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = 𝑥𝑛, 𝑣′ = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑢′ = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 , 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥
Hence
1
𝐼𝑛 = [𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 ]10 − 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝐼𝑛 = 𝑒 − 𝑛𝐼𝑛−1

7b
1
𝐼0 = ∫ 𝑥 0 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
1
= ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
=𝑒−1
𝐼1 = 𝑒 − (1)𝐼0
𝐼1 = 𝑒 − (𝑒 − 1) = 1
𝐼2 = 𝑒 − (2)𝐼1
𝐼2 = 𝑒 − 2
𝐼3 = 𝑒 − (3)𝐼2
𝐼3 = 𝑒 − 3𝑒 + 6 = −2𝑒 + 6
𝐼4 = 𝑒 − (4)𝐼3
𝐼4 = 𝑒 + 8𝑒 − 24 = 9𝑒 − 24
𝐼5 = 𝑒 − (5)𝐼4
𝐼5 = 𝑒 − 45𝑒 + 120 = 120 − 44𝑒
8a
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 3 (ln 𝑥)𝑛 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = (ln 𝑥)𝑛 , 𝑣 ′ = 𝑥 3
′
𝑛(ln 𝑥)𝑛−1 1
𝑢 = , 𝑣 = 𝑥4
𝑥 4
Hence
1 1
𝐼𝑛 = 𝑥 4 (ln 𝑥)𝑛 − 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 3 (ln 𝑥)𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
4 4
1 1
𝐼𝑛 = 𝑥 4 (ln 𝑥)𝑛 − 𝑛𝐼𝑛−1
4 4

8b
𝐼0 = ∫ 𝑥 3 (ln 𝑥)0 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
1 4
= 𝑥
4
1 4 1
𝐼1 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − (1)𝐼0
4 4
1 1
= 𝑥 4 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 4
4 16
1 4 1
𝐼2 = 𝑥 (ln 𝑥)2 − (2)𝐼1
4 4
1 1 1 1
= 𝑥 4 (ln 𝑥)2 − ( 𝑥 4 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 4 )
4 2 4 16
1 1 1
= 𝑥 4 (ln 𝑥)2 − 𝑥 4 ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 4
4 8 32
1 4 1
𝐼3 = 𝑥 (ln 𝑥)3 − (3)𝐼2
4 4
1 3 1 1 1 4
= 𝑥 4 (ln 𝑥)3 − ( 𝑥 4 (ln 𝑥)2 − 𝑥 4 ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 )
4 4 4 8 32
1 3 3 3 4
= 𝑥 4 (ln 𝑥)3 − 𝑥 4 (ln 𝑥)2 + 𝑥 4 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 +𝐶
4 16 32 128
1 4
= 𝑥 (32(ln 𝑥)3 − 24(ln 𝑥)2 + 12 ln 𝑥 − 3) + 𝐶
128
9a
𝜋
2
𝐼2𝑛 = ∫ sin2𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
𝐼2𝑛 = ∫ sin2𝑛−1 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = sin2𝑛−1 𝑥 , 𝑣 ′ = sin 𝑥
𝑢′ = (2𝑛 − 1) sin2n−2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 , 𝑣 = − cos 𝑥
Hence
𝜋
𝜋
2
2𝑛−1
𝐼2𝑛 = [− sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥]02 + ∫ (2𝑛 − 1) sin2𝑛−2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
𝐼2𝑛 = ∫ (2𝑛 − 1) sin2𝑛−2 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
𝐼2𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1) ∫ sin2𝑛−2 𝑥 (1 − sin2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
𝐼2𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1) ∫ sin2𝑛−2 𝑥 − sin2𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝐼2𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1)(𝐼2𝑛−2 − 𝐼2𝑛 )

𝐼2𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1)𝐼2𝑛−2 − (2𝑛 − 1)𝐼2𝑛
𝐼2𝑛 + (2𝑛 − 1)𝐼2𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1)𝐼2𝑛−2
2𝑛𝐼2𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1)𝐼2𝑛−2
2𝑛 − 1
𝐼2𝑛 = 𝐼
2𝑛 2𝑛−2
9b
𝜋
2
𝐼0 = ∫ sin0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
= ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
=
2
2(1) − 1
𝐼2 = 𝐼
2(1) 0
𝜋
=
4
2(2) − 1
𝐼4 = 𝐼
2(2) 2
3𝜋
=
16

2(3) − 1
𝐼6 = 𝐼
2(3) 4
5 3𝜋
= ×
6 16
5𝜋
=
32
10a
1
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ (1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑛 𝑑𝑥
0
∫ 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = (1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑛 , 𝑣 ′ = 1
𝑢′ = 2𝑛𝑥(1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑛−1 , 𝑣 = 𝑥
Hence
1
𝐼𝑛 = [𝑥(1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑛 ]10 − 2𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 2 (1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
0
1
𝐼𝑛 = 2 − 2𝑛 ∫ (1 + 𝑥 2 − 1)(1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
𝑛
0
1
𝐼𝑛 = 2𝑛 − 2𝑛 ∫ ((1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑛 − (1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑛−1 ) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝐼𝑛 = 2𝑛 − 2𝑛(𝐼𝑛 − 𝐼𝑛−1 )
𝐼𝑛 = 2𝑛 − 2𝑛𝐼𝑛 + 2𝑛𝐼𝑛−1
𝐼𝑛 + 2𝑛𝐼𝑛 = 2𝑛 + 2𝑛𝐼𝑛−1
(2𝑛 + 1)𝐼𝑛 = 2𝑛 + 2𝑛𝐼𝑛−1
10b
𝜋
4
𝐽𝑛 = ∫ sec 2𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
4
𝐽𝑛 = ∫ sec 2 𝜃 sec 2𝑛−2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0

𝜋
4
𝐽𝑛 = ∫ sec 2 𝜃 (sec 2 𝜃)𝑛−1 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
4
𝐽𝑛 = ∫ sec 2 𝜃 (1 + tan2 𝜃)𝑛−1 𝑑𝜃
0
Let 𝑢 = tan 𝜃
𝑑𝑢 = sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
𝑥= ,𝑢 = 1
4
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 0
1
𝐽𝑛 = ∫ (1 + 𝑢2 )𝑛−1 𝑑𝑢
0
∴ 𝐽𝑛 = 𝐼𝑛−1
(2𝑛 + 1)𝐽𝑛+1 = 2𝑛 + 2𝑛𝐽𝑛
Substitute 𝑛 = 𝑛 − 1
(2(𝑛 − 1) + 1)𝐽𝑛 = 2𝑛−1 + 2(𝑛 − 1)𝐽𝑛−1
(2𝑛 − 1)𝐽𝑛 = 2𝑛−1 + 2(𝑛 − 1)𝐽𝑛−1
10c
𝜋
4
𝐽3 = ∫ sec 6 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
4
𝐽0 = ∫ sec 0 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
4
= ∫ 1 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
=
4
1
𝐽𝑛 = (2𝑛−1 + 2(𝑛 − 1)𝐽𝑛−1 )
2𝑛 − 1
1
𝐽1 = (2(1)−1 + 2((1) − 1)𝐽0 )
2(1) − 1
=1

1
𝐽2 = (2(2)−1 + 2((2) − 1)𝐽1 )
2(2) − 1
1
= (2 + 2(1))
3
4
=
3
1
𝐽3 = (2(3)−1 + 2((3) − 1)𝐽2 )
2(3) − 1
1 16
= (4 + )
5 3
1 28
= ( )
5 3
28
=
15
11a
sin 2𝑛𝑥
sin 𝑥
sin 2𝑛𝑥 (2 sin2 𝑥 + cos 2𝑥)
sin 𝑥
2 sin2 𝑥 sin 2𝑛𝑥 + sin 2𝑛𝑥 cos 2𝑥
sin 𝑥
sin 2𝑥 cos 2𝑛𝑥 + 2 sin2 𝑥 sin 2𝑛𝑥 + sin 2𝑛𝑥 cos 2𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 cos 2𝑛𝑥
sin 𝑥
𝐼𝑛
2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑛𝑥 + 2 sin2 𝑥 sin 2𝑛𝑥 + sin 2𝑛𝑥 cos 2𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 cos 2𝑛𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
2 sin 𝑥 (cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑛𝑥 + sin 𝑥 sin 2𝑛𝑥) + sin 2𝑛𝑥 cos 2𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 cos 2𝑛𝑥
sin 𝑥
2 sin 𝑥 (cos(2𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥)) + sin(2𝑛𝑥 − 2𝑥)
sin 𝑥
sin(2(𝑛 − 1)𝑥)
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ (2 cos(2𝑛 − 1)𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
2
𝐼𝑛 = sin(2𝑛 − 1)𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛−1
2𝑛 − 1

11b
𝜋
2 sin 2𝑥
𝐼1 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 sin 𝑥
𝜋
2 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 sin 𝑥
𝜋
2
= ∫ 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
= 2[sin 𝑥]02
=2
𝜋
2 2
𝐼𝑛 = [ sin((2𝑛 − 1)𝑥)] + 𝐼𝑛−1
2𝑛 − 1 0
2 (2𝑛 − 1)𝜋
= sin ( ) + 𝐼𝑛−1
2𝑛 − 1 2
2 (2(2) − 1)𝜋
𝐼2 = sin ( ) + 𝐼1
2(2) − 1 2
2
=− +2
3
4
=
3
2 (2(3) − 1)𝜋
𝐼3 = sin ( ) + 𝐼2
2(3) − 1 2
2 4
= +
5 3
26
=
15
12a
𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
Let 𝑢 = 𝑎 − 𝑥
𝑥 =𝑎−𝑢

𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑢 = 0
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 𝑎
Hence
𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
0
= − ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
1
1
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
0
1
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
12b
𝜋
𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 3 + sin2 𝑥
𝜋 (𝜋
− 𝑥) sin(𝜋 − 𝑥)
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 3 + sin2 (𝜋 − 𝑥)
𝜋 (𝜋
− 𝑥) sin 𝑥
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 3 + sin2 𝑥
𝜋 𝜋 (𝜋
𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 𝑥) sin 𝑥
2𝐼 = ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 3 + sin 𝑥 0 3 + sin2 𝑥
𝜋
𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝜋 sin 𝑥 − 𝑥 sin 𝑥
2𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 3 + sin2 𝑥
𝜋
𝜋 sin 𝑥
2𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 3 + sin2 𝑥
𝜋
𝜋 sin 𝑥
2𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 4 − cos2 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥
𝑥 = 𝜋, 𝑢 = −1
𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 1

Hence
−1
𝜋
2𝐼 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑢
1 4 − 𝑢2
1
1
2𝐼 = 𝜋 ∫ 2
𝑑𝑢
−1 4 − 𝑢
1
1 1
2𝐼 = 𝜋 ∫ ( 4 + 4 ) 𝑑𝑢
−1 2 − 𝑢 2+𝑢
𝜋 1 1 1
2𝐼 = ∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑢
4 −1 2 − 𝑢 2 + 𝑢
𝜋
𝐼= [− ln|2 − 𝑢| + ln|2 + 𝑢|]1−1
8
𝜋
𝐼 = (− ln 1 + ln 3 + ln 3 − ln 1)
8
𝜋
𝐼 = × 2 ln 3
8
𝜋 ln 3
𝐼=
4

Chapter 5 worked solutions – Vectors

1 𝑦𝑧-plane: 𝑥 = 0
𝑥𝑧-plane: 𝑦 = 0
𝑥𝑦-plane: 𝑧 = 0
2a (−2, 3, 1) lies in the second octant.
2b (2, 3, −1) lies in the fifth octant.
2c (2, −3, 1) lies in the fourth octant.
2d (−2, 3, −1) lies in the sixth octant.
2e (2, −3, −1) lies in the eighth octant.
2f (−2, −3, 1) lies in the third octant.
3a (3, 2, 5 − 6) = (3, 2, −1)
3b (3 − 8, 2, 5) = (−5, 2, 5)
3c (3, 2 + 10, 5) = (3, 12, 5)
3d (3 + 5 , 2, 5 + 7) = (8, 2, 12)
3e (3, 2 − 3, 5 − 4) = (3, −1, 1)
3f (3, 2, 5 × −1) = (3, 2, −5)

3g (3 × −1, 2, 5) = (−3, 2, 5)
3h (3, 2 × −1, 5) = (3, −2, 5)
3i (3, 2 × −1, 5 × −1) = (3, −2, −5)
4a
𝐴 = (2, 0, 0)
𝐵 = (2, 2, 0)
𝐶 = (2, 2, 2)
𝐷 = (2, 0, 2)
𝑂 = (0, 0, 0)
𝑃 = (0, 2, 0)
𝑄 = (0, 2, 2)
𝑅 = (0, 0, 2)
4b For a right-angled triangle, 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2

So for any diagonal on a face:
22 + 22 = 𝑐 2
𝑐 = √8
= 2√2
4c For a right-angled triangle, 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2
In the case of the space diagonal, 𝑎 = 2 and 𝑏 = 2√2

So
2
22 + 2√2 = 𝑐 2
𝑐 = √12
= 2√3

4d The plane 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝑃 has the equation: 𝑧 = 0

The plane 𝑅𝐷𝐶𝑄 has the equation: 𝑧 = 2
The plane 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 has the equation: 𝑥 = 2
The plane 𝑂𝑃𝑄𝑅 has the equation: 𝑥 = 0
The plane 𝑂𝐴𝐷𝑅 has the equation: 𝑦 = 0
The plane 𝑃𝐵𝐶𝑄 has the equation: 𝑦 = 2
5a 𝐶 = (2, 4, 3)
𝐴 = (2, 0, 0)
𝐵 = (2, 4, 0)
𝐷 = (2, 0, 3)
𝑃 = (0, 4, 0)
𝑄 = (0, 4, 3)
𝑅 = (0, 0, 3)
5b For a right-angled triangle, 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2

So for any diagonal on a face:
22 + 42 = 𝑐 2
𝑐 = √20
= 2√5
5c For a right-angled triangle 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2
In the case of the space diagonal, 𝑎 = 3 and 𝑏 = 2√5

So
2
32 + (2√5) = 𝑐 2
𝑐 = √29

5d The plane 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝑃 has the equation: 𝑧 = 0

The plane 𝑅𝐷𝐶𝑄 has the equation: 𝑧 = 3
The plane 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 has the equation: 𝑥 = 2
The plane 𝑂𝑃𝑄𝑅 has the equation: 𝑥 = 0
The plane 𝑂𝐴𝐷𝑅 has the equation: 𝑦 = 0
The plane 𝑃𝐵𝐶𝑄 has the equation: 𝑦 = 4
6a
1
Area = × base × height
2
1
Area = ×3×4
2
= 6 square units
6b
1
Volume = × base × height
3
1
= ×6×5
3
= 10 cubic units


2
7a 𝐴𝐵 2 = (𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 )2 + (𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 ) + (𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 )2
The three points are:

𝑂 = (0, 0, 0)
𝐴 = (2, 6, 3)
𝐵 = (−3, 5, −8)
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | | = (2 − 0)2 + (6 − 0)2 + (3 − 0)2
|𝑂𝐴
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 4 + 36 + 9 = 49
|𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √49 = 7
So |𝑂𝐴
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (−3 − 0)2 + (5 − 0)2 + (−8 − 0)2
|𝑂𝐵
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 9 + 25 + 64 = 98
|𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √98 = 7√2

So |𝑂𝐵
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (−3 − 2)2 + (5 − 6)2 + (−8 − 3)2
|𝐴𝐵
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 25 + 1 + 121 = 147
|𝐴𝐵
So ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = √147 = 7√3
2
7b ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 7, |𝑂𝐴
|𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 49
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 7√2, |𝑂𝐵
|𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 98
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 7√3, |𝐴𝐵
|𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 147
For a right-angled triangle, Pythagoras’s theorem should hold; that is:

2 2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | + |𝑂𝐵
|𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | + |𝑂𝐵
LHS = |𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
= 49 + 98
= 147
= 𝐴𝐵 2

= RHS
Pythagoras’s theorem is satisfied so the angle opposite the hypotenuse is right-
angled. That is, ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 = 90°.
8 𝐴 = (3, −1, −3)

𝐵 = (1, −5, 7)
𝐶 = (−1, 3, 3)
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
𝑀=( , , )
2 2 2
Midpoint of the line 𝐴𝐵:
3 + 1 −1 − 5 −3 + 7
𝑀=( , , ) = (2, −3, 2)
2 2 2
Midpoint of the line 𝐴𝐶:
3 − 1 −1 + 3 −3 + 3
𝑁=( , , ) = (1, 1, 0)
2 2 2
𝑀 = (2, −3, 2)
𝑁 = (1, 1, 0)
For 𝑀𝑁:
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (𝑁𝑥 − 𝑀𝑥 )2 + (𝑁𝑦 − 𝑀𝑦 )2 + (𝑁𝑧 − 𝑀𝑧 )2
|𝑀𝑁
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (1 − 2)2 + (1 − (−3))2 + (0 − 2)2
|𝑀𝑁
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 1 + 16 + 4 = 21
|𝑀𝑁
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √21
So |𝑀𝑁
For BC:
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (−1 − 1)2 + (3 − (−5))2 + (3 − 7)2
|𝐵𝐶
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 4 + 64 + 16 = 68
|𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √84 = 2√21

So |𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝑀𝑁
𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
LHS = 𝐵𝐶
= 2√21

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= 2𝑀𝑁
= RHS
9a 𝑃 = (−6, −8, 14)

𝑄 = (−10, 20, 22)
−16 − 6 20 − 8 22 + 14
𝑀=( , , )
2 2 2
−16 12 36
=( , , )
2 2 2
𝑀 = (−8, 6, 18)
9b
1
𝑋 = (𝑂𝑃 + 𝑂𝑀)
2
1
= (−14, −2, 32)
2
= (−7, −1,16)
1
𝑌= (𝑂𝑄 + 𝑂𝑀)
2
1
= (−18, 26, 40)
2
1
= (−9, 13, 20)
2
10 𝑃(1, 0, 0)
𝑄(−3, −1, 1)
𝑅(−2, 3, 4)
𝐶(−1, 1, 2)
If the lengths of 𝐶𝑃, 𝐶𝑄 and 𝐶𝑅 are equal, the points 𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑅 are shown to be
on the surface of a sphere centred at 𝐶:
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (1 − (−1))2 + (0 − 1)2 + (0 − 2)2
|𝐶𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √4 + 1 + 4 = 3
|𝐶𝑃

2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (−3 − (−1))2 + (−1 − 1)2 + (1 − 2)2
|𝐶𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √4 + 4 + 1 = 3
|𝐶𝑄
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (−2 − (−1))2 + (3 − 1)2 + (4 − 2)2
|𝐶𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √4 + 1 + 4 = 3
|𝐶𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐶𝑄
So the lengths |𝐶𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐶𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | and the conditions are satisfied.
11 So the length between (𝑥, 𝑥 + 5, 𝑥 − 2) and (1, 0, −1) will be:
√(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑥 + 5)2 + (𝑥 − 1)2
= √𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 25 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
= √3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 27
We know
√3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 27 = 2√6
3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 27 = 24
3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3 = 0
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 0
(𝑥 + 1)2 = 0
𝑥 = −1
12a 𝐴 = (4, 2, 6)
𝐵 = (−2, 0, 2)
𝐶 = (10, −2, 4)
In order for the triangle to be an isosceles triangle, two sides must be of equal
length:
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (−6)2 + (−2)2 + (−4)2
|𝐴𝐵
= 36 + 4 + 16
= 56
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √56 = 2√14
|𝐴𝐵

2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 62 + (−4)2 + (−2)2
|𝐴𝐶
= 36 + 16 + 4
= 56
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √56 = 2√14
|𝐴𝐶
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 122 + (−2)2 + 22
|𝐵𝐶
= 144 + 4 + 4
= 152
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √152 = 2√38
|𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐴𝐶
|𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 2√14
So as exactly two sides of the triangle have the same length,

∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an isosceles triangle.
12b The area of the triangle is:

1
base × height
2
The base of the triangle is:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 2√38
|𝐵𝐶
The height of the triangle can be found as the length from 𝐴 to the middle point
between 𝐵𝐶, 𝑀:
𝐵(−2, 0, 2)
𝐶(10, −2, 4)
10 − 2 −2 + 0 4 + 2
𝑀=( , , )
2 2 2
8 2 6
= (− , − , )
2 2 2
𝑀 = (4, −1, 3)
𝐴𝑀2 = ((4 − 4)2 , (2 − (−1))2 , (3 − 6)2 )
𝐴𝑀 = (0, 3, −3)
𝐴𝑀2 = 02 + (−3)2 + (−3)2

𝐴𝑀 = √18 = 3√2
So:
1
Area = (2√38) × 3√2
2
= √38 × 3√2
= 6√19 units 2
13a For the plane:

3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 12
The intersecting plane on the 𝑥𝑦-plane will occur when 𝑧 = 0.
So 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 12
13b For the plane:

3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 12
The intersecting plane on the 𝑥𝑧-plane will occur when 𝑦 = 0.
So 3𝑥 + 6𝑧 = 12
The intersecting plane on the 𝑦𝑧-plane will occur when 𝑥 = 0.
So 4𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 12
13c A line, as they fit the form: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
13d The intersection of two non-parallel planes will be a line.


1a i 𝑃(2, −3, 5)
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [−3]
𝑂𝑃
5
1a ii 𝑃(2, −3, 5)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 2𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ + 5𝑘̰
1b i 𝑃(−4, 0, 13)
−4
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = [ 0 ]
13
1b ii 𝑃(−4, 0, 13)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = −4𝑖̰ + 13𝑘̰
1c i 𝑃(𝑎, −2𝑎, −3𝑎)

𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [−2𝑎]
𝑂𝑃
−3𝑎
1
= 𝑎 [−2]
−3
1c ii 𝑃(𝑎, −2𝑎, −3𝑎)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑎𝑖̰ − 2𝑎𝑗̰ − 3𝑎𝑘̰
2a 𝑎̰ = 4𝑖̰ − 3𝑘̰
|𝑎̰|2 = 42 + (−3)2
|𝑎̰|2 = 16 + 9
|𝑎̰|2 = 25

|𝑎̰| = 5
1
𝑎̰̂ = 𝑎̰
|𝑎̰|
So
1 4
𝑎̰̂ = [ ]
5 −3
4
𝑎̰̂ = [ 5 ]
3
−
5
2b 𝑎̰ = 𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ − 2𝑘̰
|𝑎̰|2 = 12 + 22 + (−2)2
|𝑎̰|2 = 1 + 4 + 4
|𝑎̰|2 = 9
|𝑎̰| = 3
1
𝑎̰̂ = 𝑎̰
|𝑎̰|
So
1
3
2
𝑎̰̂ =
3
2
−
[ 3]
3a 𝑣̰ = −𝑖̰ − 4𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰
|𝑣̰|2 = (−1)2 + (−4)2 + 12

|𝑣̰|2 = 1 + 16 + 1
|𝑣̰|2 = 18
|𝑣̰| = √18
|𝑣̰| = 3√2

1
𝑣̰̂ = 𝑣̰
|𝑣̰|
So
1 −1
𝑣̰̂ = [−4]
3√2 1
√2 −1
𝑣̰̂ = [−4]
6
1
1 −√2
𝑣̰̂ = [ ]
6 −4√2
√2
3b 𝑣̰ = 5𝑖̰ + 3𝑗̰ − 4𝑘̰
|𝑣̰|2 = 52 + 32 + (−4)2
|𝑣̰|2 = 25 + 9 + 16
|𝑣̰|2 = 50
|𝑣̰| = √50
|𝑣̰| = 5√2
1
𝑣̰̂ = 𝑣̰
|𝑣̰|
So
1 5
𝑣̰̂ = [3]
5√2 −4
√2 5
𝑣̰̂ = [3]
10
−4
1 5√2
𝑣̰̂ = [ ]
10 3√2
−4√2

4
4a 𝑝̰ = [−2]
7
−3
𝑞̰ = [−6]
9
4 −3
2𝑝̰ + 𝑞̰ = 2 [−2] + [−6]
7 9
8 −3
= [−4] + [−6]
14 9
5
= [−10]
23
4
4b 𝑝̰ = [−2]
7
−3
𝑞̰ = [−6]
9
4 −3
|2𝑝̰ + 𝑞̰ | = |2 [−2] + [−6]|
7 9
8 −3
= |[−4] + [−6]|
14 9
5
= |[−10]|
23
= √52 + (−10)2 + 232
= √25 + 100 + 529
= √654

4
4c 𝑝̰ = [−2]
7
−3
𝑞̰ = [−6]
9
4 −3
𝑝̰ − 5𝑞̰ = [−2] − 5 [−6]
7 9
4 15
= [−2] + [ 30 ]
7 −45
19
= [ 28 ]
−38
4
4d 𝑝̰ = [−2]
7
−3
𝑞̰ = [−6]
9
4 −3
|𝑝̰ − 5𝑞̰ | = |[−2] − 5 [−6]|
7 9
4 15
= |[−2] + [ 30 ]|
7 −45
19
= |[ 28 ]|
−38
= √192 + 282 + (−38)2
= √361 + 784 + 1444
= √2589

5a 𝑝̰ = 2𝑖̰ + 7𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰
𝑞̰ = 5𝑖̰ − 5𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑞̰ − 𝑝̰
= (5𝑖̰ − 5𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰ ) − (2𝑖̰ + 7𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰ )
= 3𝑖̰ − 12𝑗̰ + 4𝑘̰
5b 𝑝̰ = 2𝑖̰ + 7𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰
𝑞̰ = 5𝑖̰ − 5𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑝̰ − 𝑞̰
𝑄𝑃
= (2𝑖̰ + 7𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰ ) − (5𝑖̰ − 5𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰ )
= −3𝑖̰ + 12𝑗̰ − 4𝑘̰
5c ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3𝑖̰ − 12𝑗̰ + 4𝑘̰ .

We know from question 5a that 𝑃𝑄
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 32 + (−12)2 + 42
|𝑃𝑄
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 9 + 144 + 16
|𝑃𝑄
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 169
|𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 13
|𝑃𝑄
6
6a ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = [ 0 ]
−3
−2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = [−3]
−1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐴
𝐵𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
6 −2
= [ 0 ] − [−3]
−3 −1

8
=[ 3 ]
−2
6
6b ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = [ 0 ]
−3
−2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = [−3]
−1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐵
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
−2 6
= [−3] − [ 0 ]
−1 −3
−8
= [−3]
2
−8
6c ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [−3].
We know from question 6b that 𝐴𝐵
2
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (−8)2 + (−3)2 + 22
|𝐴𝐵
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 64 + 9 + 4
|𝐴𝐵
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 77
|𝐴𝐵
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √77
|𝐴𝐵


3
7 𝑎̰ = [ 5 ]
−1
−2
𝑏̰ = [−4]
4
14
𝜆1 𝑎̰ + 𝜆2 𝑏̰ = [ 26 ]
−18
3 −2 14
𝜆1 [ 5 ] + 𝜆2 [−4] = [ 26 ]
−1 4 −18
3𝜆1 − 2𝜆2 = 14 (1)
−𝜆1 + 4𝜆2 = −18
𝜆1 = 4𝜆2 + 18 (2)
Substituting (2) back into equation (1) then solving for 𝜆2 we get:
3(4𝜆2 + 18) − 2𝜆2 = 14
12𝜆2 + 54 − 2𝜆2 = 14
Hence
10𝜆2 = −40
𝜆2 = −4
𝜆1 = 4𝜆2 + 18
𝜆1 = −16 + 18 = 2
−1
8 𝑎̰ = [ 2 ]
0
0
𝑏̰ = [−2]
1
4
𝑐̰ = [ 3 ]
−2

−7
𝜆1 𝑎̰ + 𝜆2 𝑏̰ + 𝜆3 𝑐̰ = [−14]
7
−1 0 4 −7
𝜆1 [ 2 ] + 𝜆2 [−2] + 𝜆3 [ 3 ] = [−14]
0 1 −2 7
−𝜆1 + 4𝜆3 = −7
𝜆1 = 7 + 4𝜆3 (1)
2𝜆1 − 2𝜆2 + 3𝜆3 = −14 (2)
𝜆2 − 2𝜆3 = 7
⇒ 𝜆2 = 7 + 2𝜆3 (3)
Substituting (1) and (3) back into equation (2) then solving for 𝜆3 we get:
⇒ 2(7 + 4𝜆3 ) − 2(7 + 2𝜆3 ) + 3𝜆3 = −14
⇒ 14 + 8𝜆3 − 14 − 4𝜆3 + 3𝜆3 = −14
⇒ 7𝜆3 = −14
⇒ 𝜆3 = −2
Solving for 𝜆1
𝜆1 = 7 − 4(−2)
= −1
Solving for 𝜆2
𝜆2 = 7 + 2(−2)
=3
−1
9a 𝐴=[ 4 ]
−3
0
𝐵 = [2]
1
3
𝐶 = [2 ]
5

0
𝐷=[ 8 ]
−7
0 − (−1) 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = [ 2 − 4 ] = [−2]
1 − (−3) 4
0−3 −3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 = [ 8 − 2 ] = [ 6 ]
−7 − 5 −12
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐶𝐷
If 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are parallel, there exists a value whereby 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
1 −3
[−2] = 𝑎 [ 6 ]
4 −12
This holds true if 𝑎 = −3, thus 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are parallel.
−1
9b 𝐴=[ 4 ]
−3
0
𝐵 = [2]
1
3
𝐶 = [2 ]
5
0
𝐷=[ 8 ]
−7
3−0 3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [2 − 2] = [0]
𝐵𝐶
5−1 4
0 − (−1) 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [
𝐴𝐷 8−4 ]=[ 4 ]
−7 − (−3) −4
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐴𝐷
If 𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are parallel, there exists a value whereby 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝐴𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
3 1
[0] = 𝑎 [ 4 ]
4 −4
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐴𝐷
There is no value for 𝑎 to satisfy this equation, thus 𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are not parallel

10 𝐴(−2, −1, 0)
𝐵(0, 5, −2)
𝐶(4, 17, −6)
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = [ 6 ]
−2
4
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐶 = [ 12 ]
−4
For the points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 to be colinear the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ must be parallel.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐵𝐶
If 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are parallel, there exists a value whereby 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
2 4
1
So [ 6 ] = 𝑎 [ 12 ], which is satisfied for 𝑎 = 2.
−2 −4
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝐴𝐵
𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Thus points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are collinear.
11 𝐴(5, 4, 7)
𝐵(7, −1, −4)
𝐶(−1, −3, −5)
𝐷(−3, 2, 6)
In order for 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 to be a parallelogram the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 and 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐷 will be
parallel and the diagonals bisect one another.
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = [ −5 ]
−11
−2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 = [ 5 ]
11
If 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are parallel, there exists a value, 𝑎 whereby 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
2 −2
[ −5 ] = 𝑎 [ 5 ], which is satisfied for 𝑎 = −1.
−11 11
So 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are parallel (and equal in length since 𝑎 = −1).

−8
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [−2]
𝐵𝐶
−1
−8
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [−2]
𝐴𝐷
−1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
If 𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏𝐴𝐷
𝐴𝐷 are parallel, there exists a value 𝑏 whereby 𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
−8 −8
[−2] = 𝑏 [−2], which is satisfied for 𝑏 = 1.
−1 −1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
So 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐷 are parallel (and equal in length as 𝑏 = 1).
We can show that the diagonals bisect one another if the midpoints of 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝐷
are the same.
5−1
2 2
4−3 1
𝑀𝐴𝐶 = =[ ]
2 2
7−5 1
[ 2 ]
7−3
2 2
−1 + 2 1
𝑀𝐵𝐷 = =[ ]
2 2
−4 + 6 1
[ 2 ]
𝑀𝐴𝐶 = 𝑀𝐵𝐷
Since the opposite sides are parallel and the diagonals bisect each other, the
points 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 form a parallelogram.
12 𝐴̂ = 3𝑖̰ − 8𝑗̰ − 2𝑘̰
𝐵̂ = 2𝑖̰ + 4𝑗̰ + 5𝑘̰
𝐶̂ = −2𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰
̂ = 𝐴̂ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝐴𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝐵𝐶
As it is a parallelogram, 𝐴𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are parallel and so, 𝐴𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
̂ = 𝐴̂ + 𝐵𝐶
𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

̂ = 𝐴̂ + (𝐶̂ − 𝐵̂ )
𝐷
̂ = 3𝑖̰ − 8𝑗̰ − 2𝑘̰ + (−2𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰ − (2𝑖̰ + 4𝑗̰ + 5𝑘̰ ))
𝐷
̂ = 3𝑖̰ − 8𝑗̰ − 2𝑘̰ − 4𝑖̰ − 6𝑗̰ − 4𝑘̰

𝐷
̂ = −𝑖̰ − 14𝑗̰ − 6𝑘̰

𝐷
13 𝐴(2, 1, 3)
Find the magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝐴.
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 22 + 12 + 32 = 14
|𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √14
|𝑂𝐴
Let 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐷 be the values of 𝐴 on the 𝑥-, 𝑦- and 𝑧-axis respectively so:
𝐵(2, 0, 0)
𝐶(0, 1, 0)
𝐷(0, 0, 3)
For the angle between 𝐴 and the 𝑥-axis:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2
𝑂𝐵
2
∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 = cos −1 ( ) = 57.69° ≑ 58°
√14
For the angle between 𝐴 and the 𝑦-axis:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 1
𝑂𝐶
1
∠𝐴𝑂𝐶 = cos−1 ( ) = 74.5° ≑ 74°
√14
For the angle between 𝐴 and the 𝑧-axis:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐷 = 3
3
∠𝐴𝑂𝐷 = cos −1 ( ) = 36.7° ≑ 37°
√14

2
14a 𝑎̰ = [−1]
−2
5
𝑏̰ = [ 5 ]
−8
1
𝑝̰ = (ℓ𝑎̰ + 𝑘𝑏̰ )
𝑘+ℓ
𝑘=1
ℓ=2
1 2 5
𝑝̰ = (2 [−1] + [ 5 ])
1+2
−2 −8
1 9
= [ 3 ]
3
−12
3
=[ 1 ]
−4
14b If P divides ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 externally 𝑘 = −1 or ℓ = −2
So using 𝑘 = −1, ℓ = 2:
1
𝑝̰ = (ℓ𝑎̰ + 𝑘𝑏̰ )
𝑘+ℓ
1 2 5
𝑝̰ = (2 [−1] − [ 5 ])
−1 + 2
−2 −8
−1
= [−7]
4
15a 𝑎̰ = −4𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ + 5𝑘̰
𝑏̰ = 6𝑖̰ − 8𝑗̰ + 10𝑘̰
1
𝑝̰ = (ℓ𝑎̰ + 𝑘𝑏̰ )
𝑘+ℓ
𝑘=2

ℓ=3
1
𝑝̰ = (3(−4𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ + 5𝑘̰ ) + 2(6𝑖̰ − 8𝑗̰ + 10𝑘̰ ))
2+3
1
= (−12𝑖̰ − 9𝑗̰ + 15𝑘̰ + 12𝑖̰ − 16𝑗̰ + 20𝑘̰ )
5
1
= (−25𝑗̰ + 35𝑘̰ )
5
= −5𝑗̰ + 7𝑘̰
15b ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ externally, 𝑘 = −2 or ℓ = −3.

If 𝑃 divides 𝐴𝐵
So using 𝑘 = −2, ℓ = 3:
𝑎̰ = −4𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ + 5𝑘̰
𝑏̰ = 6𝑖̰ − 8𝑗̰ + 10𝑘̰
1
𝑝̰ = (ℓ𝑎̰ + 𝑘𝑏̰ )
𝑘+ℓ
1
𝑝̰ = (3(−4𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ + 5𝑘̰ ) − 2(6𝑖̰ − 8𝑗̰ + 10𝑘̰ ))
−2 + 3
= (−12𝑖̰ − 9𝑗̰ + 15𝑘̰ − 12𝑖̰ + 16𝑗̰ − 20𝑘̰ )
= −24𝑖̰ + 7𝑗̰ − 5𝑘̰
16a 𝐴 = (1, 0, 0)
𝐺 = (0, 1, 1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐺 = (0 − 1)𝑖̰ + (1 − 0)𝑗̰ + (1 − 0)𝑘̰
= −𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰
16b ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐺 = −𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (−1)2 + 12 + 1̰ 2
|𝐴𝐺
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √3
|𝐴𝐺

16c ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐺 = 𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰
𝑂𝐵
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑂𝐻 (𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ + 𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰ )
2
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑂𝐻 𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰
2 2
2 1 2 1 2 6
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2
|𝑂𝐻 | = ( ) + 1 + ( ) =
2 2 4
6 √6
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √ =
|𝑂𝐻
4 2
17a We want to show that (𝜆1 + 𝜆2 )𝑎̰ = 𝜆1 𝑎̰ + 𝜆2 𝑎̰ , where 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 𝜖ℝ

𝑎1
𝑎
𝑎̰ = [ 2 ]
𝑎3
LHS = (𝜆1 + 𝜆2 )𝑎̰
𝑎1
= (𝜆1 + 𝜆2 ) [𝑎2 ]
𝑎3
𝑎1 𝑎1
= 𝜆1 [𝑎2 ] + 𝜆2 [𝑎2 ]
𝑎3 𝑎3
= 𝜆1 𝑎̰ + 𝜆2 𝑎̰
= RHS
17b We want to show that 𝜆(𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ ) = 𝜆𝑎̰ + 𝜆𝑏̰ , where 𝜆𝜖ℝ

𝑎1
𝑎̰ = [𝑎2 ]
𝑎3
𝑏1
𝑏̰ = [𝑏2 ]
𝑏3
LHS = 𝜆(𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ )

𝑎1 𝑏1
𝑎
= 𝜆 ([ 2 ] + [𝑏2 ])
𝑎3 𝑏3
𝑎1 𝑏1
𝑎
= 𝜆 [ 2 ] + 𝜆 [𝑏2 ]
𝑎3 𝑏3
𝑎1 𝑏1
= 𝜆 [𝑎2 ] + 𝜆 [𝑏2 ]
𝑎3 𝑏3
= 𝜆𝑎̰ + 𝜆𝑏̰
= RHS


1a 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰||𝑏̰| cos 𝜃
|𝑎̰| = 4
|𝑏̰| = 6
𝜃 = 45°
So
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 4 × 6 × cos 45°
√2
= 24 ×
2
= 12√2
1b 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰||𝑏̰| cos 𝜃
|𝑎̰| = 5
|𝑏̰| = 8
𝜃 = 120°
So
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 5 × 8 × cos 120°
1
= 40 × −
2
= −20
2a 𝑎̰ = 3𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰ + 5𝑘̰
𝑏̰ = 2𝑖̰ + 6𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = (3 × 2) + (−1 × 6) + (5 × 1)
= 6−6+5
=5

𝑥1
2b 𝑎̰ = [𝑦1 ]
𝑧1
𝑥2
𝑏̰ = [𝑦2 ]
𝑧2
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = (𝑥1 × 𝑥2 ) + (𝑦1 × 𝑦2 ) + (𝑧1 × 𝑧2 )
= 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 + 𝑧1 𝑧2
2c 𝑎̰ = 𝑎1 𝑖̰ + 𝑎2 𝑗̰ + 𝑎3 𝑘̰
𝑏̰ = 𝑏1 𝑖̰ + 𝑏2 𝑗̰ + 𝑏3 𝑘̰
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = (𝑎1 × 𝑏1 ) + (𝑎2 × 𝑏2 ) + (𝑎3 × 𝑏3 )

= 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3
3 𝑎̰ = 𝑎1 𝑖̰ + 𝑎2 𝑗̰ + 𝑎3 𝑘̰
|𝑎̰|2 = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎32

For 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ = |𝑎̰|2
LHS = 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑎̰
= 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎32
= |𝑎̰|2
= RHS
Thus 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ = |𝑎̰|2
4a 𝑎̰ = 2𝑖̰ − 7𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰
𝑏̰ = −4𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ + 5𝑘̰
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = (2 × −4) + (−7 × 1) + (3 × 5)
= −8 − 7 + 15
=0

4b As 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 0 this means that the angle between 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ is 90°, as

𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰||𝑏̰| cos 𝜃 and both |𝑎̰| and |𝑏̰| are non-zero.
So we can conclude that 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ are perpendicular.
13
5 𝑎̰ = [23]
7
2
𝑏̰ = [ 1 ]
−7
3
𝑐̰ = [−2]
1
If 𝑎̰ ⊥ 𝑏̰ and 𝑎̰ ⊥ 𝑐̰ , then 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ = 0 and vice versa.
For 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 0
LHS = 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
= (13 × 2) + (23 × 1) + (7 × −7)
= 26 + 23 − 49
=0
= RHS
For 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ = 0
LHS = 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑐̰
= (13 × 3) + (23 × −2) + (7 × 1)
= 39 − 46 + 7
=0
= RHS
Thus 𝑎̰ is perpendicular to both 𝑏̰ and 𝑐̰

−3
6a 𝑎̰ = [ 9 ]
6
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ = (−3 × −3) + (9 × 9) + (6 × 6)
= 9 + 81 + 36
= 126
8
6b 𝑏̰ = [ 4 ]
−10
2𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 2((8 × 8) + (4 × 4) + (−10 × −10))
= 2(64 + 16 + 100)
= 2 × 180
= 360
−3
6c 𝑎̰ = [ 9 ]
6
8
𝑏̰ = [ 4 ]
−10
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = (−3 × 8) + (9 × 4) + (6 × −10)
= −24 + 36 − 60
= −48
−3
6d 𝑎̰ = [ 9 ]
6
8
𝑏̰ = [ 4 ]
−10
−3 −3 8
𝑎̰ ∙ (𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ ) = [ 9 ] ∙ ([ 9 ] + [ 4 ])
6 6 −10

−3 5
= [ 9 ] ∙ [ 13 ]
6 −4
= (−3 × 5) + (9 × 13) + (6 × −4)
= −15 + 117 − 24
= 78


1
7a 𝑎̰ = [2]
2
2
𝑏̰ = [ 6 ]
−3
|𝑎̰|2 = 12 + 22 + 22 = 5
|𝑎̰| = √9 = 3
|𝑏̰|2 = 22 + 62 + (−3)2 = 49
|𝑏̰| = √49 = 7
𝑎̰ ⋅ 𝑏̰ = (1 × 2) + (2 × 6) + (2 × −3)
= 2 + 12 + −6
=8
Substituting the associated values into the inequation:
−21 ≤ 8 ≤ 21
So the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, −|𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| ≤ 𝑎̰ ⋅ 𝑏̰ ≤ |𝑎̰||𝑏̰| is satisfied.
7b 𝑎̰ = −𝑖̰ + 3𝑗̰
𝑏̰ = −6𝑗 + 2𝑘̰
|𝑎̰|2 = 12 + 32 = 10
|𝑎̰| = √10
|𝑏̰|2 = (−6)2 + 22 = 40
|𝑏̰| = √40 = 2√10
|𝑎̰||𝑏̰| = 2√10 × √10 = 20

𝑎̰ ⋅ 𝑏̰ = (−1 × 0) + (−6 × 3) + (0 × 2)
= −18
Substituting the associated values into the inequation:
−20 ≤ −18 ≤ 20
So the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, −|𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| ≤ 𝑎̰ ⋅ 𝑏̰ ≤ |𝑎̰||𝑏̰| is satisfied.

1
8a 𝑎̰ = [2]
2
2
𝑏̰ = [ 6 ]
−3
|𝑎̰|2 = 12 + 22 + 22 = 9
|𝑎̰| = √9 = 3
|𝑏̰|2 = 22 + 62 + (−3)2 = 49
|𝑏̰| = √49 = 7
|𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ |2 = (1 + 2)2 + (2 + 6)2 + (2 − 3)2
= 9 + 64 + 1
= 74
|𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ | = √74
||𝑎̰ | − |𝑏̰|| ≤ |𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ | ≤ |𝑎̰| + |𝑏̰|
Substituting we get:
4 ≤ √74 ≤ 10
So the triangle inequality holds.
8b 𝑎̰ = −𝑖̰ + 3𝑗̰
𝑏̰ = −6𝑗 + 2𝑘̰
|𝑎̰| = √10
|𝑏̰| = 2√10
|𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ |2 = (−1 + 0)2 + (3 − 6)2 + (0 + 2)2
= 1+9+4
= 14
|𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ | = √14
||𝑎̰ | − |𝑏̰|| ≤ |𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ | ≤ |𝑎̰| + |𝑏̰|
Substituting we get:
|√10 − 2√10| ≤ √14 ≤ √10 + 2√10

√10 ≤ √14 ≤ 3√10

So the triangle inequality holds.
2
9 𝑎̰ = [3]
5
4
𝑏̰ = [1]
3
−2
𝑐̰ = [ 9 ]
−5
−3
𝑑̰ = [ 1 ]
2
4−2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [1 − 3] = [−2]
𝐴𝐵
3−5 −2
−3 − (−2) −1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 = [ 1 − 9 ] = [−8]
2 − (−5) 7
2 −1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 = [−2] ⋅ [−8]
−2 7
= −2 + 16 − 14
=0
So as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 = 0, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 are perpendicular.
2
10a 𝑎̰ = [−2]
−5
3
𝑏̰ = [ 𝜆 ]
−2
3 2
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = [ 𝜆 ] ∙ [−2]
−2 −5
= (2 × 3) + (−2 × 𝜆) + (−5 × −2)

= −2𝜆 + 16
If 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ are perpendicular, then 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 0
So
−2𝜆 + 16 = 0
−2𝜆 = −16
𝜆=8
−4
10b 𝑎̰ = [𝜆 + 3]
2
𝜆
𝑏̰ = [ 5 ]
−𝜆2
−4 𝜆
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = [𝜆 + 3] ∙ [ 5 ]
2 −𝜆2
= (−4 × 𝜆) + ((𝜆 + 3) × 5) + (2 × −𝜆2 )
= −2𝜆2 + 𝜆 + 15
If 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ are perpendicular, then 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 0
So
−2𝜆2 + 𝜆 + 15 = 0
2𝜆2 − 𝜆 − 15 = 0
(2𝜆 + 5)(𝜆 − 3) = 0
5
𝜆= − or 𝜆 = 3
2
11 Let 𝑎̰ = 𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰ + 2𝑘̰ and 𝑏̰ = 2𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ − 3𝑘̰
For a vector 𝑐̰ which is perpendicular to 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ ,

𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ = 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ = 0
𝑐̰ = 𝜆1 𝑖̰ + 𝜆2 𝑗̰ + 𝜆3 𝑘̰
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ = 2𝜆1 + 𝜆2 − 3𝜆3
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ = 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 + 2𝜆3

Rearranging 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ and 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ for 𝜆1 :

𝜆1 − 𝜆2 + 2𝜆3 = 0
𝜆1 = 𝜆2 − 2𝜆3
2𝜆1 + 𝜆2 − 3𝜆3 = 0
2𝜆1 = 3𝜆3 − 𝜆2
Equating 𝜆1 :
2(𝜆2 − 2𝜆3 ) = 3𝜆3 − 𝜆2
3𝜆2 = 7𝜆3 = 𝜆1
So a value for 𝑐̰ will be a linear combination of of 𝜆1 (𝑖̰ + 7𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰ ) where 𝜆1 ∈ 𝑅
One such vector is 𝑖̰ + 7𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰ .
𝑎1
12 𝑎
𝑎̰ = [ 2 ]
𝑎3
𝑏1
𝑏̰ = [𝑏2 ]
𝑏3
For 𝑎̰ ∙ (𝜆𝑏̰) = 𝜆(𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ )
LHS = 𝑎̰ ∙ (𝜆𝑏̰ )
𝑎1 𝑏1
= [𝑎2 ] ∙ (𝜆 [𝑏2 ])
𝑎3 𝑏3
= 𝜆𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝜆𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝜆𝑎3 𝑏3
= 𝜆(𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3 )
= 𝜆(𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ )
= RHS
So the equation is satisfied.
13 𝑎̰ = 𝑎1 𝑖̰ + 𝑎2 𝑗̰ + 𝑎3 𝑘̰
𝑏̰ = 𝑏1 𝑖̰ + 𝑏2 𝑗̰ + 𝑏3 𝑘̰
𝑐̰ = 𝑐1 𝑖̰ + 𝑐2 𝑗̰ + 𝑐3 𝑘̰

𝑎̰ ∙ (𝑏̰ + 𝑐̰ ) = 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑐̰
LHS = 𝑎̰ ∙ (𝑏̰ + 𝑐̰ )
= (𝑎1 𝑖̰ + 𝑎2 𝑗̰ + 𝑎3 𝑘̰ ) ∙ ((𝑏1 + 𝑐1 )𝑖̰ + (𝑏2 + 𝑐2 )𝑗̰ + (𝑏3 + 𝑐3 )𝑘̰ )
= (𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎1 𝑐1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎2 𝑐2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3 + 𝑎3 𝑐3 )
= (𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3 ) + (𝑎1 𝑐1 + 𝑎2 𝑐2 + 𝑎3 𝑐3 )
= 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑐̰
= RHS
14a A vector is a unit vector if its magnitude is equal to 1
1 1
𝑢̰ = [1]
√2 0
1
|𝑢̰|2 = (1 + 1) = 1
2
|𝑢̰| = 1
So 𝑢̰ is a unit vector.
1 −1
𝑣̰ = [1]
√2 0
1
|𝑣̰|2 = (1 + 1) = 1
2
|𝑣̰| = 1
So 𝑣̰ is a unit vector.
0
𝑤̰ = [0]
1
|𝑤̰ |2 = 1
|𝑤̰ | = 1
So 𝑤̰ is a unit vector.
1
𝑢̰ ∙ 𝑤̰ = (0 + 0 + 0) = 0
√2
1
𝑢̰ ∙ 𝑣̰ = 2 (−1 + 1 + 0) = 0

1
𝑣̰ ∙ 𝑤̰ = (0 + 0 + 0) = 0
√2
So 𝑢̰ , 𝑣̰ and 𝑤̰ are perpendicular to each other.

Thus 𝑢̰ , 𝑣̰ and 𝑤̰ are orthonormal.
14b A vector is a unit vector if its magnitude is equal to 1.
1 1
𝑢̰ = [0]
√2 1
1
|𝑢̰|2 = (1 + 1) = 1
2
|𝑢̰| = 1
So 𝑢̰ is a unit vector.
1 1
𝑣̰ = [ √6 ]
2√2 −1
1
|𝑣̰|2 = (1 + 6 + 1) = 1
8
|𝑣̰| = 1
So 𝑣̰ is a unit vector.
1 −√3
𝑤̰ = [ √2 ]
2√2
√3
1
|𝑤̰ |2 = (3 + 2 + 3) = 1
8
|𝑤̰ | = 1
So 𝑤̰ is a unit vector.
1
𝑢̰ ∙ 𝑤̰ = 4 (−√3 + 0 + √3) = 0
1
𝑢̰ ∙ 𝑣̰ = 4 (1 + 0 − 1) = 0
1 1
𝑣̰ ∙ 𝑤̰ = 8 (−√3 + √2√6 − √3) = 8 (−√3 + 2√3 − √3) = 0
So 𝑢̰ , 𝑣̰ and 𝑤̰ are perpendicular to each other.

Thus 𝑢̰ , 𝑣̰ and 𝑤̰ are orthonormal.

15a 𝑎̰ ∙ (𝑏̰ + 𝑐̰ ) = 𝑏̰ ∙ (𝑎̰ − 𝑐̰ )

Using the distributive law:
𝑎̰ ∙ (𝑏̰ + 𝑐̰ ) = 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑐̰
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ = 𝑏̰ ∙ (𝑎̰ − 𝑐̰ )
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ = 𝑏̰ ∙ (𝑎̰ − 𝑐̰ ) − 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
For 𝑐̰ ∙ (𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ ) = 0
LHS = 𝑐̰ ∙ (𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ )
= 𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ + 𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
= 𝑏̰ ∙ (𝑎̰ − 𝑐̰ ) − 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
= 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ − 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ − 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
=0
= RHS
15b (𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ )𝑐̰ = (𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ )𝑎̰

(𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ )𝑐̰ = (𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ )𝑎̰
If 𝑎̰ is parallel to 𝑐̰ :
𝑎̰ = 𝜆𝑐̰ , where 𝜆𝜖ℝ
LHS = (𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ )𝑐̰
= (𝜆𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ )𝑐̰
= (𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ )𝜆𝑐̰
= (𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ )𝑎̰
= RHS
If 𝑏̰ is perpendicular to 𝑎 and 𝑐̰ :
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ = 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 0
LHS = (𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ )𝑐̰
= (𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ )𝑐̰
= RHS

𝑎1
16a 𝑎̰ = [𝑎2 ]
𝑎3
𝑏1
𝑏̰ = [𝑏2 ]
𝑏3
If 𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ and 𝑎̰ − 𝑏̰ are perpendicular then:
(𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ ) ∙ (𝑎̰ − 𝑏̰ ) = 0
𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑎1 − 𝑏1
([𝑎2 + 𝑏2 ]) ∙ ([𝑎2 − 𝑏2 ]) = 0
𝑎3 + 𝑏3 𝑎3 − 𝑏3
(𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )(𝑎1 − 𝑏1 ) + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )(𝑎2 − 𝑏2 ) + (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )(𝑎3 − 𝑏3 ) = 0
(𝑎12 − 𝑏12 ) + (𝑎22 − 𝑏22 ) + (𝑎32 − 𝑏32 ) = 0
𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎32 = 𝑏12 + 𝑏22 + 𝑏32

|𝑎̰|2 = |𝑏̰|2
Hence |𝑎̰| = |𝑏̰|.
𝑎1
16b 𝑎
𝑎̰ = [ 2 ]
𝑎3
𝑏1
𝑏̰ = [𝑏2 ]
𝑏3
|(𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ )| = |(𝑎̰ − 𝑏̰ )|
𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑎1 − 𝑏1
|[𝑎2 + 𝑏2 ]| = |[𝑎2 − 𝑏2 ]|
𝑎3 + 𝑏3 𝑎3 − 𝑏3
√(𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )2 + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )2 + (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )2 =

= √(𝑎1 − 𝑏1 )2 + (𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )2 + (𝑎3 − 𝑏3 )2
Raising both sides to the power of 2 gives:
(𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )2 + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )2 + (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )2 = (𝑎1 − 𝑏1 )2 + (𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )2 + (𝑎3 − 𝑏3 )2
𝑎12 + 2𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑏12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑏22 + 𝑎32 + 2𝑎3 𝑏3 + 𝑏32

= 𝑎12 − 2𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑏12 + 𝑎22 − 2𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑏22 + 𝑎32 − 2𝑎3 𝑏3 + 𝑏32

4𝑎1 𝑏1 + 4𝑎2 𝑏2 + 4𝑎3 𝑏3 = 0
𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3 = 0
For 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ to be perpendicular 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 0
LHS = 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
= 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3
=0
= RHS
𝑎1
17 𝑎̰ = [𝑎2 ]
𝑎3
𝑏1
𝑏̰ = [𝑏2 ]
𝑏3
𝑏1
𝑏
𝑏̰ = [ 2 ]
𝑏3
Given:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝑂𝐶
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ => 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⊥ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 => 𝐵𝐶 𝑂𝐴 = 0
(𝑏 − 𝑎). 𝑐 = 0 and (𝑐 − 𝑏). 𝑎 = 0
𝑏𝑐 = 𝑐𝑎 and 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑐𝑎
𝑏𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏 (1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑂𝐵
𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑐 − 𝑎). 𝑏
= 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑏𝑎
= 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑏𝑐 from (1)
=0
Hence, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

𝐴𝐶 ⊥ 𝑂𝐵

18 |𝑎̰ | = 2
|𝑏̰ | = 3
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 5
|𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ |2 = |𝑎̰|2 + |𝑏̰|2 + 2𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
|𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ | = √|𝑎̰ |2 + |𝑏̰|2 + 2𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
= √22 + 32 + 2 × 5
= √23
19 |𝑢̰ | = 2√2
|𝑣̰ | = 2√3
𝑢̰ ∙ 𝑣̰ = −4
|𝑢̰ − 𝑣̰ |2 = |𝑢̰|2 + |𝑣̰|2 − 2𝑢̰ ∙ 𝑣̰
|𝑢̰ − 𝑣̰ | = √|𝑢̰ |2 + |𝑣̰|2 − 2𝑢̰ ∙ 𝑣̰
2 2
= √(2√2) + (2√3) − (2 × −4)
= √8 + 12 + 8
= √28
= 2√7
20 ||𝑎̰ | − |𝑏̰ || ≤ |𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ | ≤ |𝑎̰| + |𝑏̰|
Squaring the middle term gives:

|𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ |2 = (𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ ) ∙ (𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ )
|𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ |2 = |𝑎̰|2 + 2|𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| + |𝑏̰|2
Rearranging for −2|𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| gives:
−2|𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| = −|𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ |2 + |𝑎̰|2 + |𝑏̰|2
We know from the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality that:
−|𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| ≤ 𝑎̰ ⋅ 𝑏̰ ≤ |𝑎̰||𝑏̰|
So

−2|𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| = −|𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ |2 + |𝑎̰|2 + |𝑏̰|2

−|𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ |2 + |𝑎̰|2 + |𝑏̰|2 ≤ 2|𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰|
|𝑎̰|2 − 2|𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰| + |𝑏̰|2 ≤ |𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ |2
(|𝑎̰ | − |𝑏̰ |)2 ≤ |𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ |2
Hence
||𝑎̰ | − |𝑏̰|| ≤ |𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ |


1
1a 𝑎̰ = [2]
1
2
𝑏̰ = [ 1 ]
−1
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = (1 × 2) + (2 × 1) + (1 × −1)
= 2+2−1
=3
1
1b 𝑎̰ = [2]
1
2
𝑏̰ = [ 1 ]
−1
|𝑎̰|2 = 12 + 22 + 12
=6
|𝑎̰| = √6
|𝑏̰|2 = 22 + 12 + (−1)2
=6
|𝑏̰| = √6
1c 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰||𝑏̰| cos 𝜃
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 3
|𝑎̰| = √6
|𝑏̰| = √6
So
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰||𝑏̰| cos 𝜃
3 = √6 × √6 × cos 𝜃

1
𝜃 = cos −1
2
𝜃 = 60°
𝜋
𝜃=
3
2
2a 𝑎̰ = [0]
0
|𝑎̰|2 = 22 + 02 + 02
|𝑎̰|2 = 4
|𝑎̰| = 2
2
𝑏̰ = [ 1 ]
−2
|𝑏̰|2 = 22 + 12 + (−2)2
|𝑏̰|2 = 9
|𝑏̰| = 3
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = (2 × 2) + (0 × 1) + (0 × −2)
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 4
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰||𝑏̰| cos 𝜃
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
cos 𝜃 =
|𝑎̰||𝑏̰|
4
=
2×3
2
=
3
1
2b 𝑎̰ = [−1]
−1
|𝑎̰|2 = 12 + (−1)2 + (−1)2
|𝑎̰|2 = 3
|𝑎̰| = √3

2
𝑏̰ = [ 1 ]
−1
|𝑏̰|2 = 22 + 12 + (−1)2
|𝑏̰|2 = 6
|𝑏̰| = √6
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = (1 × 2) + (−1 × 1) + (−1 × −1)
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 2 − 1 + 1
=2
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰||𝑏̰| cos 𝜃
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
cos 𝜃 =
|𝑎̰||𝑏̰|
2
=
√3 × √6
2
=
√18
2
=
3√2
√2
=
3
3
3 𝑎̰ = [−2]
−3
|𝑎̰|2 = 32 + (−2)2 + (−3)2
|𝑎̰|2 = 9 + 4 + 9
|𝑎̰|2 = 22
|𝑎̰| = √22
−1
𝑏̰ = [ 3 ]
−4
|𝑏̰|2 = (−1)2 + 32 + (−4)2
|𝑏̰|2 = 1 + 9 + 16
|𝑏̰|2 = 26

|𝑏̰| = √26
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = (3 × −1) + (−2 × 3) + (−3 × −4)
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = −3 − 6 + 12
=3
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰||𝑏̰| cos 𝜃
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
cos 𝜃 =
|𝑎̰||𝑏̰|
So for
3
cos 𝜃 =
2√143
LHS = cos 𝜃
3
=
√22 × √26
3
=
2√143
= RHS
3
4a 𝑣1̰ = [2]
1
2
|𝑣1̰ | = 32 + 22 + 12
2
|𝑣1̰ | = 14
|𝑣1̰ | = √14
1
𝑣2̰ = [2]
3
2
|𝑣2̰ | = 12 + 22 + 32
2
|𝑣2̰ | = 14
|𝑣2̰ | = √14
𝑣1̰ ∙ 𝑣2̰ = (3 × 1) + (2 × 2) + (1 × 3)
𝑣1̰ ∙ 𝑣2̰ = 3 + 4 + 3

= 10
𝑣1̰ ∙ 𝑣2̰ = |𝑣1̰ ||𝑣2̰ | cos 𝜃

𝑣1̰ ∙ 𝑣2̰
cos 𝜃 =
|𝑣1̰ ||𝑣2̰ |
10
cos 𝜃 =
√14 × √14
5
cos 𝜃 =
7
5
𝜃 = cos −1
7
𝜃 = 44.42 … °
𝜃 ≑ 44°
5
4b 𝑣1̰ = [ 3 ]
−1
2
|𝑣1̰ | = 52 + 32 + (−1)2
2
|𝑣1̰ | = 25 + 9 + 1
2
|𝑣1̰ | = 35
|𝑣1̰ | = √35
−2
𝑣2̰ = [ 2 ]
−6
2
|𝑣2̰ | = (−2)2 + 22 + (−6)2
2
|𝑣2̰ | = 4 + 4 + 36
|𝑣2̰ | = √44
𝑣1̰ ∙ 𝑣2̰ = (5 × −2) + (3 × 2) + (−1 × −6)
𝑣1̰ ∙ 𝑣2̰ = −10 + 6 + 6
=2
𝑣1̰ ∙ 𝑣2̰ = |𝑣1̰ ||𝑣2̰ | cos 𝜃

𝑣1̰ ∙ 𝑣2̰
cos 𝜃 =
|𝑣1̰ ||𝑣2̰ |
2
cos 𝜃 =
√35 × √44
1
cos 𝜃 =
√35 × √11
1
𝜃 = cos −1
√385
𝜃 = 87.08 … °
𝜃 ≑ 87°
3
5 𝑎̰ = [−2]
5
1
𝑖̰̂ = [0]
0
0
𝑗̰̂ = [1]
0
0
̂
𝑘̰ = [0]
1
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑖̰̂
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑖̰̂ 𝑎̰ = ( ) 𝑖̰̂
𝑖̰̂ ∙ 𝑖̰̂
So for 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑖̰̂ 𝑎̰ = 3𝑖̰
LHS = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑖̰̂ 𝑎̰
3 1
[−2] ∙ [0]
1
= 5 0 [0]
1 1
[0] ∙ [0] 0
( 0 0 )
= 3𝑖̰
= RHS

𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑗̰̂
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑗̰ 𝑎̰ = ( ) 𝑗̂
𝑗̰̂ ∙ 𝑗̰̂ ̰
So for 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑗̰̂ 𝑎̰ = −2𝑗̰
LHS = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑗̰̂ 𝑎̰
3 0
[−2] ∙ [1]
0
= 5 0 [1]
0 0
[1] ∙ [1] 0
( 0 0 )
= −2𝑗̰
= RHS
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑘̰̂
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑘̰ 𝑎̰ = ( ) 𝑘̰̂
𝑘̰̂ ∙ 𝑘̰̂
So for 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑘̰̂ 𝑎̰ = 5𝑘̰
LHS = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑘̰̂ 𝑎̰
3 0
[−2] ∙ [0]
0
= 5 1 [0]
0 0
[0] ∙ [0] 1
( 1 1 )
= 5𝑘̰
= RHS


6a 𝑎̰ = 𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰
𝑏̰ = 2𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑎̰
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑎̰
= 𝑏̰
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
2−2+1
= 𝑏̰
4+4+1
1
= 𝑏̰
9
2 2 1
= 𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰
9 9 9
3
6b 𝑎 = [2 ]
2
4
𝑏̰ = [ 1 ]
−1
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑎̰
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑎̰
= 𝑏̰
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
12 + 2 − 2
= 𝑏̰
16 + 1 + 1
2
= 𝑏̰
3
8
3
2
= 𝑘̰
3
2
−
[ 3]

7a 𝑎 = 2𝑖̰ + 3𝑗̰ − 2𝑘̰
𝑏̰ = 4𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰ + 5𝑘̰
|𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑎̰ | = |𝑎̰| cos 𝜃

𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
cos 𝜃 =
|𝑎̰||𝑏̰|
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
|𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑎̰ | =
|𝑏̰|
|𝑏̰|2 = 16 + 4 + 25 = 45
|𝑏̰| = √45
= 3√5
So
8 − 6 − 10
3√5
8
=−
3√5
8
So the length of projection is .
3√5
1
7b 𝑎 = [1 ]
3
8
𝑏̰ = [4]
1
|𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑎̰ | = |𝑎̰| cos 𝜃
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
cos 𝜃 =
|𝑎̰||𝑏̰|
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
|𝑏̰|
|𝑏̰|2 = 64 + 16 + 1 = 81
|𝑏̰| = √81
=9

So
8+4+3
9
15
=
9
5
=
3
8a 𝐴 = (2, 7, −12)
𝐵 = (−1, 5, −5)
𝐶 = (4, 1, −4)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2 − (−1))𝑖̰ + (7 − 5)𝑗̰ + (−12 − (−5))𝑘̰
𝐵𝐴
= 3𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ − 7𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (4 − (−1))𝑖̰ + (1 − 5)𝑗̰ + (−4 − (−5))𝑘̰

𝐵𝐶
= 5𝑖̰ − 4𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰
8b ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴 = 3𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ − 7𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 5𝑖̰ − 4𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰

𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴 ∙ 𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = cos −1 ( )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝐵𝐶
|𝐵𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐵𝐶
𝐵𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
So:
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = cos −1 0
= 90°
8c ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐴
= 2𝑖̰ − 6𝑗̰ + 8𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √9 + 4 + 49
|𝐵𝐴
= √62

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √25 + 16 + 1
|𝐵𝐶
= √42
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √4 + 36 + 64
|𝐴𝐶
= √104
= 2√26
2 2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | + |𝐵𝐶
Pythagoras’ theorem: |𝐵𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | + |𝐵𝐶
LHS = |𝐵𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
2 2
= (√62) + (√42)
= 62 + 42
= 104
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
= |𝐴𝐶
= RHS
9a 𝐴 = (3, −3, 1)
𝐵 = (−2, 1, 2)
𝐶 = (4, 0, −1)
−2 − 3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = [1 − (−3)]
2−1
−5
=[ 4 ]
1
4−3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 = [0 − (−3)]
−1 − 1
1
=[ 3 ]
−2

−5
9b ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [ 4 ]
𝐵𝐴
1
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [ 3 ]
𝐵𝐶
−2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴 ∙ 𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = cos −1 ( )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝐵𝐶
|𝐵𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
So:
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶
−5 + 12 − 2
= cos −1 ( )
√25 + 16 + 1 × √1 + 9 + 4
5
= cos −1 ( )
√42 × √14
5
= cos −1 ( )
14√3
= 78.100 … °
≑ 78°
10 𝑃 = (−4, −1, 6)
𝑄 = (−5, 3, 4)
𝑅 = (−3, 4, −7)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑖̰ − 4𝑗̰ + 2𝑘̰
𝑄𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ − 11𝑘̰

𝑄𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑄𝑅
𝑄𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |𝑄𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑄𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | cos 𝜃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄𝑃 ∙ 𝑄𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∠𝑃𝑄𝑅 = cos −1 ( )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑄𝑅
|𝑄𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑄𝑅
𝑄𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2 − 4 − 22
= −24
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 12 + (−4)2 + (2)2
|𝑄𝑃
= 21

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √21
|𝑄𝑃
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 22 + 12 + (−11)2
|𝑄𝑅
= 126
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √126
|𝑄𝑅
= 3√14
So
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑄𝑅
𝑄𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∠𝑃𝑄𝑅 = cos −1 ( )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑄𝑅
|𝑄𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
−24
= cos −1 ( )
√21 × 3√14
−24
= cos −1 ( )
21√6
−8
= cos−1 ( )
7√6
= 117.811 … °
≑ 117°49′
11a 𝐴 = (1, 0, −1)

𝐵 = (1, 1, 1)
𝐶 = (0, 1, −1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑖̰ + 2𝑘̰
𝐶𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰
𝐶𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐶𝐴
𝐶𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 1 + 0 + 0 = 1
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 12 + 02 + 22 = 5
|𝐶𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √5
|𝐶𝐵
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 12 + (−1)2 + 02 = 2
|𝐶𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √2
|𝐶𝐴

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐵 𝐶𝐴
cos ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝐶𝐴
|𝐶𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
1
=
√5 × √2
1
=
√10
11b
1
Area = 𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶
2
For Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶,
1
Area = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝐶𝐵
|𝐶𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | cos ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵
2
1
Since cos ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √5 and |𝐶𝐴
, |𝐶𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √2
√10
1 1
Area = × √2 × √5 ×
2 √10
1
= square unit
2
12a 𝑃 = (−4, 3, −1)

𝐴 = (3, 2, 1)
𝐵 = (0, −4, 1)
−4 − 3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [ 3 − 2 ]
𝐴𝑃
−1 − 1
−7
=[ 1 ]
−2
0−3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = [−4 − 2]
1−1
−3
= [−6]
0

12b ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑝̰
−7
=[ 1 ]
−2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑏̰
−3
= [−6]
0
𝑏̰ ⋅ 𝑝̰
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑝̰ = 𝑏̰
𝑏̰ ⋅ 𝑏̰
(−3 × −7) + (−6 × 1) + (0 × −2) −3

= × [−6]
(−3 × −3) + (−6 × −6) + (0 × 0)
0
21 − 6 −3
= × [−6]
9 + 36
0
15 −3
= × [−6]
45
0
1 −3
= × [−6]
3
0
−1
= [−2]
0
12c 𝑑 = |𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑝̰ − 𝑝̰|

−1
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑝̰ = [−2]
0
−7
𝑝̰ = [ 1 ]
−2
−1 −7
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑝̰ − 𝑝̰ = [−2] − [ 1 ]
0 −2
6
= [−3]
2

𝑑 2 = 62 + (−3)2 + 22
= 36 + 9 + 4
= 49
𝑑 = 7 units
13a 𝑃 = (3, −2, 1)

𝐴 = (1, −11, −4)
𝐵 = (9, 3, 8)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑝̰
𝐴𝑃
3−1
= [−2 − (−11)]
1 − (−4)
2
= [9]
5
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑏̰
9−1
= [3 − (−11)]
8 − (−4)
8
= [14]
12
𝑏̰ ⋅ 𝑝̰
𝑏̰ ⋅ 𝑏̰
(8 × 2) + (14 × 9) + (12 × 5) 8
= × [14]
(8 × 8) + (14 × 14) + (12 × 12)
12
16 + 126 + 60 8
= × [14]
64 + 196 + 144
12
202 4
= × 2 [7]
404
6
4
= [7]
6

𝑑 = |𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑝̰ − 𝑝̰|
4 2
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑝̰ − 𝑝̰ = [7] − [9]
6 5
2
= [−2]
1
𝑑 2 = (22 + (−1)2 + 12 )
=9
𝑑 = 3 units
13b 𝑃 = (0, 0, 3)
𝐴 = (1, 2, 1)
𝐵 = (4, 0, 0)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑝̰
0−1
= [0 − 2]
3−1
−1
= [−2]
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏̰
𝐴𝐵
4−1
= [0 − 2]
0−1
3
= [−2]
−1
𝑏̰ ⋅ 𝑝̰
𝑏̰ ⋅ 𝑏̰
(3 × −1) + (−2 × −2) + (−1 × 2) 3

= × [−2]
(3 × 3) + (−2 × −2) + (−1 × −1)
−1
−3 + 4 − 2 3
= × [−2]
9+4+1
−1

1 3
=− × [−2]
14
−1
1 3 −1
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑝̰ − 𝑝̰ = − × [−2] − [−2]
14
−1 2
1 11
= [ 30 ]
14
−27
1 2
𝑑 = ( ) (112 + 302 + (−27)2 )
2
14
1
= (121 + 900 + 729)
196
1750
=
196
125
=
14
125
𝑑=√
14
5√70
= units
14
14 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐺 = (0 − 𝑎)𝑖̰ + (𝑎 − 0)𝑗̰ + (𝑎 − 0)𝑘̰
= −𝑎𝑖̰ + 𝑎𝑗̰ + 𝑎𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐸 = (𝑎 − 0)𝑖̰ + (0 − 𝑎)𝑗̰ + (𝑎 − 0)𝑘̰
= 𝑎𝑖̰ − 𝑎𝑗̰ + 𝑎𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
To find the acute angle we use 𝐸𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝐶 = −𝐶𝐸
= −𝑎𝑖̰ + 𝑎𝑗̰ − 𝑎𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐸𝐶
𝐴𝐺 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 − 𝑎2
= 𝑎2

2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝑎2 + (−𝑎)2 + 𝑎2
|𝐴𝐺
= 3𝑎2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √3𝑎2
|𝐴𝐺
= √3𝑎
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (−𝑎)2 + 𝑎2 + (−𝑎)2
|𝐸𝐶
= 3𝑎2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √3𝑎2
|𝐸𝐶
= √3𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐺 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝐶
cos 𝜃 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝐸𝐶
|𝐴𝐺 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
𝑎2
=
√3𝑎 × √3𝑎
𝑎2
=
3𝑎2
1
So 𝜃 = arccos ( )
3
15 𝑂 = (0, 0, 0)
𝐵 = (1, 2, 0)
𝐷 = (0, 0, 3)
𝐹 = (1, 2, 3)
For ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ,

𝑂𝐹 and 𝐵𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (1 − 0)𝑖̰ + (2 − 0)𝑗̰ + (3 − 0)𝑘̰
𝑂𝐹
= 𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐷 = (0 − 1)𝑖̰ + (0 − 2)𝑗̰ + (3 − 0)𝑘̰
= −𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐵𝐷
𝑂𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −1 − 4 + 9
=4

2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 12 + 22 + 32
|𝑂𝐹
= 14
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √14
|𝑂𝐹
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (−1)2 + (−2)2 + 32
|𝐵𝐷
= 14
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √14
|𝐵𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐵𝐷
𝑂𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
cos 𝜃 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝐵𝐷
|𝑂𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
4
=
√14 × √14
2
=
7
For ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐹 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐸 ,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐹 = (1 − 0)𝑖̰ + (2 − 0)𝑗̰ + (3 − 0)𝑘̰
= 𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (1 − 0)𝑖̰ + (0 − 2)𝑗̰ + (3 − 0)𝑘̰

𝐶𝐸
= 𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐹 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐸 = 1 − 4 + 9
=6
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 12 + 22 + 32
|𝑂𝐹
= 14
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √14
|𝑂𝐹
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (1)2 + (−2)2 + 32
|𝐶𝐸
= 14
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √14
|𝐶𝐸
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐶𝐸
𝑂𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
cos 𝜃 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝐶𝐸
|𝑂𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |

6
=
√14 × √14
3
=
7
For ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐹 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐺 ,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐹 = 𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐺 = (0 − 1)𝑖̰ + (2 − 0)𝑗̰ + (3 − 0)𝑘̰
= −𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐴𝐺
𝑂𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −1 + 4 + 9
= 12
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √14
|𝑂𝐹
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (−1)2 + 22 + 32
|𝐴𝐺
= 14
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √14
|𝐴𝐺
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐸 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷
cos 𝜃 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝐴𝐷
|𝑂𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
8
=
√14 × √14
6
=
7
16 Say
𝑎 = |𝐴𝐷|
= |𝐷𝐶|
= |𝐵𝐷|
𝐴 = (0, 0, 𝑎)
𝐵 = (0, 𝑎, 0)
𝐶 = (𝑎, 0, 0)
𝐷 = (0, 0, 0)

𝑀 is the midpoint between 𝐵 and 𝐶.

0+𝑎 𝑎+0 0+0
𝑀=( , , )
2 2 2
𝑎 𝑎
= ( , , 0)
2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑀𝐴
So we want to find the angle made by 𝑀𝐷
𝑎 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (0 − ) 𝑖̰ + (2 − ) 𝑗̰ + (0 − 0)𝑘̰
𝑀𝐷
2 2
𝑎 𝑎
= − 𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰
2 2
𝑎 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (0, 0, 𝑎) − ( , , 0)
𝑀𝐴
2 2
𝑎 𝑎
= − 𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰ + 𝑎𝑘̰
2 2
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐴 = (− × − ) + (− × − ) + (𝑎 × 0)
2 2 2 2
2𝑎2
=
4
𝑎2
=
2
2 𝑎 2 𝑎 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (− ) + (− )
|𝑀𝐷
2 2
𝑎2 𝑎2
= +
4 4
𝑎2
=
2
𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | =
|𝑀𝐷
√2
2 𝑎 2 𝑎 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (− ) + (− ) + 𝑎2
|𝑀𝐴
2 2
3𝑎2
=
2
3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √ 𝑎
|𝑀𝐴
2

𝑀𝐷 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑀𝐴
cos ∠𝐴𝑀𝐷 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑀𝐴
|𝑀𝐷
𝑎2
(2)
=
𝑎 3
× √2 𝑎
√2
√2 2
= ×√
2 3
1
=
√3
1
∠𝐴𝑀𝐷 = cos−1
√3
17a ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = −5𝑖̰ + 22𝑗̰ + 5𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰

𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 4𝑖̰ + 3𝑗̰ + 2𝑘̰

𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐷 = −𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ − 3𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴 = (−5 − 1)𝑖̰ + (22 − 2)𝑗̰ + (5 − 3)𝑘̰
= −6𝑖̰ + 20𝑗̰ + 2𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−1 − 1)𝑖̰ + (2 − 2)𝑗̰ + (−3 − 3)𝑘̰

𝐵𝐷
= −2𝑖̰ − 6𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐷 = (−6 × −2) + (20 × 0) + (2 × −6)
= 12 + 0 − 12
=0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐷
cos ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝐵𝐴
|𝐵𝐷
So
∠𝐶𝐵𝐷 = cos−1 0
∠𝐶𝐵𝐷 = 90°

17b ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = −5𝑖̰ + 22𝑗̰ + 5𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰

𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 4𝑖̰ + 3𝑗̰ + 2𝑘̰

𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐷 = −𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ − 3𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = (1 − (−5))𝑖̰ + (2 − 22)𝑗̰ + (3 − 5)𝑘̰
= 6𝑖̰ − 20𝑗̰ − 2𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (4 − 1)𝑖̰ + (3 − 2)𝑗̰ + (2 − 3)𝑘̰

𝐵𝐶
= 3𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐷 = (−1 − 1)𝑖̰ + (2 − 2)𝑗̰ + (−3 − 3)𝑘̰
= −2𝑖̰ − 6𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ to be perpendicular to 𝐵𝐶
For 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐵𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 ∙ 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐵 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐷 = 0.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (6 × 3) + (−20 × 1) + (−2 × −1)
𝐴𝐵 ∙ 𝐵𝐶
= 18 − 20 + 2
=0
So ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are perpendicular.

𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐵𝐷
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (6 × −2) + (−20 × 0) + (−2 × −6)
= −12 + 0 + 12
=0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐵𝐷
So 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are perpendicular.
17c The volume of a tetrahedron is:

1
𝑉= ×𝑋×𝑍
3
𝑋 = Area of the base of the pyramid
𝑍 = Height of the pyramid
We know that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐷 are perpendicular.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |, |𝐵𝐷
So the lengths |𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | form a right-angled triangle.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | and |𝐷𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 6𝑖̰ − 20𝑗̰ − 2𝑘̰
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 62 + (−20)2 + (−2)2
|𝐴𝐵
= 36 + 400 + 4
= 440
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √440
|𝐴𝐵
= 2√110
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −2𝑖̰ − 6𝑘̰
𝐵𝐷
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (−2)2 + (−6)2
|𝐵𝐷
= 40
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √40
|𝐵𝐷
= 2√10
So the area of the base will be
1
𝑋= × 2√110 × 2√10
2
= 20√11 square units
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , the height 𝑍 will be
Since ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷 = 90°, and Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷 is perpendicular to 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |.
|𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰

𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 4𝑖̰ + 3𝑗̰ + 2𝑘̰

𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰
So 𝐵𝐶
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 32 + 12 + (−1)2
|𝐵𝐶
= 9+1+1
= 11
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝑍 = √11
|𝐵𝐶
So the volume of the tetrahedron is

1
𝑉= ×𝑋×𝑍
3
1
𝑉= × 20√11 × √11
3
20
𝑉= × 11
3
220
𝑉= cubic units
3
18a ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = 2𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ − 2𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 6𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ + 2𝑘̰

𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 4𝑖̰ − 4𝑗̰ + 4𝑘̰
We want to show that:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = (2 + 4𝜆)𝑖̰ + (1 − 4𝜆)𝑗̰ + (4𝜆 − 2)𝑘̰
So:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐴
𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝜆𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= (2𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ − 2𝑘̰ ) + 𝜆(4𝑖̰ − 4𝑗̰ + 4𝑘̰ )
= (2 + 4𝜆)𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ + (1 − 4𝜆)𝑗̰ + (4𝜆 − 2)𝑘̰
18b ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐴𝐵

For 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ to be perpendicular:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 4𝑖̰ − 4𝑗̰ + 4𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = (2 + 4𝜆)𝑖̰ + (1 − 4𝜆)𝑗̰ + (4𝜆 − 2)𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = (2 + 4𝜆)𝑖̰ + (1 − 4𝜆)𝑗̰ + (4𝜆 − 2)𝑘̰ ∙ 4𝑖̰ − 4𝑗̰ + 4𝑘̰
0 = 4 × (2 + 4𝜆) + (−4) × (1 − 4𝜆) + 4 × (4𝜆 − 2)

0 = 16𝜆 + 8 + 16𝜆 − 4 + 16𝜆 − 8
0 = 48𝜆 − 4
48𝜆 = 4

1
𝜆=
12
18c ∠𝐴𝑂𝑃 = ∠𝐵𝑂𝑃

So
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑂𝑃
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑂𝑃
𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
cos−1 ( ) = cos −1 ( )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑂𝑃
|𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑂𝑃
|𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
which becomes
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑂𝑃 𝑂𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃
=
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = (2𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ − 2𝑘̰ ) ∙ ((2 + 4𝜆)𝑖̰ + (1 − 4𝜆)𝑗̰ + (4𝜆 − 2)𝑘̰ )
= 2(2 + 4𝜆) + (1 − 4𝜆) − 2(4𝜆 − 2)

= 4 + 8𝜆 + 1 − 4𝜆 − 8𝜆 + 4
= −4𝜆 + 9
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝑃 = (6𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ + 2𝑘̰ ) ∙ ((2 + 4𝜆)𝑖̰ + (1 − 4𝜆)𝑗̰ + (4𝜆 − 2)𝑘̰ )
= 6(2 + 4𝜆) − 3(1 − 4𝜆) + 2(4𝜆 − 2)

= 12 + 24𝜆 − 3 + 12𝜆 + 8𝜆 − 4
= 44𝜆 + 5
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 22 + 12 + (−2)2 = 9
|𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 3
|𝑂𝐴
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 62 + (−3)2 + 22 = 49
|𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 7
|𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑂𝑃 𝑂𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃
=
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|𝑂𝐵
Substituting gives:
−4𝜆 + 9 44𝜆 + 5
=
3 7
−28𝜆 + 63 = 132𝜆 + 15

−160𝜆 = −48
−160𝜆 = −48
3
𝜆=
10
19 For 𝜃
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
𝜃 = cos −1
|𝑎̰||𝑏̰|
4
𝜃 = cos −1
21
So
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ 4
cos−1 = cos−1
|𝑎̰||𝑏̰| 21
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ 4
=
|𝑎̰||𝑏̰| 21
6
𝑎̰ = [−2]
3
−2
𝑏̰ = [−4]
𝜆
−2 6
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = [−4] ∙ [−2]
𝜆 3
= (−12) + (8) + (3𝜆)
= 3𝜆 − 4
|𝑎̰|2 = 62 + (−2)2 + 32
= 36 + 4 + 9
= 49
|𝑎̰| = 7
|𝑏̰|2 = (−2)2 + (−4)2 + 𝜆2
= 4 + 16 + 𝜆2
= 20 + 𝜆2

|𝑏̰| = √20 + 𝜆2
So
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ 4
=
|𝑎̰||𝑏̰| 21
Solve for 𝜆
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ 4
=
|𝑎̰||𝑏̰| 21
21 × 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
|𝑏̰| =
4 × |𝑎̰|
21 × (3𝜆 − 4)
|𝑏̰| =
4×7
3(3𝜆 − 4)
|𝑏̰| =
4
9𝜆 − 12
√20 + 𝜆2 =
4
9
√20 + 𝜆2 = 𝜆−3
4
2
2
9
20 + 𝜆 = ( 𝜆 − 3)
4
81 2 54
20 + 𝜆2 = 𝜆 − 𝜆+9
16 4
81 2 54
0= 𝜆 − 𝜆2 − 𝜆 − 11
16 4
65 2 54
0= 𝜆 − 𝜆 − 11
16 4
65 2 27
0= 𝜆 − 𝜆 − 11
16 2
0 = 65𝜆2 − 216𝜆 − 176
0 = (65𝜆 + 44)(𝜆 − 4)
44
𝜆=− or 4
65
Alternatively, using the quadratic formula:
216 ± √(−216)2 − 4 × 65 × −176

𝜆=
2 × 65

216 ± √92 416

𝜆=
130
216 ± 304
𝜆=
130
520 88
𝜆= or −
130 130
44
𝜆 = 4 or −
65
20a For 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝑃 to be collinear, 𝑎̰ , 𝑏̰ and 𝑝̰ all lie on one line.
If 𝑎̰ 𝑏̰ and 𝑝̰ all lie on a straight line then
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵𝑃 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝑃
So:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑏̰ − 𝑎̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑃 = 𝑝̰ − 𝑏̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑝̰ − 𝑎̰
LHS = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑃
= 𝑏̰ − 𝑎̰ + 𝑝̰ − 𝑏̰
= 𝑝̰ − 𝑎̰
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑃
= RHS
So 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝑃 are collinear.
20b 𝑎̰ = 𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰
𝑏̰ = 4𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰ + 6𝑘̰
𝑝̰ = 𝜆𝑎̰ + (1 − 𝜆)𝑏̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = 𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 𝜆𝑎̰ + (1 − 𝜆)𝑏̰

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = (𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰)𝜆 + (1 − 𝜆)(4𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰ + 6𝑘̰ )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 𝜆𝑖̰ + 𝜆𝑗̰ + 4𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰ + 6𝑘̰ − 4𝜆𝑖̰ + 2𝜆𝑗̰ − 6𝜆𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = (4 − 3𝜆)𝑖̰ + (3𝜆 − 2)𝑗̰ + 6(1 − 𝜆)𝑘̰
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 1 + 1 = 2
|𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √2
|𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |2 = (4 − 3𝜆)2 + (3𝜆 − 2)2 + 36(1 − 𝜆)2

|𝑂𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |2 = 16 − 24𝜆 + 9𝜆2 + 9𝜆2 − 12𝜆 + 4 + 36 − 72𝜆 + 36𝜆2
|𝑂𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |2 = 54𝜆2 − 108𝜆 + 56
|𝑂𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √2 × √(27𝜆2 − 54𝜆 + 28)
|𝑂𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑂𝑃
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 4 − 3𝜆 + 3𝜆 − 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃
cos−1 ( )=𝜃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑂𝑃
|𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
∠𝐴𝑂𝑃 = 60°
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑂𝑃
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= cos 60°
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑂𝑃
|𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
2 1
=
√2 × √2 × √(27𝜆2 − 54𝜆 + 28) 2
√(27𝜆2 − 54𝜆 + 28) = 2
27𝜆2 − 54𝜆 + 28 = 4
27𝜆2 − 54𝜆 + 24 = 0
9𝜆2 − 18𝜆 + 8 = 0
(3𝜆 − 2)(3𝜆 − 4) = 0
2 4
𝜆= or 𝜆 =
3 3


1 For a quadrilateral 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶, where the diagonals 𝑂𝐵 and 𝐴𝐶 bisect each other
Let 𝑀 be the point where the diagonals intersect one another.
Since 𝑀 bisects both diagonals:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= 𝑀𝐵
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝐴𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= 𝑀𝐶
2
Now we consider two opposite sides of the quadrilateral:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝐴
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑀
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐶
𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= −
2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐶𝑀
𝐶𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑀𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= −𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵
=− +−
2 2
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴
Therefore sides 𝑂𝐴 and 𝐶𝐵 are parallel and equal. This is sufficient to prove that
𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a parallelogram.
2a 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ = 0 as they are perpendicular.
2b ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎̰ + 𝑐̰
𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑐̰ − 𝑎̰
𝐴𝐶

2c ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Since the diagonals are perpendicular, 𝑂𝐵 𝐴𝐶 = 0
Therefore
(𝑎̰ + 𝑐̰ ) ∙ (𝑐̰ − 𝑎̰ ) = 0
Expanding:
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ − 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ + 𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ − 𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ = 0
From part a:
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ = 𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ = 0
Therefore
𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ − 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ = 0
|𝑐̰ |2 − |𝑎̰|2 = 0
|𝑐̰ |2 = |𝑎̰|2
|𝑐̰ | = |𝑎̰|
Therefore 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a rectangle whose sides are equal, making it a square.
3a ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎̰
𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏̰
𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 = 𝑚̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝑂𝐵
|𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | as both |𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | and |𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | are the radius of the circle.
For 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ = 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
LHS = 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑎̰
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
= |𝑂𝐴
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
= |𝑂𝐵
= 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
= RHS
Thus 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ = 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ .

3b ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = 𝑎̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏̰
𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑚̰
𝑂𝑀
Therefore:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑚̰ − 𝑎̰
𝐴𝑀
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
(𝑚̰ − 𝑎̰ ) ∙ (𝑚̰ − 𝑎̰ ) = |𝐴𝑀
Similarly:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑀 = 𝑚̰ − 𝑏̰
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
(𝑚̰ − 𝑏̰ ) ∙ (𝑚̰ − 𝑏̰ ) = |𝐵𝑀
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐵𝑀
Because 𝑀 bisects 𝐴𝐵, we know that |𝐴𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |.
2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐵𝑀
Therefore |𝐴𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
Therefore (𝑚̰ − 𝑎̰ ) ∙ (𝑚̰ − 𝑎̰ ) = (𝑚̰ − 𝑏̰ ) ∙ (𝑚̰ − 𝑏̰ ).
3c For ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 ⊥ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 , it is sufficient to prove that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 0
From part b:
(𝑚̰ − 𝑎̰ ) ∙ (𝑚̰ − 𝑎̰ ) = (𝑚̰ − 𝑏̰ ) ∙ (𝑚̰ − 𝑏̰ )
𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑚̰ − 2𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ + 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ = 𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑚̰ − 2𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
−2𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ = −2𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ (using the fact that 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ = 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ )
𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ = 𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 = 𝑚̰ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑏̰ − 𝑎̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐴𝐵
𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= 𝑚̰ ∙ (𝑏̰ − 𝑎̰ )
= 𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ − 𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑎̰
=0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝐴𝐵
Therefore 𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

4 The converse result is that if 𝑀 lies on the chord 𝐴𝐵 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑀 ⊥ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 , then 𝑀 bisects
𝐴𝐵.
We have:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = 𝑎̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏̰
𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑚̰
𝑂𝑀
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ = 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝐴𝐵
and since 𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , we have
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 0
Therefore
𝑚̰ ∙ (𝑏̰ − 𝑎̰ ) = 0
𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑎̰
(𝑚̰ − 𝑎̰ ) ∙ (𝑚̰ − 𝑎̰ )
= 𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑚̰ − 2𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ + 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑎̰
= 𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑚̰ − 2𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ (using 𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 𝑚̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ and 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ = 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ )
= (𝑚̰ − 𝑏̰ ) ∙ (𝑚̰ − 𝑏̰ )
Therefore
(𝑚̰ − 𝑎̰ ) ∙ (𝑚̰ − 𝑎̰ ) = (𝑚̰ − 𝑏̰ ) ∙ (𝑚̰ − 𝑏̰ )
|(𝑚̰ − 𝑎̰ )|2 = |(𝑚̰ − 𝑏̰ )|2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐵𝑀
|𝐴𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
Therefore 𝑀 bisects 𝐴𝐵.


5a |𝑏̰ − 𝑎̰ |2 = |𝑑̰ − 𝑐̰ |2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐷𝐶
|𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑏̰ − 𝑎̰ = 𝐴𝐵
𝑑̰ − 𝑐̰ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷𝐶
LHS = |𝑏̰ − 𝑎̰ |2
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
= |𝐴𝐵
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
= |𝐷𝐶
= |𝑑̰ − 𝑐̰ |2
= RHS
5b For 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑐̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐷𝐶
|𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
As they are radial:

|𝑎̰| = |𝑏̰|
= |𝑐̰|
= |𝑑̰ |
|𝑏̰ − 𝑎̰ |2 = |𝑑̰ − 𝑐̰ |2
|𝑎̰|2 + |𝑏̰|2 − 2𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = |𝑑̰|2 + |𝑐̰ |2 − 2𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑐̰
2𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = |𝑎̰|2 + |𝑏̰|2 − |𝑑̰|2 − |𝑐̰ |2 + 2𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑐̰
LHS = 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
= |𝑎̰|2 + |𝑏̰|2 − 2𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
= |𝑎̰| + |𝑏̰| − |𝑑̰ | − |𝑐̰ | + 𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑐̰
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
= |𝑎̰| + |𝑎̰| − |𝑎̰| − |𝑎̰| + 𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑐̰
2 2 2 2
= 𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑐̰

= RHS
5c For ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 = ∠𝐶𝑂𝐷

LHS = ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
= cos −1
|𝑎̰||𝑏̰|
𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑑̰
= cos −1
|𝑐̰ ||𝑑̰ |
= ∠𝐶𝑂𝐷
= RHS
6a ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑏̰ + 𝑎̰
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑂𝑁 (𝑏̰ + 𝑎̰ )
2
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑐̰
𝑂𝑀
2
𝑀𝑁 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝑁 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ − 𝑐̰ )
For 𝑀𝑁 2
LHS = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑁
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑁 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀
1 1
= (𝑏̰ + 𝑎̰ ) − 𝑐̰
2 2
1
= (𝑏̰ + 𝑎̰ − 𝑐̰ )
2
= RHS

6b For 𝑏̰ − 𝑐̰ = 𝑘𝑎̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑂𝐴
𝐶𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ where 𝑎̰ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑂𝐴
So as 𝐶𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are parallel there must exist a constant value 𝑘 whereby
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑘𝑎̰
𝐶𝐵
LHS = 𝑏̰ − 𝑐̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= 𝐶𝐵
= 𝑘𝑎̰
= RHS
6c 𝑏̰ − 𝑐̰ = 𝑘𝑎̰
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ − 𝑐̰ )
𝑀𝑁
2
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑎̰ + 𝑘𝑎̰ )
𝑀𝑁
2
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑁 = 𝑎̰ (1 + 𝑘)
2
and
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴||𝐶𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑀𝑁
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑂𝐴
Thus 𝑀𝑁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝐶𝐵
7 𝑂 = (0 ,0 , 0)
𝐴 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 )
𝐵 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 )
𝐶 = (𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 )
So the mid points are:
1
𝑀= (𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑎 )
2 1 2 3
1
𝑁= (𝑎 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )
2 1
1
𝑃= (𝑏 + 𝑐1 , 𝑏2 + 𝑐2 , 𝑏3 + 𝑐3 )
2 1

1
𝑅= (𝑐 , 𝑐 , 𝑐 )
2 1 2 3
In order for 𝑀𝑁𝑃𝑅 to be a parallelogram, both pairs of opposite sides are
parallel, in which:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝜆|𝑃𝑅
|𝑀𝑁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | and |𝑁𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝜇|𝑅𝑀
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |, where 𝜆 and 𝜇 are real numbers.
𝑎1
𝑎
𝑎̰ = [ 2 ]
𝑎3
𝑏1
𝑏̰ = [𝑏2 ]
𝑏3
𝑐1
𝑐̰ = [𝑐2 ]
𝑐3
1 1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑁 = (𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ ) − 𝑎̰ = 𝑏̰
2 2 2
1 1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑐̰ − (𝑏̰ + 𝑐̰ ) = − 𝑏̰
2 2 2
So
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝜆|𝑃𝑅
|𝑀𝑁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
LHS = |𝑀𝑁
1
= 𝑏̰
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
= −|𝑃𝑅
= RHS
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑁𝑃 (𝑏̰ + 𝑐̰ ) − (𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ )
2 2
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑁𝑃 𝑐̰ − 𝑎̰
2 2
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑅𝑀 𝑎̰ − 𝑐̰
2 2
So
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝜇|𝑅𝑀
|𝑁𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
LHS = |𝑁𝑃

1 1
= 𝑐̰ − 𝑎̰
2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
= −|𝑅𝑀
= RHS
Hence both pairs of opposite sides are parallel (and equal in length).
Thus 𝑀𝑁𝑃𝑅 is a parallelogram.
8a We want to find ∠𝐹𝑂𝐷.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐹 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐷
∠𝐹𝑂𝐷 = cos −1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑂𝐷
|𝑂𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [𝑎]
𝑂𝐷
𝑎
𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐹 = [0]
𝑎
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2
|𝑂𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √2𝑎
|𝑂𝐷
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2
|𝑂𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √2𝑎
|𝑂𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐹 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐷 = (0 × 𝑎 + 𝑎 × 0 + 𝑎 × 𝑎)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑂𝐷
𝑂𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎2
So
𝑎2
∠𝐹𝑂𝐷 = cos −1 ( )
√2𝑎 × √2𝑎
1
= cos −1
2
= 60°
8b The triangle ∠𝐹𝑂𝐷 is an equilateral triangle as all interior angles of the triangle
are 60°.

8c The triangular pyramid 𝑂𝐵𝐷𝐹 is a regular tetrahedron, as each face of the

tetrahedron is a equilateral triangle.
8d
1
𝑎
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 1 𝑎
𝑂𝑋
2
1
[2 𝑎]
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑋𝐹 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑋𝐷
∠𝐹𝑋𝐷 = cos−1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑋𝐷
|𝑋𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
1
𝑎
𝑎 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [0] − 1 𝑎
𝑋𝐹
𝑎 2
1
[2 𝑎 ]
1
𝑎
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 1
𝑋𝐹 = − 𝑎
2
1
[ 2𝑎 ]
1
− 𝑎
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 1
𝑋𝐷 𝑎
2
1
[ 2𝑎 ]
2 1 1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎2
|𝑋𝐷
4 4 4
2 3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝑎2
|𝑋𝐷
4
√3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | =
|𝑋𝐷 𝑎
2
2 1 1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎2
|𝑋𝐹
4 4 4
2 3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝑎2
|𝑋𝐹
4
√3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | =
|𝑋𝐹 𝑎
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑋𝐷
𝑋𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − 𝑎 × 𝑎 − 𝑎 × 𝑎 + 𝑎 × 𝑎
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑂𝐷
𝑂𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − 𝑎2
4
So
1
− 4 𝑎2
∠𝐹𝑋𝐷 = cos−1 ( )
√3 √3
2 𝑎× 2 𝑎
1
= cos −1 (− )
3
= 109.471 … °
≑ 109° 28′
9a ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑁 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑁 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑢̰
𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑣̰
𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑤̰
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑁 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐵 )
2
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑁 = (𝑣̰ − 𝑢̰ )
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝐿𝐵
𝐵𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑃𝐿
⃗⃗⃗⃗
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝐵 = − 𝑢̰ − 𝑤̰
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑁 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑁 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑃
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑃𝑁 (𝑣̰ − 𝑢̰ ) − (− 𝑢̰ − 𝑤̰ )
2 2
1 1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑃𝑁 𝑣̰ − 𝑢̰ + 𝑢̰ + 𝑤̰
2 2 2

1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑃𝑁 𝑣̰ + 𝑤̰
2
9b As ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 ⊥ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝐿
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑃𝐿
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
𝑢̰ ∙ 𝑤̰ = 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝑀𝑃
As 𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐶 𝑀𝑃 = 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑃 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝐿 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝐿
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑃 = (− 𝑣̰ + (− 𝑢̰ )) − 𝑤̰
2 2
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑃 = − 𝑢̰ − 𝑣̰ − 𝑤̰
2 2
So
1
𝑣̰ ∙ (− (𝑢̰ − 𝑣̰ ) − 𝑤̰ ) = 0
2
1 1
0 = − 𝑣̰ ∙ 𝑢̰ − 𝑣̰ ∙ 𝑣̰ − 𝑣̰ ∙ 𝑤̰
2 2
1 1
𝑣̰ ∙ 𝑣̰ = − 𝑣̰ ∙ 𝑢̰ − 𝑣̰ ∙ 𝑤̰
2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 = 𝑢̰ + 𝑣̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝐴𝐶
So for the triangle ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 to be concurrent, 𝑃𝑁
𝑃𝑁 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐶 = 0
𝑃𝑁 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
LHS = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐶
1
= 𝑣̰ + 𝑤̰ ∙ (𝑢̰ + 𝑣̰ )
2
1
= ( 𝑣̰ + 𝑤̰ ) ∙ (𝑢̰ + 𝑣̰ )
2
1
= ( 𝑣̰ + 𝑤̰ ) ∙ (𝑢̰ + 𝑣̰ )
2

1 1
= 𝑣̰ ∙ 𝑢̰ + 𝑤̰ ∙ 𝑢̰ + 𝑣̰ ∙ 𝑣̰ + 𝑤̰ ∙ 𝑣̰
2 2
1 1
= 𝑣̰ ∙ 𝑢̰ + 𝑤̰ ∙ 𝑢̰ + ( 𝑣̰ ∙ 𝑢̰ − 𝑣̰ ∙ 𝑤̰ ) + 𝑤̰ ∙ 𝑣̰
2 2
1 1
= 𝑣̰ ∙ 𝑢̰ + 𝑣̰ ∙ 𝑢̰
2 2
=0
= RHS
𝑃𝑁 ⊥ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
So ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐶 .
Thus, the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 are concurrent.
10 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑏̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑐̰ − 𝑏̰
𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑑̰ − 𝑐̰
𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷𝐴 = −𝑑̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 = 𝑐̰
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑐̰
|𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐷 = 𝑑̰ − 𝑏̰
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝑑̰ − 𝑏̰ |2
|𝐵𝐷
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑑̰ − 2𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
|𝐵𝐷
For 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 where 𝑀1 is the centre of AC and 𝑀2 is the centre of BD,

1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑀1 = 𝑐̰
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑀2 = 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑀2
1
= 𝑏̰ + (𝑑̰ − 𝑏̰ )
2
1
= (𝑑̰ + 𝑏̰ )
2
𝑀1 𝑀2 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝑀2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑀1

1 1
= (𝑑̰ + 𝑏̰ ) − 𝑐̰
2 2
1
= (𝑑̰ + 𝑏̰ − 𝑐̰ )
2
2 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑀 1 𝑀2 | = (𝑑̰ + 𝑏̰ − 𝑐̰ )
2
4
2 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑀 1 𝑀2 | = (𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑑̰ + 𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ − 𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ + 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑑̰ + 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ − 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ − 𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑑̰ − 𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ )
4
2 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑀 1 𝑀2 | = (𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ + 𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑑̰ + 2𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ − 2𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ − 2𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ )
4
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
4|𝑀 1 𝑀2 | = 𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ + 𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑑̰ + 2𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ − 2𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ − 2𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑐̰
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
4|𝑀 1 𝑀2 | = 𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ + 𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑑̰ + 2𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ − 2𝑐̰ ∙ (𝑏̰ + 𝑑̰ )
So
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2𝑐̰ ∙ (𝑏̰ + 𝑑̰ ) = 𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ + 𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑑̰ + 2𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ − 4|𝑀 1 𝑀2 |
Prove:
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | + |𝐵𝐶
|𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | + |𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | + |𝐷𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | + |𝐵𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | + 4|𝑀
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
1 𝑀2 |
LHS
2 2 2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | + |𝐵𝐶
= |𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | + |𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | + |𝐷𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
= |𝑏̰ |2 + |𝑐̰ − 𝑏̰ |2 + |𝑑̰ − 𝑐̰ |2 + |−𝑑̰ |2

= 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + (𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ − 2𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ ) + (𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑑̰ − 2𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ + 𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ ) + 𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑑̰
= 2𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ + 2𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑑̰ + 2𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ − 2𝑐̰ ∙ (𝑏̰ + 𝑑̰ )
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= 2𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ + 2𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑑̰ + 2𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ − (𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ + 𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑑̰ + 2𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ − 4|𝑀 1 𝑀2 | )
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= 𝑐̰ ∙ 𝑐̰ + 𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑑̰ − 2𝑑̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + 4|𝑀 1 𝑀2 |
2 2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | + |𝐵𝐷
= |𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | + 4|𝑀
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
1 𝑀2 |
= RHS


1a The line intersects the point 𝐴 = (−1, 3) and is in the direction 𝑏̰ = 2𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰.
1b 𝐴 = (−1, 3)
𝑎̰ = −𝑖̰ + 3𝑗̰𝑏̰ = 2𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰
𝑟̰ = 𝑎̰ + 𝜆𝑏̰
𝑟̰ = (−𝑖̰ + 3𝑗̰) + 𝜆(2𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰), 𝜆 ∈ ℝ
1c 𝑟̰ = (−𝑖̰ + 3𝑗̰) + 𝜆(2𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰)
1
𝑚=−
2
1d 𝑟̰ = (−𝑖̰ + 3𝑗̰) + 𝜆(2𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰)
So
𝑥 = 2𝜆 − 1
𝑦 = 3−𝜆
𝑥 = 2(3 − 𝑦) − 1
1 1
3−𝑦 = 𝑥+
2 2
1 5
𝑦=− 𝑥+
2 2

2a 𝑎̰ = 𝑥𝑖̰ + 𝑦𝑗̰
𝑥=3
2
𝑦= (3) − 4
3
𝑦 = −2
so
𝑎̰ = 3𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰
2b 𝑏̰ = 𝑏1 𝑖̰ + 𝑏2 𝑗̰
𝑏2
𝑚=
𝑏1
2
𝑚=
3
𝑏̰ = 3𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰
2c 𝑟̰ = 𝑎̰ + 𝜆𝑏̰
𝑎̰ = 3𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰
𝑏̰ = 3𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰
𝑟̰ = 3𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰ + 𝜆(3𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰), 𝜆 ∈ ℝ
3a i For 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 = 0,
directional vector 𝑏̰ is:
−𝐵 𝐵
𝑏̰ = [ ] or 𝑏̰ = [ ]
𝐴 −𝐴
So for
𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 12 = 0
3
𝑏̰ = [ ]
1

3a ii 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 12 = 0
For the 𝑥-intercept:
𝑥 − 3(0) + 12 = 0
𝑥 = −12
𝑥-intercept = (−12, 0)
So the position vector will be:
−12
𝑎̰ = [ ]
0
For the 𝑦-intercept:
0 − 3𝑦 + 12 = 0
−3𝑦 = −12
𝑦=4
𝑦-intercept = (0, 4)
0
𝑎̰ = [ ]
4
3a iii 𝑟̰ = 𝑎̰ + 𝜆𝑏̰
Using the 𝑦-intercept,
0
𝑎̰ = [ ]
4
3
𝑏̰ = [ ]
1
So
0 3
𝑟̰ = [ ] + 𝜆 [ ]
4 1
3b i 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 6
𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 6 = 0
So for the directional vector
−3
𝑏̰ = [ ]
1
𝑥-intercept is

𝑥 + 3(0) − 6 = 0
𝑥=6
𝑥-intercept = (6, 0)
6
𝑎̰ = [ ]
0
So
6 −3
𝑟̰ = [ ] + 𝜆 [ ]
0 1
3b ii 𝑦=3
𝑦−3=0
1
𝑏̰ = [ ]
0
𝑦-intercept is
𝑦=3
𝑦-intercept = (3, 0)
0
𝑎̰ = [ ]
3
So
0 1
𝑟̰ = [ ] + 𝜆 [ ]
3 0
3b iii 𝑥 = −5
𝑥+5=0
0
𝑏̰ = [ ]
1
𝑥-intercept is 𝑥 = −5
𝑥-intercept = (−5, 0)


−5
𝑎̰ = [ ]
0
So
−5 0
𝑟̰ = [ ]+𝜆[ ]
0 1
𝑥 −3 1
4a [𝑦 ] = [ ] + 𝜆 [ ]
5 4
𝑥 = −3 + 𝜆
𝑦 = 5 + 4𝜆
So
𝜆 =𝑥+3
Substituting this back into the equation for 𝑦 gives:
𝑦 = 5 + 4(𝑥 + 3)
𝑦 = 5 + 4𝑥 + 12
𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 17
4b 𝑟̰ = 5𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ + 𝜆(−2𝑖̰ + 3𝑗̰)
𝑥 = 5 − 2𝜆
𝑦 = 2 + 3𝜆
𝑦−2
=𝜆
3
Substituting this back into the equation for 𝑥 gives:
𝑦−2
𝑥 = 5 − 2( )
3
4 − 2𝑦
𝑥−5=
3
3𝑥 − 15 = 4 − 2𝑦
So
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 19

−4 3
5a 𝑟̰ = [ ]+𝜆[ ]
2 −5
For (2, −8)
2 −4 3
[ ] = [ ]+𝜆[ ]
−8 2 −5
For 𝑥-equation:
2 = −4 + 3𝜆
6 = 3𝜆
2=𝜆
For 𝑦-equation:
−8 = 2 − 5𝜆
10 = 5𝜆
2=𝜆
As 𝜆 = 2 for both equations, the point (2, −8) lies on the line 𝑟̰ .
−4 3
5b 𝑟̰ = [ ]+𝜆[ ]
2 −5
For (−13, 17)
−13 −4 3
[ ] = [ ]+𝜆[ ]
17 2 −5
For 𝑥-equation:
−13 = −4 + 3𝜆
−9 = 3𝜆
−3 = 𝜆
For 𝑦-equation:
17 = 2 − 5𝜆
−15 = 5𝜆
−3 = 𝜆
As 𝜆 = −3 for both equations, the point (−13, 17) lies on the line 𝑟̰ .

−4 3
5c 𝑟̰ = [ ]+𝜆[ ]
2 −5
For (8, −20)
8 −4 3
[ ] = [ ]+𝜆[ ]
−20 2 −5
For 𝑥-equation:
8 = −4 + 3𝜆
12 = 3𝜆
4=𝜆
For 𝑦-equation:
−20 = 2 − 5𝜆
22 = 5𝜆
22
=𝜆
5
As there are different values for 𝜆, the point (8,20) does not lie on the line 𝑟̰ .
6a 𝑃(7, 0, −5)
𝑎̰ = 7𝑖̰ − 5𝑘̰
𝑏̰ = −4𝑖̰ − 6𝑗̰ + 9𝑘̰
𝑟̰ = 𝑎̰ + 𝜆𝑏̰
𝑟̰ = 7𝑖̰ − 5𝑘̰ + 𝜆(−4𝑖̰ − 6𝑗̰ + 9𝑘̰ )
6b 𝑃(3, 4, 5)
3
𝑎̰ = [4]
5
−6
𝑏̰ = [−7]
−8
𝑟̰ = 𝑎̰ + 𝜆𝑏̰
3 −6
𝑟̰ = [4] + 𝜆 [−7]
5 −8

7a 𝑃(3, −2, −4)

𝑟̰ = 2𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰ + 𝜆(5𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰ )
𝑟̰ = 𝑎̰ + 𝜆𝑏̰
𝑎̰ = 3𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰ − 4𝑘̰
𝑏̰ = 5𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰
So
𝑟̰ = 3𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰ − 4𝑘̰ + 𝜆(5𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰ )
7b 𝑃(−1, −1, 2)
1 1 1 1 1
𝑟̰ = 𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰ + 𝜆 ( 𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰ )
3 3 6 3 2
𝑟̰ = 𝑎̰ + 𝜆𝑏̰
𝑎̰ = −1𝑖̰ − 1𝑗̰ + 2𝑘̰
1 1 1
𝑏̰ = 𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰
6 3 2
We multiply the directional vector by a number without altering the direction it
represents so:
6 6 6
𝑏̰ = 𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰
6 3 2
𝑏̰ = 𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰
So
𝑟̰ = −𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰ + 2𝑘̰ + 𝜆(𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰ )
4 −2
8a 𝑟̰ = [−7] + 𝜆 [ 3 ]
−1 −6
𝑃 = (8, −13, 11)
𝑥 4 −2
[𝑦] = [−7] + 𝜆 [ 3 ]
𝑧 −1 −6
For 𝑥-equation:
8 = 4 − 2𝜆
−4 = 2𝜆
𝜆 = −2
For 𝑦-equation:
−13 = −7 + 3𝜆
−6 = 3𝜆
𝜆 = −2
For 𝑧-equation:
11 = −1 − 6𝜆
12 = −6𝜆
𝜆 = −2
As 𝜆 = −2 for all three equations, the point 𝑃 lies on the line 𝑟̰ .
4 −2
8b 𝑟̰ = [−7] + 𝜆 [ 3 ]
−1 −6
𝑃 = (−4, 5, −25)
𝑥 4 −2
[𝑦] = [−7] + 𝜆 [ 3 ]
𝑧 −1 −6
For 𝑥-equation:
−4 = 4 − 2𝜆
8 = 2𝜆
𝜆=4
For 𝑦-equation:
5 = −7 + 3𝜆
12 = 3𝜆
𝜆=4
For 𝑧-equation:
−25 = −1 − 6𝜆
24 = 6𝜆
𝜆=4
As 𝜆 = 4 for all three equations, the point 𝑃 lies on the line 𝑟̰ .


9a i 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4 = 0
1
𝑦 =2− 𝑥
2
For 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 2
(0, 2)
For 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 1
(2, 1)
The directional vector, 𝑎̰ for this line is:
2−0
𝑎̰ = [ ]
1−2
2
𝑎̰ = [ ]
−1
2
9a ii 𝑎̰ = [ ]
−1
The vector, 𝑛̰ , perpendicular to 𝑎̰ , is:
1
𝑛̰ = [ ]
2
9a iii The vector equation for the perpendicular line through (2, −3) is
𝑥 2 1
[𝑦 ] = [ ] + 𝜆 [ ]
−3 2
9b 𝑥−𝑦+3=0
𝑦 =𝑥+3
For 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 3
(0, 3)
For 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 4
(1, 4)
So the directional vector for this equation is:

1−0
𝑎̰ = [ ]
4−3
1
𝑎̰ = [ ]
1
The vector, 𝑛̰ , perpendicular to 𝑎̰ , is:
1
𝑛̰ = [ ]
−1
The vector equation for the perpendicular line through (1, −2) is
𝑥 1 1
[𝑦 ] = [ ] + 𝜆 [ ]
−2 −1
10 𝑟̰ = 𝑎̰ + 𝜆𝑏̰
𝑥 𝑥1 1
[𝑦] = [𝑦 ] + 𝜆 [ ]
1 𝑚
This gives:
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝜆
𝑥 − 𝑥1 = 𝜆
𝑦 − 𝑦1
=𝜆
𝑚
𝑦 − 𝑦1
= 𝑥 − 𝑥1
𝑚
So
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
11a 𝐴(4, 3)
𝐵(6, 0)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [6 − 4]
𝐴𝐵
0−3
2
=[ ]
−3
𝑟̰ = 4𝑖̰ + 3𝑗̰ + 𝜆(2𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰)

11b 𝐴(−7, 5)
𝐵(−13, −8)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [−13 − (−7)]

𝐴𝐵
−8 − 5
−6
=[ ]
−13
𝑟̰ = −7𝑖̰ + 5𝑗̰ − 𝜆(6𝑖̰ + 13𝑗̰)
which is equivalent to:

𝑟̰ = −7𝑖̰ + 5𝑗̰ + 𝜆(6𝑖̰ + 13𝑗̰)
12a 𝑃(−1, 3, 1)
𝑄(2, 4, 5)
2 − (−1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = [ 4 − 3 ]
5−1
3
= [1]
4
𝑟̰ = −𝑖̰ + 3𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰ + 𝜆(3𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ + 4𝑘̰ )
12b 𝑃(7, −11, 14)

𝑄(17, 9, −16)
17 − 7
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = [9 − (−11)]
−16 − 14
10
= [ 20 ]
−30
𝑟̰ = 7𝑖̰ − 11𝑗̰ + 14𝑘̰ + 𝜆(10𝑖̰ + 20𝑗̰ − 30𝑘̰ )

13a 𝐴(1, −2)

𝐵(5, 4)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 5−1
𝐴𝐵 = [ ]
4 − (−2)
4
=[ ]
6
𝑥 1 4
[𝑦 ] = [ ] + 𝜆 [ ] , 0 ≤ 𝜆 ≤ 1
−2 6
13b 𝐴(−1, 1, −2)

𝐵(2, 3, −1)
2 − (−1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [
𝐴𝐵 3−1 ]
−1 − (−2)
3
= [2]
1
𝑥 −1 3
[𝑦] = [ 1 ] + 𝜆 [2] , 0 ≤ 𝜆 ≤ 1
𝑧 −2 1
−4 6
14 𝑟̰1 = [ 3 ] + 𝜆 [−15]
−1 −24
2 −4
𝑟̰2 = [−5] + 𝜇 [ 10 ]
−4 16
If 𝑟̰1 and 𝑟̰2 are parallel then there is a value 𝑎, that is the ratio between the
directional vectors of 𝑟̰1 and 𝑟̰2 so
6 −4
[−15] = 𝑎 [ 10 ]
−24 16
6 = −4𝑎
3
𝑎=−
2
So for

6
LHS = [−15]
−24
3 −4
= − [ 10 ]
2
16
= RHS
Since LHS = RHS, 𝑟̰1 and 𝑟̰2 are parallel.
4 1
15a 𝑟̰1 = [8] + 𝜆 [2]
3 1
7 6
𝑟̰2 = [6] + 𝜇 [4]
5 5
4 1 7 6
[8] + 𝜆 [2] = [6] + 𝜇 [4]
3 1 5 5
Equating the first two components and solving for 𝜆:
4 + 𝜆 = 7 + 6𝜇
𝜆 = 3 + 6𝜇
Equating the second two components and substituting for 𝜆:
8 + 2𝜆 = 6 + 4𝜇
2𝜆 = −2 + 4𝜇
2(3 + 6𝜇) = −2 + 4𝜇
6 + 12𝜇 = −2 + 4𝜇
8𝜇 = −8
𝜇 = −1
So the point of intersection is:
7 6
[6] + (−1) [4] = (1, 2, 0)
5 5

7 4
15b 𝑟̰1 = [−3] + 𝜆 [−1]
8 2
−2 5
𝑟̰2 = [ 1 ] + 𝜇 [−3]
10 −4
7 4 −2 5
[−3] + 𝜆 [−1] = [ 1 ] + 𝜇 [−3]
8 2 10 −4
Equating the second two components and solving for 𝜆:
−3 − 𝜆 = 1 − 3𝜇
𝜆 = 3𝜇 − 4
Equating the first two components and substituting for 𝜆:
7 + 4𝜆 = −2 + 5𝜇
4𝜆 = −9 + 5𝜇
4(3𝜇 − 4) = −9 + 5𝜇
12𝜇 − 16 = −9 + 5𝜇
7𝜇 = 7
𝜇=1
So the point of intersection is:
−2 5
[ 1 ] + [−3] = (3, −2, 6)
10 −4
1 2
16 𝑟̰1 = [ 0 ] + 𝜆 [−1]
−1 1
1 −4
𝑟̰2 = [1] + 𝜇 [ 3 ]
0 −3
1 2 1 −4
[ 0 ] + 𝜆 [−1] = [1] + 𝜇 [ 3 ]
−1 1 0 −3
Equating the first two components and solving for 𝜆:
1 + 2𝜆 = 1 − 4𝜇
𝜆 = −2𝜇

−𝜆 = 1 + 3𝜇
2𝜇 = 1 + 3𝜇
2𝜇 = 1 + 3𝜇
1
𝜇=
5
Hence
2
𝜆=−
5
Equating the third two components and substituting for 𝜆 and 𝜇:
−1 + 𝜆 = −3𝜇
2 7
LHS = −1 − = − and
5 5
3
RHS = −
5
LHS ≠ RHS
As the simultaneous equations are inconsistent the lines do not intersect.
These lines are not parallel as there is no value for 𝑎 at which 𝑣1 = 𝑎𝑣̰ 2
where 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 is the directional vectors for 𝑟̰1 and 𝑟̰2 respectively and 𝑎 is a real
number.
So 𝑟̰1 and 𝑟̰2 are skewed.
3 2
17a 𝑣1 = [−2] + 𝜆 [−1]
3 1
−2 1
𝑣2 = [−2] + 𝜇 [ 2 ]
4 −3
3 2 −2 1
[−2] + 𝜆 [−1] = [−2] + 𝜇 [ 2 ]
3 1 4 −3
Equating the first components and solving for 𝜇:
3 + 2𝜆 = −2 + 𝜇
𝜇 = 2𝜆 + 5

Equating the second components and substituting for 𝜇:

−2 − 𝜆 = −2 + 2𝜇
−2 − 𝜆 = −2 + 2(2𝜆 + 5)
−𝜆 = 4𝜆 + 10
−5𝜆 = 10
𝜆 = −2
Hence
𝜇 = 2(−2) + 5
𝜇=1
Using the third components and substituting for 𝜆 and 𝜇:
3 + 𝜆 = 4 − 3𝜇
LHS = 3 − 2 = 1 and
RHS = 4 − 3 = 1
So 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 intersect.
3 2
𝑣1 = [−2] + 𝜆 [−1]
3 1
𝑥 3 2
[𝑦] = [−2] + (−2) [−1]
𝑧 3 1
𝑥 −1
[𝑦] = [ 0 ]
𝑧 1
So 𝑣1 intersects 𝑣2 at (−1, 0, 1) or − 𝑖̰ + 𝑘̰ .
3 2
17b 𝑣̰ 1 = [1] + 𝜆 [ 1 ]
4 −1
2 −1
𝑣̰ 2 = [−1] + 𝜇 [ 2 ]
1 3
3 2 2 −1
[1] + 𝜆 [ 1 ] = [−1] + 𝜇 [ 2 ]
4 −1 1 3
Using the first two components and solving for 𝜇:

3 + 2𝜆 = 2 − 𝜇
𝜇 = −1 − 2𝜆
Using the second two components and substituting for 𝜇:
1 + 𝜆 = −1 + 2𝜇
1 + 𝜆 = −1 + 2(−1 − 2𝜆)
4 = −5𝜆
4
𝜆=−
5
Hence
4
𝜇 = −1 − 2 (− )
5
19
𝜇=
5
Using the third two components and substituting for 𝜆 and 𝜇:
4 − 𝜆 = 1 + 3𝜇
4 16
LHS = 4 − (− ) = and
5 5
19 39
RHS = 1 + 3 ( )=
5 5
LHS ≠ RHS
As the simultaneous equations are inconsistent, the lines do not intersect.
So 𝑟̰1 and 𝑟̰2 are skewed.
18a For the points (2, 0, 1) and (−1, 3, 4)

the directional vector 𝑣̰ 1 will be:
2 −1
𝑣̰ 1 = [0] − [ 3 ]
1 4
3
𝑣̰ 1 = [−3]
−3
So a vector for the line will be:

2 3
𝑟̰1 = [0] + 𝜆 [−3]
1 −3
For the points (−1, 3, 0) and (4, −2, 5),

the directional vector 𝑣̰ 1 will be:
−1 4
𝑣̰ 2 = [ 3 ] − [−2]
0 5
−5
𝑣̰ 2 = [ 5 ]
−5
So a vector for the line will be:
−1 −5
𝑟̰2 = [ 3 ] + 𝜇 [ 5 ]
0 −5
So 𝑟̰1 and 𝑟̰2 will intersect for 𝑟̰1 = 𝑟̰2 .
2 3 −1 −5
[0] + 𝜆 [−3] = [ 3 ] + 𝜇 [ 5 ]
1 −3 0 −5
Using the first two components and solving for 𝜇:
2 + 3𝜆 = −1 − 5𝜇
3 3
𝜇=− − 𝜆
5 5
Using the third two components and substituting for 𝜇:
1 − 3𝜆 = −5𝜇
3 3
1 − 3𝜆 = −5 (− − 𝜆)
5 5
1 − 3𝜆 = 3 + 3𝜆
−2 = 6𝜆
1
𝜆=−
3
Hence
3 3
𝜇=− − 𝜆
5 5

3 3 1
𝜇 = − − (− )
5 5 3
2
𝜇=−
5
So substituting 𝜆 in 𝑟̰1,
𝑥 2 1 3
[𝑦] = [0] − [−3]
𝑧 3
1 −3
𝑥 1
[𝑦] = [1]
𝑧 2
So 𝑟̰1 and 𝑟̰2 intersect at (1, 1, 2).
18b In order to find the angle between the two vectors, we can use the directional
vectors of 𝑟̰1 and 𝑟̰2 .
3
𝑣̰ 1 = [−3]
−3
−5
𝑣̰ 2 = [ 5 ]
−5
𝑣̰ 1 ∙ 𝑣̰ 2
𝜃 = cos −1
|𝑣̰1 ||𝑣2 |
3 −5
𝑣1 ∙ 𝑣̰ 2 = [−3] ∙ [ 5 ]
−3 −5
= (3 × −5) + (−3 × 5) + (−3 × −5)
= −15
|𝑣1 |2 = (3)2 + (−3)2 + (−3)2 = 27
|𝑣1 | = √27 = 3√3

|𝑣2 |2 = (−5)2 + 52 + (−5)2 = 75
|𝑣2 | = √75 = 5√3

So
𝑣̰ 1 ∙ 𝑣̰ 2
𝜃 = cos −1
|𝑣̰1 ||𝑣2 |

15
𝜃 = cos −1 (− )
3√3 × 5√3
1
𝜃 = cos −1 (− )
3
For the acute angle,
1
𝜃 = cos −1 ( )
3
𝜃 ≑ 70.5°
19
2 1
𝑟̰1 = [ 9 ] + 𝜆 [2]
13 3
𝑎 −1
𝑟̰2 = [ 7 ] + 𝜇 [ 2 ]
−2 −3
So if 𝑟̰1 and 𝑟̰2 intersect then, 𝑟̰1 = 𝑟̰2 .
2 1 𝑎 −1
[ 9 ] + 𝜆 [2] = [ 7 ] + 𝜇 [ 2 ]
13 3 −2 −3
Equating the first two components and solving for 𝑎:
2+𝜆 =𝑎−𝜇
𝑎 =2+𝜆+𝜇
Equating the third two components and solving for 𝜆:
13 + 3𝜆 = −2 − 3𝜇
3𝜆 = −15 − 3𝜇
𝜆 = −5 − 𝜇
9 + 2𝜆 = 7 + 2𝜇
9 + 2(−5 − 𝜇) = 7 + 2𝜇
−10 − 2𝜇 = −2 + 2𝜇
−4𝜇 = 8
𝜇 = −2

Hence
𝜆 = −5 − 𝜇
𝜆 = −5 − (−2)
𝜆 = −3
So
𝑎 =2+𝜆+𝜇
𝑎 =2−3−2
𝑎 = −3
0 1
20a 𝑟̰ = [ ]+𝜆[ ]
−4 2
𝑥 0 1
[𝑦 ] = [ ] + 𝜆 [ ]
−4 2
𝑥= 𝜆
𝑦 = −4 + 2 𝜆
𝑦 = −4 + 2 𝑥
So, for 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 2 respectively, two points on the line will be
𝐴 = (1, −2)
𝐵 = (2, 0)
20b Using 𝐴 and 𝐵 from part a:

𝑃 = (−2, 3)
𝐴 = (1, −2)
𝐵 = (2, 0)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [ −2 − 1 ]
𝐴𝑃
3 − (−2)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ −3
𝐴𝑃 = [ ]
5
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2−1
𝐴𝐵 = [ ]
0 − (−2)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [1]
𝐴𝐵
2

20c ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑏̰
1
𝑏̰ = [ ]
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑝̰
−3
𝑝̰ = [ ]
5
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑝̰
|𝑏̰|2
(1 × −3) + (2 × 5) 1
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑝̰ = [ ]
12 + 22 2
7 1
5 2
1 7
5 14
20d The perpendicular distance 𝑑 from the point 𝑃 to the line is:
1 7
5 14
−3
𝑝̰ = [ ]
5
So
1 7 −3
𝑑 = | [ ] − [ ]|
5 14 5
22
𝑑 = |[ 5 ]|
11
−
5
2
22 2 11 2
𝑑 = ( ) + (− )
5 5
484 121
𝑑2 = +
25 25

121
𝑑=√
5
11√5
𝑑= units
5
21a
−1 1
𝑟̰ = [ 1 ] + 𝜆 [0]
0 2
𝑥 −1 1
𝑦
[ ] = [ 1 ] + 𝜆 [0]
𝑧 0 2
𝑥 = −1 + 𝜆
𝑦=1
𝑧 =2𝜆
So
𝑧
𝑥 = −1 +
2
So, for 𝑦 = 1, 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑦 = 1, 𝑧 = 2 respectively, two points on the line will be
𝐴 = (−1, 1, 0)
𝐵 = (0, 1, 2)
21b Using 𝐴 and 𝐵 from part a:

𝑃 = (1, −1 ,1)
𝐴 = (−1, 1, 0)
𝐵 = (0, 1, 2)
1 −1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [−1] − [ 1 ]
𝐴𝑃
1 0
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [−2]
𝐴𝑃
1

0 −1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [1] − [ 1 ]
𝐴𝐵
2 0
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [0]
𝐴𝐵
2
21c ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏̰
𝐴𝐵
1
𝑏̰ = [0]
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑝̰
𝐴𝑃
2
𝑝̰ = [−2]
1
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑝̰
|𝑏̰|2
(1 × 2) + (0 × −2) + (2 × 1) 1
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑝̰ = [0]
12 + 02 + 22
2
4 1
5
2
1 4
5
8
21d The perpendicular distance 𝑑 from the point 𝑃 to the line is:
1 4
5
8
2
𝑝̰ = [−2]
1
So

1 4 2
𝑑 = | [0] − [−2]|
5
8 1
6
−
5
𝑑 = || 2 ||
3
[ 5 ]
2
6 2 2
3 2
𝑑 = (− ) + 2 + ( )
5 5
36 9
𝑑2 = +4+
25 25
145
𝑑=√
25
√145
𝑑= units
5
22a Two lines are parallel if there is value 𝑎 at which 𝑛̰ 1 = 𝑎𝑛̰ 2

where 𝑛̰ 1 and 𝑛̰ 2 are the directional vectors for 𝑣̰ 1 and 𝑣̰ 2 respectively and 𝑎 is a
real number.
In this case the directional vectors 𝑛̰ 1 = 𝑛̰ 2 so the lines must be parallel.
22b For the line 𝑣̰ 2

1 1
where 𝑣̰ 2 = [−2] + 𝜇 [−2]
1 3
A point on the line 𝑣̰ 2 is:
𝑃 = (1, −2, 1)
The position vector for 𝑃, 𝑐̰ will be
1
𝑐̰ = [−2] or 𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰
1

22c The perpendicular distance 𝑑 from the point P to the line is 𝑣̰ 2 :

𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑝̰
|𝑏̰|2
Finding two points on 𝑣̰ 2

1 1
𝑣̰ 2 = [−2] + 𝜇 [−2]
1 3
𝑥 1 1
𝑦
[ ] = [−2] + 𝜇 [−2]
𝑧 1 3
𝑥 = 1+𝜇
𝜇 =𝑥−1
𝑦 = −2 − 2𝜇
𝑦 = −2 − 2(𝑥 − 1)
𝑦 = −2𝑥 (1)
𝑧 = 1 + 3𝜇
𝑧 = 3𝑥 − 2 (2)
Using (1) and (2), solve for 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2 for points 𝐴 and 𝐵 respectively.
𝐴 = (0, 0, −2)
𝐵 = (2, −4, 4)
2 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [−4] − [ 0 ]
𝐴𝐵
4 −2
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = [−4]
6
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏̰
𝐴𝐵
2
𝑐̰ = [ 1 ]
−2
2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑃 = [−4] − [ 1 ]
4 −2

0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [−5]
𝐴𝑃
6
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑝̰
|𝑏̰|2 = 22 + (−4)2 + 62
|𝑏̰|2 = 4 + 16 + 36
|𝑏̰| = 56
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑝̰
|𝑏̰|2
0 + 20 + 36 2
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑝̰ = [−4]
56
6
2
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑝̰ = [−4]
6
2 0
𝑑 = |[−4] − [−5]|
6 6
2
𝑑 = |[1]|
0
𝑑 2 = 22 + 12 + 02
𝑑2 = 5
𝑑 = √5 units
23a If 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is a rhombus then all sides will be equal and opposing sides will be
parallel.
−1
𝑎̰ = [ ]
−2
3
𝑏̰ = [ ]
2
2
𝑐̰ = [ ]
3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ ) − (𝑎̰)
𝐴𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑏̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 3
𝐴𝐵 = [ ]
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ +) − (𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ )
𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑐̰
𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [2]
𝐵𝐶
3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑏̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 3
𝐶𝐷 = [ ]
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑎̰ + 𝑐̰ ) − (𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ + 𝑐̰ )
𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑎̰) − (𝑎̰ + 𝑐̰ )
𝐷𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷𝐴 = −𝑐̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ −2
𝐷𝐴 = [ ]
−3
So in order for the opposing sides to be parallel, for real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝐶𝐷
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏𝐷𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
These hold for 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑏 = −1

If all sides are equal in length, then:
2 2 2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐵𝐶
|𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐷𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
We already know that

2 2 2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐶𝐷
|𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | and |𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐷𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐶𝐷
So we need to see if |𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 22 + 32
|𝐵𝐶
2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐶𝐷
|𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
So as 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 has all sides equal in length and opposite sides are parallel,
𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is a rhombus.

23b The bisector of angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is 𝐵𝐷.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰
𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [2]
𝑂𝐵
0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎̰ + 𝑐̰
𝑂𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [1]
𝑂𝐷
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝜆(𝑂𝐷
𝑟̰𝐵𝐷 = 𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )
2 1 2
𝑟̰𝐵𝐷 = [ ] + 𝜆 ([ ] − [ ])
0 1 0
2 −1
𝑟̰𝐵𝐷 = [ ] + 𝜆 [ ]
0 1
As the bisector of angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is perpendicular to ∠𝐵𝐴𝐷,
the vector equation for 𝐴𝐶 will be
−1
𝑟̰𝐴𝐶 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 + 𝜆 [ ]
(−1) × 1
−1 1
𝑟̰𝐴𝐶 = [ ]+𝜆[ ]
−2 1
24a For ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑀
0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = [1]
2
4
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [0]
𝑂𝐶
1
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 = (𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )
2
1 0 4
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 = ([1] + [0])
2
2 1
2
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 = 2
3
[2 ]

24b For a vector equation for the line BD

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝜆(𝑂𝐷
𝑟̰𝐵𝐷 = 𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )
−1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = [−1]
0
3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐷 = [1]
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝜆(𝑂𝐷
𝑟̰𝐵𝐷 = 𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )
−1 3 −1
𝑟̰𝐵𝐷 = [−1] + 𝜆 ([1] − [−1])
0 2 0
−1 4
𝑟̰𝐵𝐷 = [−1] + 𝜆 [2]
0 2
24c Solving for 𝜆:

−1 4
𝑟̰𝐵𝐷 = [−1] + 𝜆 [2]
0 2
𝑥 −1 4
[𝑦] = [−1] + 𝜆 [2]
𝑧 0 2
𝑧 = 2𝜆
𝑧
𝜆=
2
1 3
𝑀 = (2, , )
2 2
So
3 1
𝜆= ×
2 2
3
𝜆=
4
Substituting this back into 𝑟̰𝐵𝐷 should be equal to 𝑀 if 𝑀 is on the line:
LHS = 𝑟̰𝐵𝐷

−1 3 4
= [−1] + [2]
4
0 2
3
−1 3
= [−1] + 2
0 3
[2]
2
1
= 2
3
[2]
=𝑀
= RHS
So 𝑀 lies on the line 𝑟̰𝐵𝐷 .
24d 𝐵𝑀: 𝑀𝐷
−1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = [−1]
0
3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐷 = [1]
2
2
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 = 2
3
[2 ]
2
1 −1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2 − [−1]
𝐵𝑀
3 0
[
(2 ] )
3
3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑀 = 2
3
[2]

2
3 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [1] − 2
𝑀𝐷
2 3
( [2])
1
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝐷 = 2
1
[2]
3 1
3 1
𝐵𝑀: 𝑀𝐷 = 2 : 2
3 1
[2] [2]
= 3: 1
25a The interval of the line segment 𝐴𝐵.
25b The ray with endpoint 𝐵 in the direction of 𝑏̰ − 𝑎̰ .
25b The ray with endpoint 𝐴 in the direction of 𝑎̰ − 𝑏̰ .


1a 𝑐 = (6, −9)
6
𝑐̰ = [ ]
−9
𝑟 = 2√7
For a circle centred on (𝑎, 𝑏)
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2
So
2
(𝑥 − 6)2 + (𝑦 + 9)2 = (2√7)
(𝑥 − 6)2 + (𝑦 + 9)2 = 28
1b 𝑐 = (6, −9)
6
𝑐̰ = [ ]
−9
𝑟 = 2√7
|𝑟̰ − 𝑐̰ | = 𝑟
so
6
|𝑟̰ − [ ]| = 2√7
−9
1c For |𝑎̰| = |𝑏̰| = 𝑟 2 , where 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 0

𝑟̰ − 𝑐̰ = 𝑎̰ cos 𝜃 + 𝑏̰ sin 𝜃
𝑥 6 0
[𝑦] − [ ] = [2√7] cos 𝜃 + [ ] sin 𝜃
−9 0 2√7
So the two parametric equations are:
𝑥 = 6 + 2√7 cos 𝜃
𝑦 = 2√7 sin 𝜃 − 9

2a 𝑐 = (−2, 7, −4)
−2
𝑐̰ = [ 7 ]
−4
𝑟=9
(𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑦 − 7)2 + (𝑧 + 4)2 = 81
2b |𝑟̰ − 𝑐̰ | = 𝑟
−2
|𝑟̰ − [ 7 ]| = 9
−4
−5
3a |𝑟̰ − [ ]| = 3√5
−10
2
(𝑥 + 5)2 + (𝑦 + 10)2 = (3√5)
(𝑥 + 5)2 + (𝑦 + 10)2 = 45
3
3b |𝑟̰ − [−1]| = 11
8
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 + (𝑧 − 8)2 = 112
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 + (𝑧 − 8)2 = 121
4 𝑥 = 5 + 2√2 cos 𝜃
𝑦 = 2√2 sin 𝜃 − 3
For |𝑎̰| = |𝑏̰| = 𝑟 2 , where 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 0
𝑟̰ − 𝑐̰ = 𝑎̰ cos 𝜃 + 𝑏̰ sin 𝜃
𝑥 − 5 = 2√2 cos 𝜃
𝑦 − (−3) = 2√2 sin 𝜃

So the vector equation will be:
𝑥 5
|[𝑦] − [ ]| = 2√2
−3

The Cartesian equation is:

2
(𝑥 − 5)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = (2√2)
(𝑥 − 5)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = 8
5a 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 8𝑦 = 0
(𝑥 2 − 6𝑥) + (𝑦 2 + 8𝑦) = 0
Completing the square gives
(𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9) − 9 + (𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 + 16) − 16 = 0
(𝑥 − 3)2 − 9 + (𝑦 + 4)2 − 16 = 0
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 + 4)2 = 25
So
𝑟=5
3
𝑐̰ = [ ]
−4
|𝑟̰ − 𝑐̰ | = 𝑟
So
3
|𝑟̰ − [ ]| = 5
−4
5b 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 0
(𝑥 2 + 𝑥) + (𝑦 2 − 2𝑦) + (𝑧 2 − 5𝑧) = 0
Completing the square gives
1 1 25 25
(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + ) − + (𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1) − 1 + (𝑧 2 − 5𝑧 + ) − =0
4 4 4 4
1 2 2
5 2 30
(𝑥 + ) + (𝑦 − 1) + (𝑧 − ) =
2 2 4
So
1
−2
𝑐̰ = [ 1 ]
5
2

30
𝑟2 =
4
√30
𝑟=
2
|𝑟̰ − 𝑐̰ | = 𝑟
So
1
−
2
|𝑟̰ − 1 | = √30
| | 2
5
[ 2 ]
6 𝑃(8, −5, 2)
5
|𝑟̰ − [−3]| = 7
−4
𝑥 5
|[𝑦] − [−3]| = 7
𝑧 −4
For the point 𝑃:
8 5
|[−5] − [−3]|
2 −4
3
= |[−2]|
6
= √32 + (−2)2 + 62
= √9 + 4 + 36
= √49
=7
Thus point 𝑃 is a point on the surface of the sphere.

7 𝐴(−4, −5, 6)
−2
|𝑟̰ − [ 4 ]| = 3√15
−1
𝑥 −2
|[𝑦] − [ 4 ]| = 3√15
𝑧 −1
For the point 𝐴:
−4 −2
|[−5] − [ 4 ]|
6 −1
−2
= |[−9]|
7
= √(−2)2 + (−9)2 + 72
= √4 + 81 + 49
= √134
Since √134 < 3√15, point 𝐴 lies inside the circle.
8 (𝑟̰ − (2𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰ )) ∙ (𝑟̰ − (2𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰ )) = 20
𝑥−2 𝑥−2
[𝑦 − 1] ∙ [𝑦 − 1] = 20
𝑧+1 𝑧+1
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 + (𝑧 + 1)2 = 20
𝑟 2 = 20
𝑟 = √20
𝑟 = 2√5
So the centre of the circle is (2, 1, −1)
The radius of the circle is 2√5.

9a 𝑟̰ (𝑡) = (2 cos 𝑡 + 1)𝑖̰ + (2 sin 𝑡 − 1)𝑗̰
𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑡 + 1
𝑦 = 2 sin 𝑡 − 1
9b 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑡 + 1
𝑥−1
cos 𝑡 =
2
𝑦 = 2 sin 𝑡 − 1
𝑦+1
sin 𝑡 =
2
Since sin2 𝑡 + cos2 𝑡 = 1,
𝑥−1 2 𝑦+1 2
( ) +( ) =1
2 2
(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 = 4

Solutions to Exercise 5G Development questions

10a 𝑟̰ (𝑡) = (𝑡 − 2)𝑖̰ + (𝑡 2 − 2)𝑗̰, for 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑥 =𝑡−2
𝑡 =𝑥+2
𝑦 = 𝑡2 − 2
𝑦 = (𝑥 + 2)2 − 2
10b Since 𝑡 ≥ 0 and 𝑥 = 𝑡 − 2,

𝑥 ≥0−2
𝑥 ≥ −2
So domain is [−2, ∞).
10c Graph of 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 2)2 − 2 for 𝑥 ≥ −2 shown below.

𝑥-intercept: when 𝑦 = 0,
(𝑥 + 2)2 − 2 = 0
(𝑥 + 2)2 = 2
𝑥 + 2 = ±√2
𝑥 = −2 ± √2
But 𝑥 ≥ −2, so 𝑥-intercept is −2 + √2.

𝑦-intercept: when 𝑥 = 0,
𝑦 = (0 + 2)2 − 2 = 2
So 𝑦-intercept is 2.

11a 𝑎̰ = 3𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰
For a circle with radius 𝑟, centred on the origin its vector equation will be:
𝑟 = |𝑎̰|
|𝑟̰ |2 = 32 + (−1)2
|𝑟̰ | = √10
11b 𝑎̰ = 3𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰
The tangent of the circle at point 𝑎´ is perpendicular to the radius.

So (𝑟̰ − 𝑎̰ ) ∙ 𝑎̰ = 0
(𝑟̰ − (3𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰)) ∙ (3𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰) = 0
11c 𝑎̰ = 3𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰
𝑟 = √10
(𝑟̰ − 𝑎̰ ) ∙ 𝑎̰ = 0
(𝑥𝑖̰ + 𝑦𝑗̰) ∙ (3𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰) + 10 = 0
(3𝑥 − 𝑦) − 10 = 0
So the Cartesian equation for the tangent is:
𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 10

1 3
12a 𝑟̰ = [ ]+𝜆[ ]
−1 2
So the parametric equations are:
𝑥 = 3𝜆 + 1
𝑦 = 2𝜆 − 1
1
12b |𝑟̰ − [ ]| = √13
−1
1 3
𝑟̰ = [ ]+𝜆[ ]
−1 2
1 3 1
|[ ] + 𝜆 [ ] − [ ]| = √13
−1 2 −1
3
|𝜆 [ ]| = √13
2
9𝜆2 + 4𝜆2 = 13
𝜆2 = 1
𝜆 = ±1
Substituting 𝜆 = ±1 and solving for 𝑥 and 𝑦:
𝐴 = (3(1) + 1, 2(1) − 1)
𝐴 = (4, 1)
𝐵 = (3(−1) + 1, 2(−1) − 1)
𝐵 = (−2, −3)
13 First find the Cartesian equations for these spheres.

5
|𝑟̰ − [−6]| = 7
3
−3
|𝑟̰ − [ 2 ]| = 5
7
|𝑣̰ − 𝑐̰ | = 𝑟
So the Cartesian equations in terms of 𝑥 will be:
(𝑥 − 5)2 = 72
(𝑥 + 3)2 = 52

Equating these two equations to find the intersecting point on the 𝑥-axis
(𝑥 − 5)2 − 49 = (𝑥 + 3)2 − 25
𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 25 − 49 = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 − 25
16𝑥 = 8
1
𝑥=
2
As there is only a single value for the two spheres to intersect on the 𝑥-axis, the
spheres touch each other at a single point.
14a The circle of intersection will be perpendicular to the axis the spheres are
centred on as both spheres centre on the 𝑧-axis, one at (0, 0, 0) and the other at
(0, 0, 5).
The sphere of intersection between the two spheres will be parallel to the 𝑥𝑦-
plane.
14b |𝑟̰ | = 3
0
|𝑟̰ − [0]| = 4
5
0
|(𝑧 2 − 5) [0]| = 4
5
𝑥
|[ 𝑦 ]| = 4
𝑧−5
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = 9
𝑦2 = 9 − 𝑥2 − 𝑧2 (1)
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + (𝑧 − 5)2 = 16 (2)
Substituting (1) into (2) gives us:
𝑥 2 + (9 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑧 2 ) + (𝑧 − 5)2 = 16
9 − 𝑧 2 + (𝑧 − 5)2 = 16
9 − 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 2 − 10𝑧 + 25 = 16
−18 = −10𝑧

9
𝑧=
5
Substituting this into equation (2) and solving for 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 :
2
2
92
𝑥 + 𝑦 + ( − 5) = 16
5
256
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + = 16
25
144
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 =
25
As 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2
12
𝑟=
5
The intersecting circle is centred on (0, 0, 𝑧).
So, solving for the position of the intersecting circle on the 𝑧-axis
12
using a point on the circle solve for 𝑧, say 𝑥 = , 𝑦 = 0:
5
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = 9
12 2
( ) + 02 + 𝑧 2 = 9
5
144
𝑧2 = 9 −
25
81
𝑧2 =
25
9
𝑧=
5
So the intersecting circle is centred on
9
𝐶 = (0, 0, )
5

15 (𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 + 4)2 + (𝑧 + 2)2 = 81

3
|𝑟̰ − [−4]| = 81
−2
−3 7
𝑟̰ = [ 16 ] + 𝜆 [−12]
−9 3
−3 7 3
|[ 16 ] + 𝜆 [−12] − [−4]| = 81
−9 3 −2
−6 + 7𝜆
|[20 − 12𝜆]| = 81
−7 + 3𝜆
(−6 + 7𝜆)2 + (20 − 12𝜆)2 + (−7 + 3𝜆)2 = 81
36 − 84𝜆 + 49𝜆2 + 200 − 480𝜆 + 144𝜆2 + 49 − 42𝜆 + 9𝜆2 = 81
202𝜆2 − 606𝜆 + 404 = 0
𝜆2 − 3𝜆 + 2 = 0
(𝜆 − 1)(𝜆 − 2) = 0
So the line intersects with the sphere for the values of 𝜆 where
𝜆 = 1, 2
Substituting these values back into the line equation 𝑟̰ :
For 𝜆 = 1
𝑥 −3 7
[𝑦] = [ 16 ] + [−12]
𝑧 −9 3
𝑥 4
𝑦
[ ]=[ 4 ]
𝑧 −6
For 𝜆 = 2
𝑥 −3 7
[𝑦] = [ 16 ] + 2 [−12]
𝑧 −9 3
𝑥 11
[𝑦] = [−8]
𝑧 −3

The line intersects with the sphere at points:

(4, 4, −6) and (11, −8, −3)
−2 3
16a 𝑟̰ = [ 3 ] + 𝜆 [4]
4 5
𝑥 −2 3
𝑦
[ ] = [ 3 ] + 𝜆 [4]
𝑧 4 5
𝑥 = 3𝜆 − 2
𝑦 = 4𝜆 + 3
𝑧 = 5𝜆 + 4
16b Substituting the parametric equations into the equation for the plane:
𝑥 = 3𝜆 − 2
𝑦 = 4𝜆 + 3
𝑧 = 5𝜆 + 4
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 𝑧 = 55
2(3𝜆 − 2) + 4(4𝜆 + 3) − (5𝜆 + 4) = 55
6𝜆 − 4 + 16𝜆 + 12 − 5𝜆 − 4 = 55
17𝜆 + 4 = 55
𝜆=3
Substituting 𝜆 into 𝑟̰ will give us the point of intersection.
𝑥 −2 3
𝑦
[ ] = [ 3 ] + 3 [4]
𝑧 4 5
𝑥 7
[𝑦] = [15]
𝑧 19
So the point of intersection between the line and the plane is:
(7, 15, 19)

1
(𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡 )
17a 𝑟̰ = [21 ]
(𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡 )
2
1 𝑡
𝑥= (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑡 )
2
1
𝑥 2 = (𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡 )2
4
1
𝑥 2 = (𝑒 𝑡+𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑡−𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡+𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡−𝑡 )
4
1
𝑥 2 = (𝑒 2𝑡 + 2 + 𝑒 −𝑡 )
4
1 1 2𝑡
𝑥2 − = (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑡 )
2 4
1 𝑡
𝑦= (𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑡 )
2
1
𝑦 2 = (𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑡 )2
4
1
𝑦 2 = (𝑒 𝑡+𝑡 − 𝑒 𝑡−𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑡+𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡−𝑡 )
4
1
𝑦 2 = (𝑒 2𝑡 + 𝑒 −2𝑡 − 2)
4
1 1
𝑦 2 + 2 = 4 (𝑒 2𝑡 + 𝑒 −2𝑡 )
Equating the LHS for 𝑥 and 𝑦 gives:

1 1
𝑥2 − = 𝑦2 +
2 2
𝑥2 − 𝑦2 = 1
2 sin 𝑡
17b 𝑟̰ = [ ]
2 sin 𝑡 tan 𝑡
𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑡
We know that, cos 2 𝑡 + sin2 𝑡 = 1
So
𝑥 2 = 4 sin2 𝑡

𝑥 2 = 4 − 4 cos 2 𝑡
4 − 𝑥2
= cos2 𝑡
4
sin 𝑡
tan 𝑡 =
cos 𝑡
𝑦 = 2 sin 𝑡 tan 𝑡
2 sin2 𝑡
𝑦=
cos 𝑡
1
𝑦 2 = 4 sin4 𝑡 ×
cos 2 𝑡
1 1
𝑦2 = 𝑥4 ×
4 4 − 𝑥2
( 4 )
𝑥4
𝑦2 =
(4 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑥2
𝑦=±
√(4 − 𝑥 2 )

Solutions to Exercise 5H Chapter review

1 𝑎̰ = 6𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ + 2𝑘̰
|𝑎̰|2 = 62 + (−3)2 + 22
|𝑎̰|2 = 36 + 9 + 4
|𝑎̰|2 = 49
|𝑎̰| = 7
𝑎̰
𝑎̰̂ =
|𝑎̰|
1
= (6𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ ̰ + 2𝑘̰ )
7
6 3 2
= 𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰
7 7 7
2a 𝐴 = 3𝑖̰ − 1𝑗̰ − 6𝑘̰
𝐵 = −2𝑖̰ − 5𝑗̰ + 1𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −2𝑖̰ − 5𝑗̰ + 1𝑘̰ − (3𝑖̰ − 1𝑗̰ − 6𝑘̰ )

𝐴𝐵
= −5𝑖̰ − 4𝑗̰ + 7𝑘̰
2b 𝐴 = 3𝑖̰ − 1𝑗̰ − 6𝑘̰
𝐵 = −2𝑖̰ − 5𝑗̰ + 1𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3𝑖̰ − 1𝑗̰ − 6𝑘̰ − (−2𝑖̰ − 5𝑗̰ + 1𝑘̰ )

𝐵𝐴
= 5𝑖̰ + 4𝑗̰ − 7𝑘̰
2c ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
Distance 𝐴𝐵 = |𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = −5𝑖̰ − 4𝑗̰ + 7𝑘̰
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (−5)2 + (−4)2 + 72
|𝐴𝐵
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 25 + 16 + 49
|𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √90 = 3√10

|𝐴𝐵

3 𝐴 = (6, 12, 7)
𝐵 = (10, 2, −15)
𝐶 = (−4, 1, 5)
𝐷 = (−2, −4, −6)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (10 − 6)𝑖̰ + (2 − 12)𝑗̰ + (−15 − 7)𝑘̰
𝐴𝐵
= 4𝑖̰ − 10𝑗̰ − 22𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 = (−2 − (−4))𝑖̰ + (−4 − 1)𝑗̰ + (−6 − 5)𝑘̰
= 2𝑖̰ − 5𝑗̰ − 11𝑘̰
If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 ||𝐶𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , for 𝑎 ∈ ℝ
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝐶𝐷
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
This holds for 𝑎 = 2.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is parallel to 𝐶𝐷
So 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
4 𝐴 = (2, 3, −1)
𝐵 = (5, −1, 1)
𝐶 = (−4, 11, −5)
For 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 to be collinear ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝐶𝐴

𝐴𝐵 ||𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = (5 − 2)𝑖̰ + (−1 − 3)𝑗̰ + (1 − (−1))𝑘̰
= 3𝑖̰ − 4𝑗̰ + 2𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−4 − 5)𝑖̰ + (11 − (−1))𝑗̰ + (−5 − 1)𝑘̰

𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −9𝑖̰ + 12𝑗̰ − 6𝑘̰

𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐴 = (2 − (−4))𝑖̰ + (3 − 11)𝑗̰ + (−1 − (−5))𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐴 = 6𝑖̰ − 8𝑗̰ + 4𝑘̰
If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 ||𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , for 𝑎 ∈ ℝ
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = −3𝐵𝐶
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐴
3

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 2𝐶𝐴
So 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are collinear.
6
5a 𝑏̰ = [ 2 ]
−2
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑎̰ = |𝑎̰|2
4 4
= [−3] ∙ [−3]
5 5
= 16 + 9 + 25
= 50
6
5b 𝑏̰ = [ 2 ]
−2
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = |𝑏̰|2
6 6
=[ 2 ]∙[ 2 ]
−2 −2
= 36 + 4 + 4
= 44
4
5c 𝑎̰ = [−3]
5
6
𝑏̰ = [ 2 ]
−2
4 6
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = [−3] ∙ [ 2 ]
5 −2
= 24 − 6 − 10
=8

4
5d 𝑎̰ = [−3]
5
6
𝑏̰ = [ 2 ]
−2
(𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ ) ∙ (𝑎̰ + 𝑏̰ )
= |𝑎̰2 | + 2𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ + |𝑏̰ 2 |
= 50 + 16 + 44
= 110
−1
6 𝑎̰ = [ 4 ]
5
1
𝑏̰ = [0]
2
−2
𝑐̰ = [ 1 ]
−3
3
𝑑̰ = [ 2 ]
−1
1 −1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [0] − [ 4 ]
𝐴𝐵
2 5
2
= [−4]
−3
3 −2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 = [ 2 ] − [ 1 ]
−1 −3
5
= [1]
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 are perpendicular if:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐶𝐷
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
LHS = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷

2 5
= [−4] ∙ [1]
−3 2
= 10 − 4 − 6
=0
= RHS
So 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are perpendicular.
7 𝑎̰ = (𝜆 + 4)𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ + 4𝑘̰
𝑏̰ = 2𝑖̰ + (𝜆 − 4)𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
= ((𝜆 + 4)𝑖̰ + 2𝑗̰ + 4𝑘̰ ) ∙ (2𝑖̰ + (𝜆 − 4)𝑗̰ + 𝑘̰ )
= 2(𝜆 + 4) + 2(𝜆 − 4) + 4
= 2𝜆 + 8 + 2𝜆 − 8 + 4
= 4𝜆 + 4
For 𝑎̰ and 𝑏̰ to be perpendicular, 𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = 0.
4𝜆 + 4 = 0
𝜆 = −1
−2
8 𝑎̰ = [−3]
2
1
𝑏̰ = [−2]
1
|𝑎̰|2 = 4 + 9 + 4
|𝑎̰|2 = 4 + 9 + 4
= 17
|𝑎̰| = √17
|𝑏̰|2 = 1 + 4 + 1
=6

|𝑏̰| = √6
−2 1
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = [−3] ∙ [−2]
2 1
= −2 + 6 + 2
=6
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
cos 𝜃 =
|𝑎̰ ||𝑏̰ |
6
=
√102
9 𝑎̰ = 2𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ − 3𝑘̰
𝑏̰ = 4𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ − 2𝑘̰
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑎̰
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑎̰ = 𝑏̰
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
𝑎̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = (2𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ − 3𝑘̰ ) ∙ (4𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ − 2𝑘̰ )
= 8−3+6
= 11
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = (4𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ − 2𝑘̰ ) ∙ (4𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ − 2𝑘̰ )
= 16 + 9 + 4
= 29
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑎̰
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑎̰ = 𝑏̰
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
11
= (4𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ − 2𝑘̰ )
29
44 33 22
= 𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰
29 29 29

10a 𝑃 = (2, 3, 1)
𝐴 = (1, 0, −2)
𝐵 = (0, −1, 1)
2 1 1
𝐴𝑃 = [3] − [ 0 ] = [3]
1 −2 3
0 1 −1
𝐴𝐵 = [−1] − [ 0 ] = [−1]
1 −2 3
10b 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑝̰
1
= [3]
3
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑏̰
−1
= [−1]
3
−1 1
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑝̰ = [−1] ∙ [3]
3 3
= −1 − 3 + 9
=5
−1 −1
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰ = [−1] ∙ [−1]
3 3
= 1+1+9
= 11
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑝̰
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑝̰ = 𝑏̰
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
5 −1
= [−1]
11
3

1
10c 𝑝̰ = [3]
3
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑝̰
𝑑 = |𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑝̰ − 𝑝| = | 𝑏̰ − 𝑝̰|
𝑏̰ ∙ 𝑏̰
5 −1
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑏̰ 𝑝̰ = [−1]
11
3
5 −1 1
𝑑=| [−1] − [3]|
11
3 3
5 11
−
11 11 |
|
5 33
= − −
| 11 11 |
15 33
[ 11 ] [11]
16
11
| 38 |
=
| 11 |
18
−
[ 11]
16 2 38 2 18 2
√
= ( ) + ( ) + (− )
11 11 11
256 1444 324

=√ + +
121 121 121
√2024
=
11
2√506
= units
11

11 𝑋 = (−5, 7, 3)
𝑌 = (5, −2 6)
𝑍 = (3, −5, −4)
−5 − 5 −10
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑌𝑋 = [7 − (−2)] = [ 9 ]
3−6 −3
3−5 −2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑌𝑍 = [−5 − (−2)] = [ −3 ]
−4 − 6 −10
−10 −2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑌𝑋 ∙ 𝑌𝑍 = [ 9 ] ∙ [ −3 ]
−3 −10
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑋𝑌 𝑌𝑍 = (−10 × −2) + (9 × −3) + (−3 × −10)
= 20 − 27 + 30
= 23
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (−10)2 + 92 + (−3)2
|𝑋𝑌
= 100 + 81 + 9
= 190
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √190
|𝑋𝑌
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = (−2)2 + (−3)2 + (−10)2
|𝑌𝑍
= 4 + 9 + 100
= 113
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √113
|𝑌𝑍
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑋𝑌 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑌𝑍
cos ∠𝑋𝑌𝑍 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑌𝑍
|𝑋𝑌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
23
cos ∠𝑋𝑌𝑍 =
√190 × √113
∠𝑋𝑌𝑍 ≑ 81°

12a For a rhombus with verticies 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 with respective position vectors 𝑎̰ , 𝑏̰ , 𝑐̰ , 𝑑̰

and diagonals of length 𝑎 and 𝑏:
0
𝑎̰ = [ ]
0
1
𝑎
2
𝑏̰ = [ ]
1
𝑏
2
𝑎
𝑐̰ = [ ]
0
1
𝑎
𝑑̰ = [ 2 ]
1
− 𝑏
2
The midpoint of 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑀
1
1 2𝑎 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 = ([ ] + [ ])
2 1 0
𝑏
2
1
𝑎
= [4 ]
1
𝑏
4
The midpoint of 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑁
1
1 𝑎 𝑎
𝑂𝑁 = ([ ] + [2 ])
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2 0 1
𝑏
2
3
𝑎
= [4 ]
1
𝑏
4
The midpoint of 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑃
1
1 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ([ 2 ] + [𝑎])
𝑂𝑃
2 1 0
− 𝑏
2

3
𝑎
=[ 4 ]
1
− 𝑏
4
The midpoint of 𝐷𝐴 = 𝑄
1
1 0 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑄 = ([ ] + [ 2 ])
2 0 1
− 𝑏
2
1
𝑎
=[ 4 ]
1
− 𝑏
4
So the sides of the quadrilateral 𝑀𝑁𝑃𝑄 will be:
3 1
𝑎 𝑎 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [4 ] − [4 ] = [2 𝑎]
𝑀𝑁
1 1
𝑏 𝑏 0
4 4
3 3
𝑎 𝑎 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [ 4 ] − [4 ] = [ 1 ]
𝑁𝑃
1 1 − 𝑏
− 𝑏 𝑏 2
4 4
1 3
𝑎 𝑎 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = [ 4 ]−[ 4 ] = [ 2 𝑎]
−
1 1
− 𝑏 − 𝑏 0
4 4
1 1
𝑎 𝑎 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 4
𝑄𝑀 = [ ] − [ 4 1
]=[ ]
1 1 𝑏
𝑏 − 𝑏 2
4 4
For a rectangle, opposite sides are equal in length and parallel, and adjacent
sides are at right-angles.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑃𝑄
𝑀𝑁
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑄𝑀
𝑁𝑃
So ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑁 and𝑃𝑄⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are equal in length and parallel and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑁𝑃 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄𝑀 are equal in
length and parallel.
For adjacent sides ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑀𝑁 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑁𝑃 to be perpendicular, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑁. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑁𝑃 = 0:

1 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎
𝑀𝑁. 𝑁𝑃 = [2 ] . [ 1 ]
− 𝑏
0 2
=0
So ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑁 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑁𝑃 are perpendicular.
Therefore opposite sides are parallel and equal in length and adjacent sides are
at right angles. Hence 𝑁𝑃𝑄𝑀 is a rectangle.
12b For a rectangle with vertices 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 with respective position vectors 𝑎̰ , 𝑏̰ , 𝑐̰ , 𝑑̰

and length 𝑎 and width 𝑏:
0
𝑎̰ = [ ]
0
0
𝑏̰ = [ ]
𝑏
𝑎
𝑐̰ = [ ]
𝑏
𝑎
𝑑̰ = [ ]
0
The midpoint of 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑀
1 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ([0] + [0]) = [1 ]
𝑂𝑀
2 𝑏 0 𝑏
2
The midpoint of 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑁
1 𝑎 1
0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑂𝑁 ([ ] + [ ]) = [2 𝑎 ]
2 𝑏 𝑏
𝑏
The midpoint of 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑃
𝑎
1 𝑎 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 1
𝑂𝑃 = ([ ] + [ ]) = [ 𝑏]
2 0 𝑏
2
The midpoint of 𝐷𝐴 = 𝑄
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ([0] + [𝑎]) = [2 𝑎 ]
𝑂𝑄
2 0 0
0
So the sides of the quadrilateral 𝑀𝑁𝑃𝑄 will be:

1
1 0 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎 1 2
𝑀𝑁 = [2 ] − [ ] = [ ]
𝑏 1
𝑏 2 𝑏
2
1
𝑎 1 𝑎
𝑁𝑃 = [1 𝑏] − [2 𝑎] = [ 2 ]
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
1
2 𝑏 − 𝑏
2
1
1 𝑎 − 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [2 𝑎] − [1 ] = [ 2 ]
𝑃𝑄 𝑏 1
0 2 − 𝑏
2
1
0 1 − 𝑎
𝑄𝑀 = [1 ] − [2 𝑎 ] = [ 2 ]
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑏 1
2 0 𝑏
2
For a rhombus all sides are equal in length and opposite sides are parallel.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑁 = −𝑃𝑄⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑄𝑀
𝑁𝑃
𝑀𝑁 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
So ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑁𝑃 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 are parallel (and equal in length) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑄𝑀 are parallel
(and equal in length).
1 2 1 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ √
|𝑀𝑁| = ( 𝑎) + ( 𝑏)
2 2
1 1
= √ 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
4 4
1 2
= √𝑎 + 𝑏 2
2
Similarly,
1 2 1 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √( 𝑎) + (− 𝑏)
|𝑁𝑃
2 2
1 1
= √ 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
4 4
1 2
= √𝑎 + 𝑏 2
2
1 2 1 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ √
|𝑃𝑄 | = (− 𝑎) + (− 𝑏)
2 2
1 1
= √ 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
4 4
1 2
= √𝑎 + 𝑏 2
2
1 2 1 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ √
|𝑄𝑀| = (− 𝑎) + ( 𝑏)
2 2
1 1
= √ 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
4 4
1 2
= √𝑎 + 𝑏 2
2
So all sides are equal in length.
Hence 𝑀𝑁𝑃𝑄 is a rhombus.
13 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3
For 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 3
So
0
𝑎̰ = [ ]
3
For 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 5
So
1
𝑏̰ = [ ]
5
𝑟̰ = 𝑎̰ + 𝜆(𝑏̰ − 𝑎̰ )
0 1 0
𝑟̰ = [ ] + 𝜆 ([ ] − [ ])
3 5 3
0 1
𝑟̰ = [ ] + 𝜆 [ ]
3 2

2 3
14 𝑟̰ = [ ]+𝜆[ ]
−4 1
𝑥 = 2 + 3𝜆 (1)
𝑦 = −4 + 𝜆
𝜆 =𝑦+4
Substituting for 𝜆 in (1):
𝑥 = 2 + 3(𝑦 + 4)
𝑥 = 2 + 3𝑦 + 12
𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 14
−6 2
15 𝑟̰ = [ 4 ] + 𝜆 [ 1 ]
3 −2
𝑥 = −6 + 2𝜆 (1)
𝑦 = 4+𝜆
So 𝜆 = 𝑦 − 4 (2)
𝑧 = 3 − 2𝜆 (3)
3−𝑧
So 𝜆 = (4)
2
Substituting (2) into (1) to obtain an equation in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦:
𝑥 = −6 + 2(𝑦 − 4)
𝑥 = −6 + 2𝑦 − 8
𝑥 − 2𝑦 = −14 (5)
Substituting (2) into (3) to obtain an equation in terms of 𝑧 and 𝑦:
𝑧 = 3 − 2(𝑦 − 4)
𝑧 = 3 − 2𝑦 + 8
𝑧 + 2𝑦 = 11 (6)
Substituting (4) into (1) to obtain an equation in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑧:
3−𝑧
𝑥 = −6 + 2 ( )
2
𝑥 = −6 + 3 − 𝑧

𝑥 + 𝑧 = −3 (7)
For ℓ intersecting the 𝑥𝑦-plane, 𝑧 = 0.
Substituting 𝑧 = 0 into (6):
0 + 2𝑦 = 11
11
𝑦=
2
So (5) becomes:
11
𝑥 − 2( ) = −14
2
𝑥 − 11 = −14
𝑥 = −3
So ℓ intersects the 𝑥𝑦-plane at:
11
(−3, , 0)
2
For ℓ intersecting the 𝑦𝑧-plane, 𝑥 = 0
Substituting 𝑥 = 0 into (5):
0 − 2𝑦 = −14
𝑦=7
So (6) becomes:
𝑧 + 2(7) = 11
𝑧 + 14 = 11
𝑧 = −3
So ℓ intersects the 𝑦𝑧-plane at:
(0, 7, −3)
For ℓ intersecting the 𝑥𝑧-plane, 𝑦 = 0
Substituting 𝑦 = 0 into (6):
𝑧 + 2(0) = 11
𝑧 = 11
So (7) becomes:
𝑥 + 11 = −3

𝑥 = −14
So ℓ intersects the 𝑥𝑦-plane at:
(−14, 0, 11)
6 −5
16a 𝑟̰ = [−4] + 𝜆 [ 2 ]
−3 7
𝑥 = 6 − 5𝜆
6−𝑥
So 𝜆 = (1)
5
𝑦 = −4 + 2𝜆
𝑦+4
So 𝜆 = (2)
2
𝑧 = −3 + 7𝜆
𝑧+3
So 𝜆 = (3)
7
Consider the point (−4, 0, 13). If it lies on the line then the values for 𝜆 should be
the same.
Substituting 𝑥 = −4 into (1):
6 − (−4)
𝜆= =2
5
Substituting 𝑦 = 0 into (2):
0+4
𝜆= =2
2
Substituting 𝑧 = 13 into (3):
13 + 3 16
𝜆= =
7 7
As all the values for 𝜆 are not the same, (−4, 0, 13) is not a point on the line 𝑟̰ .

6 −5
16b 𝑟̰ = [−4] + 𝜆 [ 2 ]
−3 7
𝑥 = 6 − 5𝜆
6−𝑥
So 𝜆 = (1)
5
𝑦 = −4 + 2𝜆
𝑦+4
So 𝜆 = (2)
2
𝑧 = −3 + 7𝜆
𝑧+3
So 𝜆 = (3)
7
Consider the point (16, −8, −17) . If it lies on the line then the values for 𝜆 should
be the same.
Substituting 𝑥 = 16 into (1):
6 − 16
𝜆= = −2
5
Substituting 𝑦 = −8 into (2):
−8 + 4
𝜆= = −2
2
Substituting 𝑧 = −17 into (3):
−17 + 3
𝜆= = −2
7
As all the values for 𝜆 are the same, (16, −8, −17) is a point on the line 𝑟̰ .
17 𝑝̰ = 𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰
𝑄 = (2, −1, 2)
𝑞̰ = 2𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰ + 2𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = (2 − 1)𝑖̰ + (−1 − 1)𝑗̰ + (2 − (−1))𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟̰ = 𝑝̰ + 𝜆𝑃𝑄
𝑟̰ = 𝑖̰ + 𝑗̰ − 𝑘̰ + 𝜆(𝑖̰ − 2𝑗̰ + 3𝑘̰ )

6 2
18a 𝑟̰1 = [5] + 𝜆 [1]
3 4
−3 5
𝑟̰2 = [ 7 ] + 𝜇 [−4]
2 −7
For a point of intersection, 𝑟̰1 = 𝑟̰2:
6 2 −3 5
[5] + 𝜆 [1] = [ 7 ] + 𝜇 [−4]
3 4 2 −7
6 + 2𝜆 = −3 + 5𝜇
9 5
𝜆=− + 𝜇
2 2
5 + 𝜆 = 7 − 4𝜇
Substituting 𝜆 we get
9 5
5 + (− + 𝜇) = 7 − 4𝜇
2 2
1 5
− 7 = −4𝜇 − 𝜇
2 2
13 13
− =− 𝜇
2 2
𝜇=1
For 𝜆
9 5
𝜆 = − + (1)
2 2
𝜆 = −2
So:
𝑥 = 6 + 2𝜆
𝑥 = 6 + 2(−2)
𝑥=2
𝑦 = 5+𝜆
𝑦 = 5 + (−2)
𝑦=3
𝑧 = 3 + 4𝜆

𝑧 = 3 + 4(−2)
𝑧 = −5
So 𝑟̰1 intersects 𝑟̰2 at point:
(2, 3, −5)
18b 𝑟̰1 = −7𝑖̰ − 1𝑗̰ + 7𝑘̰ + 𝜆(2𝑖̰ + 3𝑗̰ − 4𝑘̰ )
𝑟̰2 = 9𝑖̰ − 4𝑗̰ − 16𝑘̰ + 𝜇(4𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ − 5𝑘̰ )
For a point of intersection, 𝑟̰1 = 𝑟̰2:
−7𝑖̰ − 𝑗̰ + 7𝑘̰ + 𝜆(2𝑖̰ + 3𝑗̰ − 4𝑘̰ ) = 9𝑖̰ − 4𝑗̰ − 16𝑘̰ + 𝜇(4𝑖̰ − 3𝑗̰ − 5𝑘̰ )
−7 + 2𝜆 = 9 + 4𝜇
2𝜆 = 16 + 4𝜇
𝜆 = 8 + 2𝜇
−1 + 3𝜆 = −4 − 3𝜇
Substituting 𝜆 we get
−1 + 3(8 + 2𝜇) = −4 − 3𝜇
27 = −9𝜇
𝜇 = −3
For 𝜆
𝜆 = 8 + 2(−3)
𝜆=2
So:
𝑥 = −7 + 2𝜆
𝑥 = −7 + 2(2)
𝑥 = −3
𝑦 = −1 + 3𝜆
𝑦 = −1 + 3(2)
𝑦=5

𝑧 = 7 − 4𝜆
𝑧 = 7 − 4(2)
𝑧 = 13
So 𝑟̰1 intersects 𝑟̰2 at point:
(−3, 5, −1)
19a 𝑐̰ = 3𝑖̰ − 4𝑗̰ + 2𝑘̰
𝑟 = √7
|𝑟̰ − 𝑐̰ |2 = 𝑟 2
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 + 4)2 + (𝑧 − 2)2 = 7
19b 𝑐̰ = 3𝑖̰ + 4𝑗̰ + 2𝑘̰
𝑟 = √7
|𝑟̰ − 𝑐̰ | = 𝑟
3
|𝑟̰ − [−4]| = √7
2
20 𝑃 = (5, 1, 4)
5
𝑝̰ = [1]
4
2
|𝑟̰ − [ 3 ]| = 7
−1
𝑟=7
−2
𝑐̰ = [−3]
1
𝑟=7
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑝̰ − 𝑐̰

5 −2
= [1] − [−3]
4 1
7
= [4 ]
3
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 72 + 42 + 32
|𝐶𝑃
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 49 + 16 + 9
|𝐶𝑃
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 74
|𝐶𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = √74
𝐶𝑃
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ > 𝑟 the point (5, 1, 4) lies outside of the sphere |𝑟̰ − [ 3 ]| = 7.
So as 𝐶𝑃
−1
21 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 4𝑥 − 10𝑦 + 12𝑧 + 41 = 0
(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥) + (𝑦 2 − 10𝑦) + (𝑧 2 + 12𝑧) = −41
(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) + (𝑦 2 − 10𝑦 + 25) + (𝑧 2 + 12𝑧 + 36) = 24
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 5)2 + (𝑧 + 6)2 = 24
Centre is (2, 5, −6)
𝑟 2 = 24
𝑟 = √24
= 2√6
Radius is 2√6 units.

So vector equation is
2
|𝑟̰ − [ 5 ]| = 2√6
−6

22 (𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 + (𝑧 + 4)2 = 125

−2
|𝑟̰ − [ 3 ]| = 125
−4
4 2
𝑟̰ = [−5] + 𝜆 [ 13 ]
1 −11
4 2 −2
|[−5] + 𝜆 [ 13 ] − [ 3 ]| = 125
1 −11 −4
2𝜆 + 6
|[ 13𝜆 − 8 ]| = 125
−11𝜆 + 5
(2𝜆 + 6)2 + (13𝜆 − 8)2 + (−11𝜆 + 5)2 = 125
4𝜆2 + 24𝜆 + 36 + 169𝜆2 − 208𝜆 + 64 + 121𝜆2 − 110𝜆 + 25 = 125
294𝜆2 − 294𝜆 + 125 = 125
294𝜆2 − 294𝜆 = 0
𝜆(𝜆 − 1) = 0
So the line intersects with the sphere for the values of 𝜆 where
𝜆 = 0, 1
Substituting these values back into the line equation gives:
4 2
𝑟̰ = [−5] + 𝜆 [ 13 ]
1 −11
For 𝜆 = 0
𝑥 4
𝑦
[ ] = [−5]
𝑧 1
For 𝜆 = 1
𝑥 4 2
[𝑦] = [−5] + [ 13 ]
𝑧 1 −11
𝑥 6
[𝑦] = [ 8 ]
𝑧 −10
The line intersects with the sphere at points:

(4, −5, 1) and (6, 8, −10)
23a
2
𝑟̰ = (2𝑡)𝑖̰ + ( )𝑗
1 + 𝑡2 ̰
𝑥 = 2𝑡
𝑥
𝑡=
2
2
𝑦=
1 + 𝑡2
2
𝑦=
𝑥 2
1 + (2)
8
𝑦=
4 + 𝑥2
23b
2𝑡 1 − 𝑡2
𝑟̰ = ( ) 𝑖̰ + ( )𝑗
1 + 𝑡2 1 + 𝑡2 ̰
|𝑟̰ |2 = 𝑟̰ ∙ 𝑟̰
2
2
2𝑡 2 1 − 𝑡2
|𝑟̰ | = ( ) + ( )
1 + 𝑡2 1 + 𝑡2
4𝑡 2 (1 − 𝑡 2 )2
= +
(1 + 𝑡 2 )2 (1 + 𝑡 2 )2
1
= (4𝑡 2 + 1 − 2𝑡 2 + 𝑡 4 )
(1 + 𝑡 2 )2
(1 + 𝑡 2 )2
=
(1 + 𝑡 2 )2
=1
So we have a circle with radius 1.
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 where 𝑦 ≠ 1

23c 𝑟̰ = sin 𝑡 𝑖̰ + sin 2𝑡 𝑗̰
𝑥 = sin 𝑡
𝑡 = sin−1 𝑥
𝑦 = sin 2𝑡
= 2 sin 𝑡 × cos 𝑡
= 2 sin(sin−1 𝑥) × cos(sin−1 𝑥)
𝑦 = ±2𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2 (as sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 can be both positive and negative)

Chapter 6 worked solutions – Mechanics

7 𝐹1 = 12𝑖̂ + 23𝑗̂
𝐹2 = 9𝑖̂ − 7𝑗̂
𝐹3 = −5𝑖̂ + 14𝑗̂
𝐹𝑟 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3
𝐹𝑟 = 16𝑖̂ + 30𝑗̂
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎; 𝑚=2
16𝑖̂ + 30𝑗̂
𝑎𝑟 =
2
= 8𝑖̂ + 15𝑗̂
|𝑎𝑟 | = √82 + 152

= 17 m/s2
15
̂𝑟 = tan−1 ( 8 )
𝑎
15
The acceleration is 17 m/s 2 at an angle of tan−1 ( 8 ) above the horizontal.
8a 𝑂𝐴 = 20 N at 32°
𝑂𝐴 = 20 cos 32° 𝑖̂ + 20 sin 32° 𝑗̂
= 16.96𝑖̂ + 10.6𝑗̂
𝑂𝐵 = 15 N at (180 – 54)°
𝑂𝐵 = 15 cos(180 − 54)° 𝑖̂ + 15 sin(180 − 54)° 𝑗̂
= −8.81𝑖̂ + 12.13𝑗̂
8b 𝐹𝑟 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐵
= 16.96𝑖̂ + 10.6𝑗̂ + (−8.81𝑖̂ + 12.13𝑗̂)
= 8.14𝑖̂ + 22.73𝑗̂
|𝐹𝑟 | = √8.142 + 22.732

= 24.14 …
≑ 24 N

8c Direction of 𝐹𝑟
= 𝐹̂𝑟
22.73
= tan−1 ( )
8.14
= 70.3 … °
≑ 70° above the horizontal
9a 𝐹1 = 20 𝑗̂; 𝐹2 = 6 𝑖̂; 𝐹3 = −2√2 𝑖̂ − 2√2 𝑗̂
𝐹𝑟 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3
̂
= 20 𝑗̂ + 6 𝑖̂ + (−2√2 𝑖̂ − 2√2 𝑗)
= (6 − 2√2 )𝑖̂ + (20 − 2√2)𝑗̂
2 2
9b |𝐹𝑟 | = √(6 − 2√2 ) + (20 − 2√2)
= 17.462 …
≑ 17.5 N
20 − 2√2
𝐹̂𝑟 = tan−1 ( )
6 − 2√2
≑ 79.5°

10 Initial velocity = 𝑢
Final velocity = 𝑣
Time = 𝑡
Acceleration = 𝑎 = 𝑥̈
Displacement = 𝑠
𝑑 1 2 𝑣𝑑𝑣
𝑎 = 𝑥̈ = ( 𝑣 )=
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑠
𝑎𝑑𝑠 = 𝑣𝑑𝑣
𝑣
𝑣2 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
𝑎𝑠 = [ ] =
2 𝑢 2
From time 0 to 𝑡: 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑠 − 0) and 𝑑(𝑣 2 ) = 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2

1 2
(𝑣 − 𝑢2 )
Hence 𝑎 = 2
𝑠−0
Rearranging gives:
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
11a Using the result from question 10 and 𝑢 = 20, 𝑎 = 𝑔, with the distance as
variable 𝑥, we get:
𝑣 2 = 400 − 20𝑥
At the greatest height, the velocity of the ball will be zero for a moment after
which it will start descending back to the ground. So, 𝑣 = 0.
400 − 0
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐻 = = 20 metres
20
11b When the ball is rising, from the first and second laws of motion, the ball tries to
maintain its inertial state of going up with a velocity of 20 m/s while being acted
upon by a gravitational force pulling it towards the ground with an acceleration
of 10 m/s2. Hence, when the ball is rising, it follows the equation:
𝑣 = √400 − 20𝑥.

11c 𝑣 = √400 − 20𝑥

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= √400 − 20𝑥 as 𝑣 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫
√400 − 20𝑥
−1
𝑡= √400 − 20𝑥 + 𝐶
10
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 0. So, 𝐶 = 2.
√400 − 20𝑥
𝑡 = 2−
10
𝑥 = 20𝑡 − 5𝑡 2
To find time taken to reach maximum height, put 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 20.
20 = 20𝑡 − 5𝑡 2
𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 + 4 = 0
(𝑡 − 2)(𝑡 − 2) = 0
𝑡=2
Therefore 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 seconds.
𝑣𝑑𝑣
12a 𝑢 = 1 km/s = 1000 m/s; 𝑎 = 𝑥̈ = −𝑘𝑣 2 = ; 𝑥 = 100 m; 𝑣 = 10 m/s
𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑑𝑣
= −𝑘𝑣 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
= −𝑘𝑑𝑥
𝑣
ln 𝑣 = −𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶
Using the given information of 0 m and after 100 m, we get:
ln 1000 = 𝐶
so 𝐶 = ln 1000 = 3 ln 10
Also
ln 10 = −𝑘(100) + ln 1000
ln 100
𝑘=
100

2 ln 10
=
100
ln 10
=
50
Therefore
ln 10
ln 𝑣 = − 𝑥 + 3 ln 10
50
50 ln 𝑣
𝑥 = 150 −
ln 10
At 𝑣 = 1 m/s,
50(0)
𝑥 = 150 −
ln 10
= 150 metres
𝑑𝑣
12b 𝑢 = 1 km/s = 1000 m/s; 𝑎 = 𝑥̈ = −𝑘𝑣 2 = ; 𝑡 = 1𝑠; 𝑣 = 10 m/s
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
−𝑘𝑣 2 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
−𝑘𝑑𝑡 =
𝑣2
1
−𝑘𝑡 = − + 𝐶
𝑣
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 1000 and at 𝑡 = 1, 𝑣 = 10
1 1 1 99
𝐶= and 𝑘 = ( − )=
1000 10 1000 1000
99 1 1
Therefore 𝑡= −
1000 𝑣 1000
For 𝑣 = 1;
1000 1
𝑡= (1 − )
99 1000
999
=
99
1
= 10 seconds
11

13 𝑥̈ = 𝑒 −𝑥 ; 𝑢 = 2; 𝑥 = 0 at 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑣
𝑥̈ = 𝑣 = 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣2
= −𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐶
2
Using initial conditions:
22
= −𝑒 0 + 𝐶
2
2 = −1 + 𝐶
𝐶=3
Therefore
𝑣2
= 3 − 𝑒 −𝑥
2
The particle has an acceleration of 𝑒 −𝑥 which is always greater than zero and the
particle has an initial velocity of 2. So, from there onwards, the particle can only
accelerate and increase the velocity. Hence, the velocity can never fall below 2.
After infinite amount of time, the particle will reach a limiting velocity of √6 m/s2
14a 𝑣 = 6 − 2𝑥; 𝑋𝑖 = (0, 0, 0)

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎= =𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 = (6 − 2𝑥)(−2)
= 4𝑥 − 12
At origin (𝑋𝑖 ), 𝑥 = 0.
Therefore 𝑎 = 𝑥̈ = −12.
𝑑𝑥
14b 𝑣 = 6 − 2𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 =
6 − 2𝑥
1 𝑑𝑥
𝑡= ∫
2 3−𝑥

1
= − ln(3 − 𝑥) + 𝐶
2
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 0, so
1
𝐶= ln 3
2
Therefore
1 1
𝑡 = − ln(3 − 𝑥) + ln 3
2 2
1 𝑥
𝑡 = − ln (1 − )
2 3
𝑥
−2𝑡 = ln (1 − )
3
𝑥
𝑒 −2𝑡 = 1 −
3
𝑥 = 3(1 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 )
14c As 𝑡 → ∞, the particle reaches (tends towards) the point 𝑥 = 3.
15a 𝑥𝑖 = 0; 𝑢 = 0; 𝑎 = 2(1 + 𝑣); 𝑣 = 20

𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = 2(1 + 𝑣)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
2𝑑𝑡 =
(1 + 𝑣)
2𝑡 = ln(1 + 𝑣) + 𝐶
0 = ln(1 + 0) + 𝐶
𝐶=0
Therefore
1
𝑡= ln(1 + 𝑣)
2
When 𝑣 = 20,
1
𝑡= ln 21
2

≑ 1.52 seconds
𝑣𝑑𝑣
15b 𝑎= = 2(1 + 𝑣)
𝑑𝑥
𝑣
2𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑣
1+𝑣
1
= (1 − ) 𝑑𝑣
1+𝑣
2𝑥 + 𝐶 = 𝑣 − ln(1 + 𝑣)
Using initial conditions, 𝐶 = 0
Therefore
2𝑥 = 𝑣 − ln(1 + 𝑣)
1 1
𝑥= 𝑣 − ln(1 + 𝑣)
2 2
When 𝑣 = 20,
1
𝑥 = 10 − ln(21)
2
𝑥 ≑ 8.48 m
𝑥
16a Mass = 𝑚; 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑢; 𝑥𝑖 = 0; 𝑣 =𝑢+𝑘
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 and 𝑎 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=𝑣
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 1
= (𝑢 + ) ( )
𝑘 𝑘
𝑣
=
𝑘
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑚𝑣
=
𝑘
𝑚
= 𝑣
𝑘
𝑚
Hence, 𝐹 ∝ 𝑣 and constant of proportionality is 𝑘 .

16b i 𝑣𝐴 = 3𝑢
𝑥𝐴
𝑣𝐴 = 𝑢 + = 3𝑢
𝑘
𝑥𝐴 = 2𝑢𝑘
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
16b ii 𝑣 = =𝑢+𝑘
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥
𝑢+
𝑘
𝑥
𝑡 + 𝐶 = 𝑘 ln (𝑢 + )
𝑘
Using initial conditions,
0
0 + 𝐶 = 𝑘 ln (𝑢 + )
𝑘
𝐶 = 𝑘 ln 𝑢
Therefore
𝑥
𝑡 = 𝑘 ln (𝑢 + ) − 𝑘 ln 𝑢
𝑘
𝑥
𝑡 = 𝑘 ln (1 + )
𝑢𝑘
At point 𝐴, 𝑥 = 2𝑢𝑘
2𝑢𝑘
𝑡𝐴 = 𝑘 ln (1 + )
𝑢𝑘
= 𝑘 ln 3
1
17a 𝑚 = 0.5 kg; 𝐹 = (𝑥 − 2) N; 𝑥𝑖 = +5; 𝑢=0
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
1 𝑑 1 2
𝑥− =𝑚 ( 𝑣 )
2 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑣2 1
= ∫ (𝑥 − ) 𝑑𝑥
4 2
𝑥2 − 𝑥
= +𝐶
2


52 − 5
0= +𝐶
2
𝐶 = −10
Therefore
𝑣 2 = 2(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 20)
= 2(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 5)
As 𝑣 2 ≥ 0, the particle cannot be at a position where 𝑥 < 5. Hence the particle can
never be at the origin.
17b 𝑣 = 2√5; 𝑣 2 = 20
20 = 2(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 20)
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 30 = 0
(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 6) = 0
𝑥 = −5 or 6
As 𝑥 ≥ 5; 𝑥 = 6 is the position where the velocity is 2√5. The particle moves

forwards with increasing velocity.
18a 𝑚 = 2 kg; 𝐹 = 6𝑥 2 N; 𝑥𝑖 = 1; 𝑢𝑖 = −√2 m/s

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑 1 2
6𝑥 2 = 𝑚 ( 𝑣 )
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑣 2 = 6 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
= 2𝑥 3 + 𝐶
2
(−√2) = 2(1) + 𝐶
𝐶=0
Therefore
𝑣 2 = 2𝑥 3

𝑑𝑥
18b 𝑣= and 𝑣 = √2𝑥 3
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
= √2𝑥 3
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 = × 3
√2 𝑥2
1 3
𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥
√2
1 −32+1
𝑥
𝑡+𝐶 = √2
3
−2 + 1
1
𝑡 + 𝐶 = −√2 𝑥 −2
2
𝑡 + 𝐶 = −√
𝑥
2
0 + 𝐶 = −√
1
𝐶 = −√2
Therefore
2
𝑡 − √2 = −√
𝑥
2
𝑥= 2
(𝑡 − √2)
The particle starts at position 𝑥 = 1 and moves away from the origin and then it
disappears at time 𝑡 = √2.

19a 𝑥̈ = 3(1 − 𝑥 2 ); 𝑢 = 4; 𝑥𝑖 = 0
2)
𝑑 𝑣2
𝑥̈ = 3(1 − 𝑥 = ( )
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑣2
= 3 ∫(1 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
2
= 3𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 𝐶
42
=0−0+𝐶
2
𝐶=8
Therefore
𝑣2
= 3𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 8
2
𝑣 2 = 6𝑥 − 2𝑥 3 + 16
19b 𝑣 2 = 6𝑥 − 2𝑥 3 + 16
From the sketch, we can see that the particle does change direction.


9a 𝐴 = 120; 𝑇 = 24; 𝑥0 = 0; 𝑣0 > 0
2𝜋
𝑇= = 24
𝑛
𝜋
𝑛=
12
𝜋
𝑥 = 120 sin 12 𝑡
𝜋
𝑣 = 10𝜋 cos 12 𝑡
Maximum speed = 10𝜋 m/s (≑ 31.4 m/s)
𝜋
9b i 𝑥 = +30 = 120 sin 12 𝑡
12 −1 1
𝑡= sin
𝜋 4
≑ 0.9652 seconds
𝜋
9b ii 𝑥 = −30 = 120 sin 12 𝑡
12 −1 1
𝑡= sin (− )
𝜋 4
𝑇 12 −1 1
= + sin
2 𝜋 4
12 −1 1
= 12 + sin
𝜋 4
≑ 12.97 seconds
10𝜋
9c Half maximum speed = = 5𝜋
2
Hence 𝑣 = 5𝜋 or − 5𝜋
When 𝑣 = 5𝜋,
𝜋
5𝜋 = 10𝜋 cos 𝑡
12
12 1
𝑡= cos−1
𝜋 2

12 𝜋
= ×
𝜋 3
= 4 seconds
When 𝑣 = −5𝜋,
𝜋
−5𝜋 = 10𝜋 cos 𝑡
12
12 1
𝑡= cos−1 (− )
𝜋 2
𝑇 12 1
= − cos −1
2 𝜋 2
24 12 𝜋
= − ×
2 𝜋 3
= 12 − 4
= 8 seconds
The speed of the particle will be the same when it reaches the same position
again. That is, for every quarter of the SHM, the speed will be half the maximum
speed after 4 seconds.
Hence, the speed will be half the maximum speed after 4 and 8 seconds and then
after 16 and 20 seconds.
𝜋 2𝜋
10a 𝑇 = 2; 𝑥0 = 4 = 𝐴; 𝑛= = 4;
𝑇
Particle at positive extreme initially and moving towards 𝑂.

𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝑛𝑡
= 4 cos 4𝑡
𝑣 = −16 sin 4𝑡
10b i For 𝑥 = +2,

2 = 4 cos 4𝑡
1 1
𝑡 = 4 cos−1 2
1 𝜋
= ×
4 3
𝜋
= seconds
12
10b ii For 𝑥 = −2,

−2 = 4 cos 4𝑡
1 1
𝑡= cos−1 (− )
4 2
𝑇 1 1
= − cos−1
2 4 2
𝜋 𝜋
= −
4 12
𝜋
= seconds
6
10c |𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 | = 16 cm/s

For half maximum speed:
𝑣 = −8 and 𝑣 = 8
When 𝑣 = −8,
−8 = −16 sin 4𝑡
1 −1 1
𝑡= sin
4 2
1 𝜋
= ×
4 6
𝜋
= seconds
24
When 𝑣 = 8,
8 = −16 sin 4𝑡
1 −1 1
𝑡= sin (− )
4 2
𝑇 1 −1 1
= − sin
2 4 2
𝜋 𝜋
= −
4 24
5𝜋
= seconds
24
𝜋 5𝜋
Therefore the first two times are seconds and seconds.
24 24

11 𝑥 = sin2 𝑡
Using cos 2𝜃 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝜃
1 − cos 2𝜃
sin2 𝜃 =
2
So
1 − cos 2𝑡
sin2 𝑡 =
2
1 1
𝑥= − cos 2𝑡
2 2
1 1
= 𝑥0 − 𝑎 cos 𝑛𝑡 where 𝑐 = , 𝑎 = and 𝑛 = 2
2 2
1
Centre of the motion is the line 𝑥0 = 2.
1
Amplitude of the motion is 2.
Range of SHM:
1 1 1 1
( − )≤𝑥≤( + )
2 2 2 2
0≤𝑥≤1
Period:
2𝜋
𝑇= =𝜋
𝑛
12a 𝑥 = 3 − 2 cos2 2𝑡
Using cos 2𝜃 = 2 cos 2 𝜃 − 1
2 cos2 𝜃 = 1 + cos 2𝜃
So
2 cos2 2𝑡 = 1 + cos 4𝑡
𝑥 = 3 − (1 + cos 4𝑡)
= 2 − cos 4𝑡
which is of the form 𝑥0 − 𝑎 cos 𝑛𝑡 where 𝑥0 = 2, 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑛 = 4

12b Centre of the motion is the line 𝑥0 = 2.

Amplitude is 1 cm.
Range of SHM:
(2 − 1) ≤ 𝑥 ≤ (2 + 1)
1≤𝑥≤3
Period:
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑇= = s
𝑛 2
𝑑𝑥
12c 𝑣= = 4 sin 4𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Maximum speed = 4 cm/s

The maximum speed occurs at the centre and as the particle starts at one of the
extremes, it will occur after:
𝑇 𝜋 1 𝜋
= × = s
4 2 4 8
13a 𝑥 = 2 + 3 cos 𝑡 + 3√3 sin 𝑡
𝑥̇ = −3 sin 𝑡 + 3√3 cos 𝑡
𝑥̈ = −3 cos 𝑡 − 3√3 sin 𝑡
= −(3 cos 𝑡 + 3√3 sin 𝑡)
= −(𝑥 − 2)
which is of the form
𝑥̈ = −𝑛2 (𝑥 − 𝑐) where 𝑛 = 1 and 𝑐 = 2.
Hence, the motion is simple harmonic.
13b Centre of the motion is the line 𝑥 = 2.
13c Period of the motion is:

2𝜋
𝑇= = 2𝜋
𝑛

13d 3 cos 𝑡 + 3√3 sin 𝑡
1 √3
= 6 ( cos 𝑡 + sin 𝑡)
2 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= 6 (cos cos 𝑡 + sin sin 𝑡) (since we are aiming for 0 < 𝜃 < )
3 3 2
𝜋 𝜋
= 6 (cos 𝑡 cos + sin 𝑡 sin )
3 3
Using cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵,
3 cos 𝑡 + 3√3 sin 𝑡

𝜋
= 6 cos (𝑡 − )
3
which is of the form
𝜋
𝐴 cos(𝑥 − 𝜃) where 𝐴 = 6, 𝑥 = 𝑡 and 𝜃 =
3
𝜋
13e 𝑥 = 2 + 6 cos (𝑡 − 3 )
Amplitude is 6 cm.
𝜋
Initial phase is: 𝜑 = − 3
13f Interval of particle

= range of oscillation
= (2 − 6) ≤ 𝑥 ≤ (2 + 6)
= −4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 8
14a 𝑣0 = 3; 𝑇 = 4𝜋; 𝑥0 = 6
𝑥 = 𝑏 sin 𝑛𝑡 + 𝑐 cos 𝑛𝑡
2𝜋
𝑇=
𝑛
2𝜋
4𝜋 =
𝑛
1
𝑛=
2

Hence
𝑡 𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑏 sin + 𝑐 cos
2 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
𝑏 𝑡 𝑐 𝑡
= cos − sin
2 2 2 2
𝑥0 = 6 = 𝑏 sin 0 + 𝑐 cos 0 = 𝑐
Hence 𝑐 = 6.
𝑏 6 𝑏
𝑣0 = 3 = cos 0 − sin 0 =
2 2 2
Hence 𝑏 = 6.
Therefore
𝑡 𝑡
𝑥 = 6 (sin + cos )
2 2
The particle is at the origin for the first two times when:
𝑡 𝑡
6 (sin + cos ) = 0
2 2
𝑡 𝑡
sin + cos = 0
2 2
𝑡 𝑡
sin = − cos
2 2
𝑡
tan = −1
2
𝑡 3𝜋 7𝜋
= ,
2 4 4
3𝜋 7𝜋
So 𝑡 = and .
2 2
14b 𝑇 = 6; 𝑥0 = −2; 𝑣0 = 𝑥̇ = 3
2𝜋
𝑇=6=
𝑛
𝜋
𝑛=
3

𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 = 𝑏 sin 𝑡 + 𝑐 cos 𝑡
3 3
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑣 = 𝑏 × cos 𝑡 − 𝑐 × sin 𝑡
3 3 3 3
𝑥0 = −2 = 𝑐
𝜋
𝑣0 = 3 = 𝑏 ×
3
9
𝑏=
𝜋
Therefore
9 𝜋 𝜋
𝑥= sin 𝑡 − 2 cos 𝑡
𝜋 3 3
The particle is at the centre the first two times when 𝑥 = 0:
9 𝜋 𝜋
sin 𝑡 − 2 cos 𝑡 = 0
𝜋 3 3
9 𝜋 𝜋
sin 𝑡 = 2 cos 𝑡
𝜋 3 3
𝜋 2𝜋
tan 𝑡 =
3 9
3 2𝜋
𝑡= tan−1
𝜋 9
𝑇
𝑡 ≑ 0.582 and ( + 0.582)
2
𝑡 ≑ 0.582 and 3.582
15a 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin(𝑛𝑡 + 𝛼)
𝑣0 = 5; 𝑥 = 0; 𝑇=6
2𝜋
𝑇=6=
𝑛
𝜋
𝑛=
3
𝜋
𝑥 = 𝑎 sin ( 𝑡 + 𝛼)
3

𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
𝑎𝜋 𝜋
= cos( 𝑡 + 𝛼)
3 3
𝑥0 = 0 = 𝑎 sin 𝛼
Since 𝑎 > 0, 𝛼 = 0.
𝑎𝜋 𝑎𝜋
𝑣0 = 5 = cos(0 + 0) =
3 3
15
𝑎=
𝜋
𝑑𝑥
15b 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin(𝑛𝑡 + 𝛼) ; 𝑣= = 𝑎𝑛 cos(𝑛𝑡 + 𝛼)
𝑑𝑡
𝑇 = 3𝜋; 𝑥0 = −5; 𝑣0 = 0
2𝜋
𝑇 = 3𝜋 =
𝑛
2
𝑛=
3
𝑥0 = 𝑎 sin(0 + 𝛼) = −5
2𝑎
𝑣0 = cos(0 + 𝛼) = 0
3
2𝑎
cos 𝛼 = 0
3
𝜋 3𝜋
𝛼= or
2 2
From 𝑥0 = −5 = 𝑎 sin 𝛼, we get:
3𝜋
𝑎 = 5 and 𝛼 =
2

𝑑𝑥
15c 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin(𝑛𝑡 + 𝛼) ; 𝑣= = 𝑎𝑛 cos(𝑛𝑡 + 𝛼)
𝑑𝑡
𝑇 = 2𝜋; 𝑥0 = 1; 𝑣0 = −1
2𝜋
𝑇 = 2𝜋 =
𝑛
𝑛=1
𝑥0 = 1 = 𝑎 sin 𝛼
𝑣0 = −1 = 𝑎 cos 𝛼
𝑥0
= −1 = tan 𝛼
𝑣0
3𝜋
𝛼=
4
Hence
3𝜋
1 = 𝑎 sin 4
𝑎 = √2
16a 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos(2𝑡 + 𝛼)
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = −2𝑎 sin(2𝑡 + 𝛼)
𝑑𝑡
𝑥0 = 0; 𝑣0 = 6
𝑥0 = 0 = 𝑎 cos 𝛼
𝜋 𝜋
Since 𝑎 > 0, 𝛼= or −
2 2
𝑣0 = 6 = −2𝑎 sin 𝛼
𝜋
𝛼= − and 𝑎 = 3
2
16b 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos(2𝑡 + 𝛼)
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = −2𝑎 sin(2𝑡 + 𝛼)
𝑑𝑡
𝑥0 = 1; 𝑣 = −2√3


𝑥0 = 1 = 𝑎 cos 𝛼
𝑣0 = −2√3 = −2𝑎 sin 𝛼
√3 = 𝑎 sin 𝛼
𝑣0
= tan 𝛼 = √3
𝑥0
5𝜋 𝜋
𝛼= − or
6 3
𝜋
As 𝑣0 < 0; 𝛼=
3
𝜋
Substituting 𝛼 = into √3 = 𝑎 sin 𝛼 gives
3
𝜋
√3 = 𝑎 sin
3
√3
√3 = 𝑎 ×
2
𝑎=2
𝜋
17 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos ( 8 𝑡 + 𝛼)
𝑥 = 0 at 𝑡 = 2 and 𝑣 = −4 at 𝑡 = 4
𝜋 𝜋
𝑣 = −𝑎 sin ( 𝑡 + 𝛼)
8 8
Using given conditions 𝑥 = 0 at 𝑡 = 2:
𝜋
0 = 𝑎 cos ( + 𝛼)
4
𝜋
cos ( + 𝛼) = 0
4
𝜋 5𝜋
𝛼= or
4 4
Using given conditions 𝑣 = −4 at 𝑡 = 4:
𝜋 𝜋
−4 = −𝑎 sin ( + 𝛼)
8 2
32 𝜋
= 𝑎 cos 𝛼 using sin ( + 𝑥) = cos 𝑥
𝜋 2

𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋
Since cos > 0 and cos < 0; 𝛼 =
4 4 4
32√2
Hence 𝑎 =
𝜋
18 𝑇 = 8𝜋; 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin(𝑛𝑡 + 𝛼) ; 𝑡 = 1, 𝑥1 = 3 and 𝑣1 = −1

2𝜋
𝑇 = 8𝜋 =
𝑛
1
𝑛=
4
𝑑𝑥 𝑎 𝑡
𝑣= = cos ( + 𝛼)
𝑑𝑡 4 4
Using given conditions:
1 𝑎 1
𝑥1 = 3 = 𝑎 sin ( + 𝛼) and 𝑣1 = −1 = cos ( + 𝛼)
4 4 4
𝑥1 1
= −3 = 4 tan ( + 𝛼)
𝑣1 4
1 3
+ 𝛼 = tan−1 (− )
4 4
1
As sine > 0 and cosine < 0; ( + 𝛼 ) in 2nd quadrant.
4
1 3
+ 𝛼 = 𝜋 − tan−1 ( )
4 4
1 3
𝛼 = − + 𝜋 − tan−1 ( )
4 4
𝛼 ≑ 2.248
Hence
3
𝑎=
1
sin (4 + 𝛼)
=5

𝜋
19a 𝑇 = 2; 𝑥0 = 3; 𝑣0 = 16
𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇= =
2 𝑛
𝑛=4
𝑥 = 𝑏 sin 4𝑡 + 𝑐 cos 4𝑡
𝑣 = 4𝑏 cos 4𝑡 − 4𝑐 sin 4𝑡
3 = 𝑏 sin 0 + 𝑐 cos 0
𝑐=3
and
16 = 4𝑏 cos 0 + 4𝑐 sin 0
16 = 4𝑏
𝑏=4
Therefore 𝑥 = 4 sin 4𝑡 + 3 cos 4𝑡
19b 𝑥 = 3 cos 4𝑡 + 4 sin 4𝑡

3 4
= 5 ( cos 4𝑡 + sin 4𝑡) using triplet 3, 4, 5
5 5
= 5(cos 𝜀 cos 4𝑡 + sin 𝜀 sin 4𝑡)
= 5(cos 4𝑡 cos 𝜀 + sin 4𝑡 sin 𝜀)
= 5 cos(4𝑡 − 𝜀) using cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
3 4 4
where 𝜀 = cos−1 = sin−1 = tan−1 ≑ 37˚
5 5 3
4
This is of the form 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos(𝑛𝑡 − 𝜀) where 𝑎 = 5, 𝑛 = 4 and 𝜀 = tan−1 .
3
19c Amplitude of SHM is 5 m.

𝑣 = −20 sin(4𝑡 − 𝜀)
So maximum speed is 20 m/s.

19d When 𝑥 = 0,
0 = 4 sin 4𝑡 + 3 cos 4𝑡
4 sin 4𝑡 = −3 cos 4𝑡
3
tan 4𝑡 = −
4
𝑇 1 3
𝑡= − tan−1
2 4 4
𝜋 1 3
= − tan−1
4 4 4
Also, 0 = 5 cos(4𝑡 − 𝜀)
cos(4𝑡 − 𝜀) = 0
𝜋
4𝑡 − 𝜀 =
2
4 𝜋
4𝑡 − tan−1 =
3 2
𝜋 1 4
𝑡= + tan−1
8 4 3
4 𝜋 3
Since tan−1 = − tan−1 ,
3 2 4
𝜋 1 4
𝑡= + tan−1 becomes
8 4 3
𝜋 1 𝜋 3
𝑡= + ( − tan−1 )
8 4 2 4
𝜋 𝜋 1 3
= + − tan−1
8 8 4 4
𝜋 1 3
= − tan−1
4 4 4
Hence the two answers obtained are the same.

20 𝑇 = 24 hours; Range = 19° − 9° = 10°C; 𝑥0 = 9

19 + 9
𝑐= = 14°
2
𝐴 = 𝑐 − 9 = 19 − 𝑐 = 5
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑛= = hours; 𝑡 will be in hours after 4: 00 am
𝑇 12
𝜋
𝑥 = 14 − 5 cos ( 𝑡)
12
20a When 𝑥 = 14°,

𝜋
14 = 14 − 5 cos ( 𝑡)
12
𝜋
cos ( 𝑡) = 0
12
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
𝑡 = or
12 2 2
𝑡 = 6 or 18
That is, 6 or 18 hours after 4:00 am, the temperature will be 14°.
In the given time interval, it will be 10:00 am.
20b When 𝑥 = 11°,

𝜋
11 = 14 − 5 cos ( 𝑡)
12
𝜋 3
cos ( 𝑡) =
12 5
12 3
𝑡= cos−1
𝜋 5
= 3.542 … hours after 4:00 am
= 3 hours 32.52 … minutes after 4:00 am
The temperature will be 11° at 7: 33 am.

20c When 𝑥 = 17°,

𝜋
17 = 14 − 5 cos ( 𝑡)
12
𝜋 3
cos ( 𝑡) = −
12 5
12 3
𝑡= cos−1 (− )
𝜋 5
= 8.457 … hours after 4:00 am
= 8 hours 27.479 … minutes after 4:00 am
The temperature will be 17° at 12: 27 am.
21 Range = 16 − 10 = 6 m
𝑇
= 7 hours (16: 00 − 9: 00)
2
2𝜋
𝑇 = 14 =
𝑛
𝜋
𝑛=
7
16 + 10
𝑐= = 13
2
𝐴 = 16 − 𝑐 = 𝑐 − 10 = 3
Therefore
𝜋
𝑥 = 13 − 3 cos ( 𝑡)
7
When 𝑥 = 12,
𝜋
12 = 13 − 3 cos ( 𝑡)
7
𝜋 1
cos ( 𝑡) =
7 3
7 1
𝑡= cos−1
𝜋 3
= 2.742 … hours after 9:00 am and 2.742 … hours before 10:00 pm
≑ 2 hours 45 minutes after 9:00 am and 2 hours 45 minutes before 10:00 pm
Hence, the allowed timings are after 11:45 am and before 8:15 pm.

22 Consider a SHM with time period 𝑇, amplitude 𝐴, frequency 𝑛 and phase angle 𝛼.
Say, the equation for displacement of the particle is: 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin(𝑛𝑡 + 𝛼)
So, the velocity of particle is given by: 𝑣 = 𝐴𝑛 cos(𝑛𝑡 + 𝛼)
In an SHM, a particle travels a total distance of 4𝐴 in time period 𝑇.
So, the average velocity is:
4𝐴
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑇
2𝜋
Also, since 𝑇 = ,
𝑛
2𝐴𝑛
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝜋
The maximum velocity of particle in SHM is: 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑛
Ratio of average speed to maximum speed is
2𝐴𝑛
( ) : (𝐴𝑛)
𝜋
2
= :1
𝜋
= 2: 𝜋
Hence proved.


𝐴𝐵
7a Amplitude 𝑎 = = 10 cm
2
2𝜋
𝑇=8=
𝑛
𝜋
𝑛=
4
Maximum speed of particle in SHM is:
𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = 10 ×
4
5𝜋
= cm/s
2
Assuming the particle started from O (though, it won’t affect the maximum speed
or acceleration):
𝜋
𝑥 = 10 sin 𝑡
4
5𝜋 𝜋
𝑣= cos 𝑡
2 4
5 𝜋
𝑥̈ = − 𝜋 2 sin 𝑡
8 4
5 2
Maximum acceleration is 𝜋 cm/s 2
8
7b 𝑥 = 6 cm
Using the relations: 𝑣 2 = 𝑛2 (𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ) and 𝑥̈ = 𝑛2 (𝑐 − 𝑥)
𝜋 2
𝑣 2 = ( 4 ) (102 − 62 )
𝑣 = ±2𝜋 cm/s
𝜋 2
𝑥̈ = ± ( ) (0 − 6)
4
3𝜋 2
= ± cm/s2
8

8 𝑎 = 5 m; when 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥̈ = ±4
Using 𝑥̈ = 𝑛2 (𝑐 − 𝑥)
𝑥̈ = ±4 = 𝑛2 (−2)
𝑛2 = 2
Using 𝑣 2 = 𝑛2 (𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ):
At 𝑥 = 0, 𝑣 2 = 2(52 − 02 )
𝑣0 = 5√2 m/s
At 𝑥 = 4, 𝑣 2 = 2(52 − 42 )
𝑣4 = 3√2 m/s
9 𝑇 = 𝜋; 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 = 8
2𝜋
𝑛= =2
𝑇
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 8
𝑎= = =4
𝑛 2
Using 𝑣 2 = 𝑛2 (𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ):
When 𝑥 = 3,
𝑣 2 = 22 (42 − 32 )
𝑣3 = 2√7 m/s
2
10 𝑥 = 4 cm; 𝑣 = 20 cm/s; 𝑥̈ = −6 3 cm/s2
Using the relations 𝑣 2 = 𝑛2 (𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ) and 𝑥̈ = 𝑛2 (𝑐 − 𝑥):

2
400 = 𝑛2 (𝑎2 − 16) and − 6 3 = 𝑛2 (−4)
5
𝑛2 =
3
5 2
400 = (𝑎 − 16)
3
3
𝑎 = √(400 × 5) + 16
= 16 cm

11 Initial speed = |𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 | = 10√3 cm/s

𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝑛𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛
10√3
𝑛=
𝑎
𝑎
𝑥𝑚 =
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑛2 (𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )
300 2 𝑎2
𝑣2 = (𝑎 − )
𝑎2 4
3
= 300 ×
4
= 225
𝑣 = ±15 cm/s
Therefore speed is 15 cm/s.
12 𝑣0 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉 = 𝑎𝑛
𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝑛𝑡 and 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑡
𝑣 2 = 𝑛2 (𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )
The particle comes to rest when 𝑣 = 0.
0 = 𝑛2 𝑎 2 − 𝑛2 𝑥 2
𝑉 2 = 𝑛2 𝑥 2 (as 𝑉 = 𝑎𝑛)
𝑉
𝑥=±
𝑛
Hence proved.
13a Amplitude = 𝑎 and 𝑥̈ = −𝑛2 𝑥

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑 1
𝑥̈ = = 𝑑𝑥 (2 𝑣 2 ) = −𝑛2 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑 1
( 𝑣 2 ) = −𝑛2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2

Integrating both sides with 𝑑𝑥

1
𝑣 2 = −𝑛2 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑣 2 = −2𝑛2 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 2 = −𝑛2 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
At 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑣 = 0,
As the particle is in SHM,
0 = −𝑛2 𝑎2 + 𝐶
𝐶 = 𝑛2 𝑎 2
Therefore
𝑣 2 = 𝑛2 𝑎 2 − 𝑛2 𝑥 2
= 𝑛2 (𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )
13b i 𝑥 = 0
𝑣02 = 𝑛2 (𝑎2 − 02 )
𝑣0 = ±𝑎𝑛
Speed = |𝑣0 | = 𝑎𝑛
𝑎
13b ii 𝑥 = 2
2 𝑎2
𝑣𝑚 = 𝑛2 (𝑎2 − )
4
√3
𝑣𝑚 = ± 𝑎𝑛
2
1
Speed = |𝑣𝑚 | = 2 √3𝑎𝑛
𝑥̈ = −𝑛2 𝑥
𝑎
= −𝑛2 ( )
2
1
= − 𝑎𝑛2
2

14a 𝑣 2 = −9𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 + 27

= −9(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3)
= −9 ((𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) − 4)
= −32 ((𝑥 − 1)2 − 22 )

= 32 (22 − (𝑥 − 1)2 )
which is of the form 𝑣 2 = 𝑛2 (𝑎2 − (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 )
where 𝑛 = 3, 𝑎 = 2 and 𝑐 = 1.
So, the amplitude is 2.
Period is:
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇= =
𝑛 3
The centre of the motion is 𝑥 = 1.
14b i 𝑣 2 = 80 + 64𝑥 − 16𝑥 2

= 16(5 + 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )
= 16(9 − (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4))
= 42 (32 − (𝑥 − 2)2 )
where 𝑛 = 4, 𝑎 = 3 and 𝑐 = 2.
So, amplitude is 3.
Period is:
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑇= =
𝑛 2
Centre of motion is 𝑥 = 2.
14bii 𝑣 2 = −9𝑥 2 + 108𝑥 − 180

= 9(−20 + 12𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )
= 9(16 − (𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 36))
= 32 (42 − (𝑥 − 6)2 )


where 𝑛 = 3, 𝑎 = 4 and 𝑐 = 6.
So, amplitude is 4.
Period is:
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇= =
𝑛 3
Centre of motion is 𝑥 = 6.
14b iii 𝑣 2 = −2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 6

= 2(−𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 3)
= 2(1 − (𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4))
2
= (√2) (12 − (𝑥 + 2)2 )
where 𝑛 = √2, 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑐 = −2.

So, amplitude is 1.
Period is:
2𝜋
𝑇= = √2𝜋
𝑛
Centre of motion is 𝑥 = −2.
14b iv 𝑣 2 = 8 − 10𝑥 − 3𝑥 2
8 10
= 3 ( − 𝑥 − 𝑥2)
3 3
8 25 10 25
= 3( + − (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + ))
3 9 3 9
49 5 2
= 3 ( − (𝑥 + ) )
9 3
7 2
2 5 2
= (√3) (( ) − (𝑥 + ) )
3 3

7 5
where 𝑛 = √3, 𝑎 = and 𝑐 = − .
3 3
7 1
So, amplitude is or 2 .
3 3
Period is:
2𝜋 2𝜋 2√3
𝑇= = = 𝜋
𝑛 √3 3
5
Centre of motion is 𝑥 = − .
3
15a i 𝑥 = sin2 5𝑡
1 1
Using cos 2𝑦 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝑦 => sin2 𝑦 = 2 − 2 cos 2𝑦
1 1
𝑥 = 2 − 2 cos 10𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = 𝑥̇ = 5 sin 10𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
= 𝑥̈ = 50 cos 10𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑥̈ = 50 cos 10𝑡 + 50 − 50
1 1 1
= −100 (( − cos 10𝑡) − )
2 2 2
1
= −102 (𝑥 − 2)
Hence proved.
15aii 𝑥 = sin2 5𝑡
sin 2𝑦 = 2 sin 𝑦 . cos 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑥̇ = = 2 sin 5𝑡 . cos 5𝑡 . 5 = 5 sin 10𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑥̈ = = 50 cos 10𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑥̈ = 50 cos 10𝑡 + 50 − 50
1 1 1
= −100 (( − cos 10𝑡) − )
2 2 2

1
= −102 (sin2 5𝑡 − 2)
1
= −102 (𝑥 − 2)
Hence proved.
15b Centre of the motion is:

1
𝑥 = 𝑐 => 𝑥 =
2
Range of the motion is:
1 1 1 1
( − )≤𝑥≤( + )= 0≤𝑥≤1
2 2 2 2
Period is:
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑇= = = minutes
𝑛 10 5
16a 𝑥̈ = −9(𝑥 − 7); 𝑎 = 7cm

Centre of the motion is the line: 𝑥 = 𝑐 => 𝑥 = 7
So, the particle oscillates in the range:
(7 − 𝑎) ≤ 𝑥 ≤ (7 + 𝑎) = 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 14
That is, the origin is a point of extremity for this motion.
The velocity of a particle in SHM at the extremes is zero.
Hence, for this motion, the velocity at the origin is zero.
16b 𝑥̈ = −9(𝑥 − 7)
𝑑 1
𝑥̈ = 𝑑𝑥 (2 𝑣 2 ) = −9(𝑥 − 7)
Integrating both sides w.r.t 𝑥

𝑣2
= −9 ∫(𝑥 − 7)𝑑𝑥
2
𝑣 2 = −9(𝑥 2 − 14𝑥) + 𝐶
At 𝑥 = 0, 𝑣 = 0 so 𝐶 = 0
Therefore

𝑣 2 = −9(𝑥 2 − 14𝑥)
= −9((𝑥 2 − 14𝑥 + 49) − 49)
= −9((𝑥 − 7)2 − 72 )
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 for (𝑥 − 𝑐) = 0
2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −9((7 − 7)2 − 72 )
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ±21 cm/s
Maximum speed =|𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 | = 21 cm/s
16c 𝑥̈ = −9(𝑥 − 7)
At origin, 𝑥 = 0
𝑥̈ = −9(−7) = 63 cm/s2
Observe that the acceleration at origin of the particle is towards the positive
direction and at its maximum value.
Thus, even if the particle has zero velocity at the origin, the restoring
acceleration of the particle is maximum and makes it move away from the origin.
17a 𝑥 = 4 cos 3𝑡 − 6 sin 3𝑡

4 6
cos 𝜃 = and sin 𝜃 =
√42 + 62 √42 + 62
𝑥 = √52(cos 𝜃 cos 3𝑡 − sin 𝜃 sin 3𝑡)
𝑥 = √52 cos(3𝑡 − 𝜃)
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥̇ = −3√52 sin(3𝑡 − 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
= 𝑥̈ = −9√52 cos(3𝑡 − 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑥̈ = −9(√52 cos(3𝑡 − 𝜃))
𝑥̈ = −9𝑥
Hence, the acceleration is proportional to the displacement but in the opposite
direction and the motion is simple harmonic.

17b 𝑥̈ = −9𝑥 = −32 𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝑛𝑡 ; 𝑎 = √52 = 2√13; 𝑛=3
Amplitude is 2√13.
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇= =
𝑛 3
Maximum speed = |𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 | = 𝑎𝑛 = 6√13
Required magnitude of acceleration
= |𝑥̈ |
𝑎
= 9( )
2
2√13
= 9( )
2
= 9√13
18a 𝑥 = 3 + sin 4𝑡 + √3 cos 4𝑡
1 1 √3
cos 𝛼 = = and sin 𝛼 =
2 2
√12 + √32
𝑥 = 3 + 2(sin 4𝑡 cos 𝛼 + sin 𝛼 cos 4𝑡)

𝑥 = 3 + 2(sin(4𝑡 + 𝛼))
𝑥̇ = 8 cos(4𝑡 + 𝛼)
𝑥̈ = −32 sin(4𝑡 + 𝛼)
= −16(2 sin(4𝑡 + 𝛼))
= −16((3 + 2 sin(4𝑡 + 𝛼)) − 3)
= −16(𝑥 − 3)
Hence proved.
The centre of the motion is 𝑥 = 3.
Period is:
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑇= = =
𝑛 4 2

18b From the solution in part a:
𝑥 = 3 + sin 4𝑡 + √3 cos 4𝑡
1 1 √3
cos 𝛼 = = and sin 𝛼 =
2 2
√12 + √32
𝑥 = 3 + 2(sin 4𝑡 cos 𝛼 + sin 𝛼 cos 4𝑡)

= 3 + 2(sin(4𝑡 + 𝛼))
= 3 + 2 sin(4𝑡 + 𝛼)
𝜋
𝛼 = tan−1 √3 =
3
18c When the particle is at the centre in SHM its speed is the maximum.
So, speed at centre is:
𝑎𝑛 = 2 × 4 = 8
𝑥 = 𝑐 => 𝑥 = 3
𝜋
3 = 3 + 2 sin (4𝑡 + )
3
𝜋
sin (4𝑡 + ) = 0
3
For first three times:
𝜋
4𝑡 + = 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋
3
𝜋 5𝜋 2𝜋
𝑡= , ,
6 12 3
19a 𝑥 = 10 + 8 sin 2𝑡 + 6 cos 2𝑡

8 8 4 6 3 3
cos 𝛼 = = = and sin 𝛼 = = and 𝛼 = tan−1
√82 + 62 10 5 10 5 4
𝑥 = 10 + 10(cos 𝛼 sin 2𝑡 + sin 𝛼 cos 2𝑡)
𝑥 = 10 + 10 sin(2𝑡 + 𝛼)
𝑥̇ = 20 cos(2𝑡 + 𝛼)
𝑥̈ = −40 sin(2𝑡 + 𝛼)

= −4((10 + 10 sin(2𝑡 + 𝛼)) − 10)
= −4(𝑥 − 10)
= −𝑛2 (𝑥 − 𝑐) where 𝑛 = 2 and 𝑐 = 10
Hence, the motion is SHM.
The centre of the motion is: 𝑥 = 𝑐 => 𝑥 = 10
Period is:
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇= = =𝜋
𝑛 2
Since 𝑥 = 10 + 10 sin(2𝑡 + 𝛼) is of the form 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎 sin(𝑛𝑡 + 𝛼),
amplitude is 10.
19b The particle first reaches origin when 𝑥 = 0.

0 = 10 + 10 sin(2𝑡 + 𝛼)
sin(2𝑡 + 𝛼) = −1
(2𝑡 + 𝛼) = sin−1(−1)
3𝜋
2𝑡 + 𝛼 =
2
3𝜋 1 3
𝑡= − tan−1
4 2 4


4a The negative sign of the forces indicates that the forces are acting in the direction
opposite to the actual motion of the parts. The force in the spring is resistive, i.e.,
resisting the motion completely. The force in the dashpot is viscous force of
resistance which helps slowing the motion down.
4b The forces acting on the door are:

𝑚𝑦̈ = −3𝑚𝑦̇ − 2𝑚𝑦
𝑦̈ + 3𝑦̇ + 2𝑦 = 0
4c 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡) are solutions of 𝑦̈ + 3𝑦̇ + 2𝑦 = 0.

𝑓 ′′ (𝑡) + 3𝑓 ′ (𝑡) + 2𝑓(𝑡) = 0 (1)
𝑔′′ (𝑡) + 3𝑔′ (𝑡) + 2𝑔(𝑡) = 0 (2)
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑓(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑔(𝑡) where 𝐴, 𝐵 are constants
𝑦̇ = 𝐴𝑓 ′ (𝑡) + 𝐵𝑔′ (𝑡)
𝑦̈ = 𝐴𝑓 ′′ (𝑡) + 𝐵𝑔′′ (𝑡)
Substituting the above values of 𝑦 and its derivatives into 𝑦̈ + 3𝑦̇ + 2𝑦:
𝑦̈ + 3𝑦̇ + 2𝑦
= 𝐴𝑓 ′′ (𝑡) + 𝐵𝑔′′ (𝑡) + 3(𝐴𝑓 ′ (𝑡) + 𝐵𝑔′ (𝑡)) + 2(𝐴𝑓(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑔(𝑡))
= 𝐴(𝑓 ′′ (𝑡) + 3𝑓 ′ (𝑡) + 2𝑓(𝑡)) + 𝐵(𝑔′′ (𝑡) + 3𝑔′ (𝑡) + 2𝑔(𝑡))
= 𝐴(0) + 𝐵(0) from (1) and (2)

=0
Hence proved.
4d 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 is a solution of the differential equation.

𝑦̇ = 𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑡 and 𝑦̈ = 𝑘 2 𝑒 𝑘𝑡
Substituting the above values of 𝑦 and its derivatives in the equation of motion:
𝑦̈ + 3𝑦̇ + 2𝑦 = 0
𝑘 2 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 + 3𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑡 + 2𝑒 𝑘𝑡 = 0

(𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 2)𝑒 𝑘𝑡 = 0
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)𝑒 𝑘𝑡 = 0
𝑘 = −1 or − 2
Possible values of the constant 𝑘 are 𝑘 = −1 and − 2.
𝑑𝑦
4e At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑦 = 0 and =1
𝑑𝑡
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 −2𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑡
𝑑𝑦
= −2𝐴𝑒 −2𝑡 − 𝐵𝑒 −𝑡
𝑑𝑡
At 𝑡 = 0,
0 = 𝐴(𝑒 0 ) + 𝐵(𝑒 0 ) => 𝐴 = −𝐵
1 = −2𝐴 − 𝐵
=> 1 = −2𝐴 + 𝐴
𝐴 = −1 & 𝐵=1
Therefore
𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡
5a The driving force is: 𝐹

Resistive force is: 𝑘𝑣 2
𝑚𝑥̈ = (𝐹 − 𝑘𝑣 2 ) … denotes the motion of the submarine or the net force on the
submarine
𝑑𝑣
Now, 𝑥̈ = 𝑑𝑡
Hence,
𝑑𝑣 1
= (𝐹 − 𝑘𝑣 2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑚

5b
𝑑𝑣 𝑣𝑑𝑣
= = 𝑣𝑣 ′ (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑣 ′ 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = log(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑣 2 ) + 𝐶 (2)
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑣 2 2𝑏
Using (1) and (2):
1
𝑣𝑣 ′ = (𝐹 − 𝑘𝑣 2 )
𝑚
Integrate both sides w.r.t 𝑥 between the limits 𝑣1 and 𝑣2
𝑣2
𝑣𝑣 ′ 1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑣1 𝐹 − 𝑘𝑣 𝑚
𝑣2
1 𝑥
[− ln(𝐹 − 𝑘𝑣 2 )] =
2𝑘 𝑣1 𝑚
𝑚
𝑥= [− ln(𝐹 − 𝑘𝑣22 ) − (− ln(𝐹 − 𝑘𝑣12 ))]
2𝑘
𝑚 𝐹 − 𝑘𝑣12
𝑥= ln
2𝑘 𝐹 − 𝑘𝑣22
6a 𝑚 = 1; 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑣 + 𝑣 3 ; 𝑣0 = 𝑄
Since, there is only one resistive force: 𝑚𝑥̈ = −(𝑣 + 𝑣 3 )
𝑑𝑣
= −(𝑣 + 𝑣 3 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑣
𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫
𝑄 𝑣 + 𝑣3
1 1 1 2𝑣
3
= − ( )
𝑣+𝑣 𝑣 2 1 + 𝑣2
𝑣
1 1 2𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫ ( − ( )) 𝑑𝑣
𝑄 𝑣 2 1 + 𝑣2
𝑣
1 2 )]
𝑡 = − [ln 𝑣 − ln(1 + 𝑣
2 𝑄
𝑣 1 1 + 𝑣2
= − [ln − ln ]
𝑄 2 1 + 𝑄2

1 𝑣2 1 1 + 𝑣2
= − [ ln 2 − ln ]
2 𝑄 2 1 + 𝑄2
1 𝑄2 1 + 𝑣 2
= ln ( 2 × )
2 𝑣 1 + 𝑄2
1 𝑄2 1+𝑣 2
6b 𝑡 = 2 ln ( 𝑣2 × 1+𝑄2 )
1 + 𝑣 2 1 + 𝑄 2 2𝑡
= 𝑒
𝑣2 𝑄2
𝑣2 𝑄2
= 𝑒 −2𝑡
1 + 𝑣 2 1 + 𝑄2
1 𝑄2
1− = 𝑒 −2𝑡
1 + 𝑣 2 1 + 𝑄2
1
1 + 𝑣2 =
𝑄2
1− 𝑒 −2𝑡
1 + 𝑄2
𝑄2
2 ( )
𝑄 −2𝑡 1 + 𝑄2
1 + 𝑄 2𝑒 𝑒 2𝑡 (1 + 𝑄 2 ) − 𝑄 2
𝑣2 = =
𝑄2 1 + 𝑄2
1− 𝑒 −2𝑡
1 + 𝑄2
𝑄2
𝑣2 =
𝑒 2𝑡 (1 + 𝑄 2 ) − 𝑄 2
𝑄2
6c 𝑣 2 = 𝑒 2𝑡(1+𝑄2 )−𝑄2
Therefore 𝑣 2 ∝ 𝑒 −2𝑡
As 𝑡 → ∞, 𝑣2 → 0
𝑄 > 0 initially; which means that the speed decreases from some positive value
to zero with passage of time.
Hence, 𝑣 is always positive.

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
6d = −(𝑣 + 𝑣 3 ) = 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑣 = −𝑣(1 + 𝑣 2 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑣
𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫
𝑄 1 + 𝑣2
Substituting 𝑣 = tan 𝑎
𝑑𝑣 = sec 2 𝑎 𝑑𝑎 and (1 + tan2 𝑏) = sec 2 𝑏
𝑥 = −[tan−1 𝑣]𝑣𝑄
𝑥 = −[tan−1 𝑣 − tan−1 𝑄]
𝑥 = tan−1 𝑄 − tan−1 𝑣
lim 𝑥 = lim (tan−1 𝑄 − tan−1 𝑣)
𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞
𝑄2
lim 𝑥 = tan−1 𝑄 − lim (tan−1 √𝑒 2𝑡(1+𝑄2 )−𝑄2 )
𝑡→∞ 𝑡→ ∞
lim 𝑥 = tan−1 𝑄 − lim tan−1 0

𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞
lim 𝑥 = tan−1 𝑄
𝑡→∞
6e 𝑥 = tan−1 𝑄 − tan−1 𝑣
Let tan−1 𝑄 = 𝑞 and tan−1 𝑣 = 𝑟
So, 𝑄 = tan 𝑞 and 𝑣 = tan 𝑟
tan 𝑞 − tan 𝑟
tan(𝑞 − 𝑟) =
1 + tan 𝑞 tan 𝑟
𝑄−𝑣
tan(𝑞 − 𝑟) =
1 + 𝑄𝑣
𝑄−𝑣
(𝑞 − 𝑟) = tan−1
1 + 𝑄𝑣
𝑥 = tan−1 𝑄 − tan−1 𝑣
𝑄−𝑣
= tan−1
1 + 𝑄𝑣

7a
1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(2 − 𝑣)(3 + 𝑣) 2 − 𝑣 3 + 𝑣
(3𝐴 + 𝐴𝑣) + (2𝐵 − 𝐵𝑣) = 1
3𝐴 + 2𝐵 = 1
(𝐴 − 𝐵)𝑣 = 0
𝐴=𝐵
5𝐴 = 1
1
𝐴=𝐵=
5
7b i
𝑑𝑣 104
= (6 − 𝑣 − 𝑘𝑣 2 ); 𝑚 = 4.5 × 106 ; 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2; 𝐹 = 104 (6 − 𝑣)
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
104
𝑥̈ = (6 − 𝑣 − 𝑘𝑣 2 )
𝑚
When the speed reaches its maximum value, the acceleration is zero.
104 2 )
0= (6 − 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑘𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑚
6 − 2 − 4𝑘 = 0
𝑘=1
7b ii
𝑑𝑣 104
= (6 − 𝑣 − 𝑣 2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
104 𝑑𝑣 1 1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ = ∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑣
𝑚 6 − 𝑣 − 𝑣2 5 2−𝑣 3+𝑣
104 1 3+𝑣
𝑡 = ln +𝐶
𝑚 5 2−𝑣
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 0.
1 3
So 𝐶 = − ln
5 2

At 𝑣 = 1.5,
𝑚 3 + 1.5 3
𝑡= 4
(ln ( ) − ln )
5 × 10 2 − 1.5 2
𝑡 = 161.25 seconds
𝑡 = 2 minutes and 41 seconds
8a For the first 3 seconds, the equation of motion is:

𝑀𝑥̈ = −2𝑀
𝑥̈ = −2 m/s2
𝑣𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 72m/s2
1
Using: 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 and 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 at 𝑡 = 3
𝑣3 = 𝑣𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝑥̈ 𝑡
= 72 − 3 × 2
= 66 m/s
1
𝑥3 = 72 × 3 − 2 × 2 × 32
= 207m
8b After the first 3 seconds, the equation of motion is:

𝑑𝑣 𝑣2
𝑥̈ = 𝑣 = −2 − 4
𝑑𝑥 10
104 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑣
20000 + 𝑣 2
2𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = −5000 ∫ 𝑑𝑣
20000 + 𝑣 2
𝑥 = −5000[ln(20000 + 𝑣 2 )] + 𝐶
At 𝑡 = 3, 𝑥 = 207 and 𝑣 = 66.
207 = −5000 ln(20000 + 662 ) + 𝐶
𝐶 = 207 + 5000 ln(20000 + 662 )
Therefore

20000 + 662
𝑥 = 207 + 5000 ln ( )
20000 + 𝑣 2
8c
20000 + 662
𝑥 = 207 + 5000 ln ( )
20000 + 𝑣 2
This equation is valid till the limit of 𝑣 = 36

20000 + 662
𝑥 = 207 + 5000 ln ( )
20000 + 362
= 207 + 671.3
= 878.3 m
8d Equation of motion after the speed has reduced to 36 is:

𝑑𝑣
𝑥̈ = −2 = 𝑣
𝑑𝑥
𝑣
2
So, the distance covered by the plane till the speed reduces to 7 m/s is:
7
𝑣
𝑥 = 878 + ∫ (− ) 𝑑𝑣
36 2
36
𝑣
= 878 + ∫ 𝑑𝑣
7 2
= 878 + 311.75
= 1190 m
9a 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑃; 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑚𝑘𝑣; 𝑢 = 𝑉𝑖
Equation of the motion of the box:
𝑚𝑥̈ = (𝐹 − 𝑓𝑟 ) = 𝑚𝑃 − 𝑚𝑘𝑣
𝑎 = 𝑃 − 𝑘𝑣
When net force is zero, 𝑎 = 0.
𝑃 − 𝑘𝑣 = 0

𝑃
𝑣= = 𝑉0
𝑘
9b
𝑑𝑣
= (𝑃 − 𝑘𝑣)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡 =
𝑃 − 𝑘𝑣
𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫
𝑃 − 𝑘𝑣
1
𝑡 = − ln(𝑃 − 𝑘𝑣) + 𝐶
𝑘
1 𝑣
= − ln (1 − ) + 𝐶
𝑘 𝑉0
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑖
1
𝐶= ln(𝑃 − 𝑘𝑉𝑖 )
𝑘
1 𝑉𝑖
= ln (1 − )
𝑘 𝑉0
Therefore
𝑣
1 1 − 𝑉0
𝑡 = − ln
𝑘 1 − 𝑉𝑖
𝑉0
𝑉𝑖 −𝑘𝑡 𝑣
(1 − )𝑒 =1−
𝑉0 𝑉0
𝑉𝑖 −𝑘𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑉0 (1 − (1 − )𝑒 )
𝑉0
𝑉𝑖 −𝑘𝑡
lim 𝑣 = lim 𝑉0 (1 − (1 − ) 𝑒 ) = 𝑉0 (1 − 0)
𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞ 𝑉0
lim 𝑣 = 𝑉0
𝑡→∞

9c 𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉0 = Red Curve; 𝑉𝑖 = 5; 𝑉0 = 2

𝑉𝑖 < 𝑉0 = Green Curve 𝑉𝑖 = 1; 𝑉0 = 2

1 2
9d 𝑣1 = 3 𝑉0 ; 𝑣2 = 3 𝑉0
2𝑉0
3 𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫
𝑉0 𝑃 − 𝑘𝑣
3
2𝑉0
1
𝑡 = − [ln(𝑃 − 𝑘𝑣)]𝑉03
𝑘 3
𝑉0
1 𝑣 3
= [ ln (1 − )]
𝑘 𝑉0 2𝑉0
3
1 1 2
= (ln (1 − ) − ln (1 − ))
𝑘 3 3
1
= ln 2
𝑘
10a
𝑑 2 𝑥 5 − 2𝑥
= ; 𝑥0 = 1; 𝑣0 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑥3
𝑑2 𝑥 5 − 2
= = 3 (> 0 ) at 𝑥 = 1
𝑑𝑡 2 1
At 𝑥 = 1 the acceleration is positive. So, the particle will start to move in positive
𝑥 direction.
10b
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 5 − 2𝑥
= 𝑣 =
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥3
𝑣2 5 − 2𝑥
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥3
5 − 2𝑥
𝑣2 = 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 10 ∫ 3
− 4∫ 2
𝑥 𝑥
= −5𝑥 −2 + 4𝑥 −1 + 𝐶
4 5
= − +𝐶
𝑥 𝑥2

At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑣 = 0.
0 =4−5+𝐶
𝐶= 1
Therefore
4 5
𝑣2 = − +1
𝑥 𝑥2
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5
𝑣2 =
𝑥2
√𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5
𝑣=±
𝑥
√𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5
𝑣= for 𝑥 ≥ 1
𝑥
10c
√𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5 5
Graph of 𝑣 = . Consider 𝑥 ≥
𝑥 2
As can be seen from the above graph, the velocity approaches 1 from above.

11a i 𝑥0 = 0; 𝑣0 = 𝑉0 (> 0)
𝑑𝑣 3
𝑣 = −𝑘𝑣 2
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑣 𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫
𝑘 𝑉0 √𝑣
𝑣
1
𝑥 = − [ × 2√𝑣]
𝑘 𝑉0
𝑘𝑥 𝑉0
= [√𝑣]𝑣
2
= √𝑉0 − √𝑣
𝑣
= (1 − √ ) √𝑉0
𝑉0
𝑣 𝑘𝑥
√ = 1−
𝑉0 2√𝑉0
11a ii
𝑘𝑥
= √𝑉0 − √𝑣
2
2√𝑉0
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 = and 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0
𝑘
2√𝑉0
0≤𝑥≤
𝑘
When particle stops moving, 𝑣 = 0.
2√𝑉0
𝑥=
𝑘

11b i
𝑣 𝑘𝑥
√ = 1− from part a
𝑉0 2√𝑉0
2
𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝑥
𝑣= = 𝑉0 (1 − )
𝑑𝑡 2√𝑉0
𝑘
Let =𝐶
2√𝑉0
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑉0 (1 − 𝐶𝑥)−2
𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉0 ∫(1 − 𝐶𝑥)−2 𝑑𝑥
𝑉0
𝑡= (1 − 𝐶𝑥)−1 + 𝐷
𝐶
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 0, we get:
𝑉0
𝐷= −
𝐶
𝐶
𝑡 = (1 − 𝐶𝑥)−1 − 1
𝑉0
𝐶 1
𝑡= −1
𝑉0 1 − 𝐶𝑥
𝑉0 + 𝐶𝑡 1
=
𝑉0 1 − 𝐶𝑥
𝑉0
1 − 𝐶𝑥 =
𝑉0 + 𝐶𝑡
1 𝑉0
𝑥= (1 − )
𝐶 𝑉0 + 𝐶𝑡
2√𝑉0 𝑉0
= 1−
𝑘 𝑘𝑡
𝑉0 +
2√𝑉0
( )

2√𝑉0 2
𝑥= 1−
𝑘 𝑘𝑡
2+
√𝑉03 )
(
11b ii lim 𝑥
𝑡→∞
2√𝑉0 2
= lim 1−
𝑡→ ∞ 𝑘 𝑘𝑡
2+
√𝑉03 )
(
2√𝑉0
= (1 − 0)
𝑘
2√𝑉0
=
𝑘


1
4ai 𝑔 = 10; 𝑢 = 20; 𝑓𝑟 = 40 𝑣 2
The equation of motion of the object is:

𝑑𝑣 1 2
𝑥̈ = 𝑣 = − (𝑔 + 𝑣 )
𝑑𝑥 40
40𝑣
400 + 𝑣 2
2𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = −20 ∫ 𝑑𝑣
400 + 𝑣 2
𝑥 = −20 ln(400 + 𝑣 2 ) + 𝐶
At 𝑥 = 0, 𝑣 = 20.
𝐶 = 20 ln(800)
Therefore
800
𝑥 = 20 ln ( )
400 + 𝑣 2
At maximum height, 𝑣 = 0
800
𝑥 = 20 ln ( )
400
= 20 ln 2 metres
4a ii
𝑑𝑣 1 2
= 𝑥̈ = − (𝑔 + 𝑣 )
𝑑𝑡 40
40𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫
400 + 𝑣 2
𝑑𝑣
𝑡 = −40 ∫
400 + 𝑣 2
Using 𝑣 = tan 𝑎,
𝑑𝑣 = sec 2 𝑎 𝑑𝑎 and 1 + tan2 𝑎 = sec 2 𝑎
40 𝑣
𝑡=− tan−1 +𝐶
20 20

𝑣
= −2 tan−1 +𝐶
20
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 20.
0 = 𝐶 − 2 tan−1 1
𝜋
𝐶=
2
Therefore
𝜋 𝑣
𝑡= − 2 tan−1
2 20
At 𝑣 = 0, (𝑥 = 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
𝜋
𝑡= − 2 tan−1 0
2
𝜋
= seconds
2
4b i Equation of motion of the object as it falls is:

1 2
𝑥̈ = 𝑔 − 𝑣
40
4b ii
1 2 𝑑𝑣
𝑥̈ = 𝑔 − 𝑣 =𝑣
40 𝑑𝑥
40𝑣
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑣
400 − 𝑣 2
−2𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = −20 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
400 − 𝑣 2
𝑥 = −20 ln(400 − 𝑣 2 ) + 𝐶
Now, since the object is falling down, the new stationary point conditions will be
𝑥 = 0, 𝑣 = 0 as the direction of the motion is changed.
0 = −20 ln 400 + 𝐶
𝐶 = 20 ln 400
Therefore
𝑥 = −20 ln(400 − 𝑣 2 ) + 20 ln 400

400
𝑥 = 20 ln
400 − 𝑣 2
When the object returns to starting point, which is now 𝑥 = 20 ln 2,
400
20 ln 2 = 20 ln
400 − 𝑣 2
800 − 2𝑣 2 = 400
𝑣 2 = 200
Speed = |𝑣| = 10√2 m/s
5a 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉0 ; 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑚𝑘𝑣;
𝑚𝑥̈ = (𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑘𝑣)
𝑥̈ = (𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣)
𝑑𝑣
= (𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫
𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣
1
𝑡 = − ln(𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣) + 𝐶
𝑘
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 𝑉0 .
1
𝐶= ln(𝑔 − 𝑘𝑉0 )
𝑘
Therefore
1 1
𝑡 = − ln(𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣) + ln(𝑔 − 𝑘𝑉0 )
𝑘 𝑘
1 𝑔 − 𝑘𝑉0
𝑡= ln
𝑘 𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣
5b
1 𝑔 − 𝑘𝑉0
𝑡= ln from part a
𝑔 − 𝑘𝑉0
𝑒 𝑘𝑡 =
𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣

𝑘𝑣 = 𝑔 − (𝑔 − 𝑘𝑉0 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
𝑔
𝑣= (1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ) + 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
𝑘
As 𝑡 → ∞,
lim 𝑣
𝑡→∞
𝑔
= lim ( (1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ) + 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )
𝑡→∞ 𝑘
𝑔 1 1
= (1 − ) + 𝑉0 ( )
𝑘 𝑇 𝑇
𝑔
= (as 𝑇 is very large)
𝑘
5c
𝑔 𝑔 −𝑘𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑣= − 𝑒 + 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 =
𝑘 𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑔 𝑔
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( + (𝑉0 − ) 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑘 𝑘
𝑔 𝑔 1
𝑥= 𝑡 + (𝑉0 − ) (− 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ) + 𝐶
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 0.
𝑔 1
𝐶 = (𝑉0 − ) ( )
𝑘 𝑘
𝑔 𝑘𝑉0 − 𝑔
𝑥= 𝑡+ (1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )
𝑘 𝑘2
5d From part c, the object will fall as:

𝑔 𝑘𝑉0 − 𝑔
𝑥= 𝑡+ (1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )
𝑘 𝑘2
Terminal velocity is:
𝑔
= 𝑉0 = 20
𝑘
1
𝑘=
2

𝑔 (𝑘𝑉0 − 𝑔)
𝑥1 = 𝑡+ 2
(1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )
𝑘 𝑘
𝑘𝑉0 − 𝑔 0
= 20𝑡 + 0 as = =0
𝑘2 𝑘2
The other object falling simply under gravity will fall as:
𝑥̈ = (𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣)
1
𝑡 = − ln(𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣) + 𝐶
𝑘
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 0.
1
𝐶= ln 𝑔
𝑘
Therefore
1 1
𝑡 = − ln(𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣) + ln 𝑔
𝑘 𝑘
1 𝑔
𝑡= ln
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑔
𝑣= = (𝑔 − 𝑔𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ) = (1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑘 𝑘
𝑔 𝑔
𝑥2 = 𝑡 − 2 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 + 𝐷
𝑘 𝑘
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 0.
𝑔
𝐷=
𝑘2
Therefore
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
𝑥2 = 𝑡 − 2 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 + 2
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
𝑔 𝑔
= 𝑡 + 2 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )
𝑘 𝑘
= 20𝑡 + 40(1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )
The distance between the objects after 𝑡 seconds will be:
𝑑 = |𝑥1 − 𝑥2 |
= |20𝑡 − (20𝑡 + 40(1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )|
= 40(1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )

The limiting distance is when the stone thrown with terminal velocity hits the
ground. As we don’t know the height, we assume the time of descent is very large
and 𝑡 → ∞.
lim 𝑑 = lim 40(1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ) = 40
𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞
1
6a 𝑚 = 10; 𝑘 = 10 ; 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑘𝑣 2 ; 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑢; 𝑔 = 10
At the highest point (point A), 𝑣 = 0.

𝑑𝑣
̈ = −𝑚𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣 2 =
𝑚𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑣
𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫
𝑘
𝑢 𝑔 + 𝑚 𝑣2
𝑢
𝑑𝑣
= 10√10 ∫
𝑣 1000 + 𝑣 2
𝑣 𝑢
𝑡 = √10 [tan−1 ]
10 𝑣
𝑢 𝑣
= √10 (tan−1 − tan−1 )
10√10 10√10
At point A:
𝑢 0
𝑡 = √10 (tan−1 − tan−1 )
10√10 10√10
𝑢
= √10 tan−1
10√10
6b
𝑑𝑣 𝑘
𝑣 = −𝑔 − 𝑣 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑚
1 2𝑣 𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫
2 𝑔 + 𝑘 𝑣2
𝑚
𝑚 𝑘
𝑥= − ln (𝑔 + 𝑣 2 ) + 𝐶
2𝑘 𝑚
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑣 = 𝑢.

1000 + 𝑢2
𝐶 = 50 ln ( )
1000
Therefore
1000 + 𝑢2
𝑥 = 50 ln ( )
1000 + 𝑣 2
At maximum height, 𝑣 = 0.
1000 + 𝑢2
𝑥 = 50 ln ( ) metres
1000
6c 𝑣𝑓 = 𝜔
The object will fall a distance of 𝑂𝐴.

𝑑𝑣 𝑘
𝑣 = (𝑔 − 𝑣 2 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑚
1 2𝑣𝑑𝑣
∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑔 − 𝑘 𝑣2
𝑚
𝑚 𝑘
𝑥= − ln ( 𝑔 − 𝑣 2 ) + 𝐶
2𝑘 𝑚
(1000 − 𝑣 2 )
𝑥 = −50 ln +𝐶
1000
As the direction of motion changes, new stationary point conditions will be:
𝑣 = 0, 𝑥 = 0
(1000−0)
𝐶 = 50 ln =0
1000
Therefore
1000 − 𝑣 2
𝑥 = −50 ln
1000
−
𝑥 1000 − 𝑣 2
𝑒 50 =
1000
𝑥
1000 − 𝑣 2 = (1000)𝑒 −50
𝑥
𝑣 2 = 1000 − (1000)𝑒 −50

1000 + 𝑢2
At 𝑥 = 50 ln , 𝑣 = 𝜔.
1000
(This value of 𝑥 is the original position of the object)
1000
𝜔2 = 1000 − 1000 ×
1000 + 𝑢2
1000 + 𝑢2 − 1000
= 1000 ×
(1000 + 𝑢2 )
1000𝑢2
=
1000 + 𝑢2
7a i The equation of motion is:

𝑚𝑦̈ = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑘𝑣
𝑦̈ = (𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣)
Terminal velocity is when the object hits the ground and 𝑦̈ = 0.
𝑔 − 𝑘𝑉𝑇 = 0
𝑔
𝑉𝑇 =
𝑘
7a ii
𝑑𝑣
= (𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣)
𝑑𝑡
1
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣
𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣
1
𝑡 = − ln(𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣) + 𝐶
𝑘
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 0.
1
𝐶= ln 𝑔
𝑘
Therefore
1 1
𝑡 = − ln(𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣) + ln 𝑔
𝑘 𝑘
1 𝑔
𝑡= ln ( )

1
𝑣= (𝑔 − 𝑔𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )
𝑘
= 𝑉𝑇 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )
7b i The equation of motion for the second particle:

𝑑𝑣
𝑦̈ = −(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣) =
𝑑𝑡
0
𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫
𝑈 𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣
𝑈
𝑑𝑣
= ∫
0 𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣
𝑈
1
𝑡 = [ ln(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣)]
𝑘 0
1 𝑔 + 𝑘𝑈
= ln ( )
𝑘 𝑔
7b ii When the second particle reaches its maximum height, 𝑣2 = 0

The speed of the first particle is given by:
𝑣1 = 𝑉(1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )
The time taken by second particle to reach maximum height:
1 𝑔 + 𝑘𝑈
𝑇2 = ln ( )
𝑘 𝑔
Substituting the value of time in the equation for velocity:
1 𝑔+𝑘𝑈
−𝑘× ln
𝑣1 = 𝑉 (1 − 𝑒 𝑘 𝑔 )
𝑔
= 𝑉 (1 − )
𝑔 + 𝑘𝑈
𝑉
= (𝑔 + 𝑘𝑈 − 𝑔)
𝑔 + 𝑘𝑈
𝑘𝑉𝑈
=
𝑔 + 𝑘𝑈

𝑘𝑉𝑈
= 𝑔
𝑘 ( + 𝑈)
𝑘
𝑉𝑈 𝑔
= as 𝑉 =
𝑉+𝑈 𝐾
8a The terminal velocity for a particle falling under gravity is:

𝑦̈ = (𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣)
At 𝑦̈ = 0,
𝑔 − 𝑘𝑉𝑡 = 0
𝑔
𝑉𝑡 =
𝑘
8b The initial velocity of projection for 𝑃2 is:

2𝑔
2𝑉𝑡 = = 𝑣2 (0)
𝑘
The equation of motion for 𝑃2 :
𝑑𝑣
𝑦̈ = −(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣) =
𝑑𝑡
0
𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫
𝑣2 𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣
𝑣2
𝑑𝑣
= ∫
0 𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣
𝑣2
1
𝑡 = [ ln(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣)]
𝑘 0
1 2𝑘𝑔
= {ln (𝑔 + ) − ln(𝑔 + 0)}
𝑘 𝑘
1 3𝑔
= ln ( )
𝑘 𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣

8c Velocity of 𝑃1 is 30% of its terminal velocity:

𝑔
𝑣1 = 0.3
𝑘
𝑑𝑣
= (𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣)
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑔
𝑡= ln ( )
1 1
= ln ( )
𝑘 1 − 0.3
1 10
= ln
𝑘 7
Substituting the value of time in the equation from part b:
1 3𝑔
𝑡= ln ( )
𝑘 𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣2
1 10
= ln
𝑘 7
𝑔
3
𝑘 = 10
𝑔 7
+ 𝑣2
𝑘
21𝑔 10𝑔
= + 10𝑣
𝑘 𝑘
11𝑔
𝑣2 = m/s
10𝑘
9a i
𝑔2 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − − 2𝑔 ln where 𝑥 ≥ 𝑔
𝑥 𝑔
𝑔2 𝑔
𝑓(𝑔) = 𝑔 − − 2𝑔 ln ( )
𝑔 𝑔
= 𝑔 − 𝑔 − 2𝑔 ln 1
=0

9a ii
𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑔2 1
= 1 + 2 − 2𝑔 ( )
𝑥 𝑥
𝑔
If = 𝑘,
𝑥
1 + 𝑘 2 − 2𝑘 = (1 − 𝑘)2
Hence,
𝑔 2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (1 − )
𝑘
𝑔 2
9a iii 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (1 − 𝑥 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 ∀ (𝑥 ϵ 𝑅)
Hence, 𝑓(𝑥) is an increasing function and as 𝑓(𝑔) = 0, 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 for 𝑥 > 𝑔.
9b i
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑣
= −(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣) =
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫
𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣
1
𝑡 = − ln(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣) + 𝐶
𝑘
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 𝑉0 .
1
𝐶 = 𝑘 ln 𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0
Therefore
1 𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0
𝑡= ln ( )
𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣 = (𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 − 𝑔 𝑑𝑦
𝑣= =
𝑘 𝑑𝑡

1 𝑔
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑘 𝑘
1 −𝑘𝑡
𝑔
𝑦=− (𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0 )𝑒 − 𝑡+𝐷
𝑘2 𝑘
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑦 = 0.
1
𝐷= (𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0 )
𝑘2
Therefore
1 𝑔
𝑦= 2
(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0 )(1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ) − 𝑡
𝑘 𝑘
𝑘 2 𝑦 = (𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0 )(1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ) − 𝑔𝑘𝑡
9b ii At maximum height, 𝑣 = 0.
1 𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0
𝑡= ln ( )
1 𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0
𝑇= ln ( )
𝑘 𝑔+0
1 𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0
𝑇= ln ( )
𝑘 𝑔
9b iii 𝑡 = 2𝑇
Substituting in the equation of part a i:
𝑘 2 𝑦 = (𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0 )(1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ) − 𝑔𝑘𝑡
𝑔 2 2 𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0
𝑘 2 𝑦 = (𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0 ) (1 − ( ) ) − 𝑔𝑘 ( ln )
𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0 𝑘 𝑔
𝑔2 (𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0 )
𝑘 2 𝑦 = 𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0 − − 2𝑔 ln
𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0 𝑔
9biv Let (𝑔 + 𝑘𝑉0 ) = 𝑋

From part a,
𝑔2 𝑋
𝑓(𝑋) = 𝑋 − − 2𝑔 ln
𝑋 𝑔

As proven in part a, 𝑓(𝑋) is an increasing function and 𝑓(𝑋) > 0 for 𝑋 > 𝑔.
𝑔 2
For times 𝑡 = 𝑇 and 𝑡 = 2𝑇, 𝑓(𝑋) is continuously increasing at a rate of (1 − 𝑋) .
That is, faster than linear increase.
Hence, the interval of (2𝑇 − 𝑇) is greater than (𝑇 − 0).
So, the downward journey will take longer than the upward journey.
10a i Object of mass 1 kg dropped under gravity:

The forces acting on the object are gravity and air resistance.
Gravity pulls the object downwards while the air resistance resists the motion of
the object. So, the equation of motion is:
𝑥̈ = 𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣
1
𝑥̈ = 10 − 𝑣
10
10a ii
𝑑𝑣 1
𝑥̈ = 𝑣 = 10 − 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 10
𝑑𝑣 100 − 𝑣
=
𝑑𝑥 10𝑣
𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 10 ∫ 𝑑𝑣
100 − 𝑣
100
= 10 ∫ ( − 1) 𝑑𝑣
100 − 𝑣
𝑥 = −1000 ln(100 − 𝑣) − 10𝑣 + 𝐶
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 0, 𝑥 = 0.
𝐶 = 1000 ln 100
Therefore
100 − 𝑣
𝑥 = −1000 ln −𝑣
100
The speed of object when it is 40 m below the lookout is 𝑉.
𝑥 = 40 and 𝑣 = 𝑉

𝑉
40 = −1000 ln (1 − ) − 10𝑉
100
𝑉
𝑉 + 100 ln (1 − )+4= 0
100
10b i After the parachute opens, the new equation of motion will be:
𝑥̈ = (𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣 2 )
100 − 𝑣 2
=
10
1 2
= 10 − 𝑣
10
10b ii
100 − 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣
𝑥̈ = (𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣 2 ) = =𝑣
10 𝑑𝑥
2𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 5 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
100 − 𝑣 2
𝑥 = −5 ln(100 − 𝑣 2 ) + 𝐶
At the start of this second journey, 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑣 = 𝑉.
𝐶 = 5 ln(100 − 𝑉 2 )
Therefore
100 − 𝑉 2
𝑥 = 5 ln ( )
100 − 𝑣 2
𝑥 100 − 𝑉 2
𝑒5 =
100 − 𝑣 2
𝑥
𝑣 2 = 100 − (100 − 𝑉 2 )𝑒 −5

10b iii
100 − 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣
𝑥̈ = (𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣 2 ) = =
10 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 10 ∫
100 − 𝑣 2
1
= 10 ∫ 𝑑𝑣
(10 + 𝑣)(10 − 𝑣)
1 1 1
= ∫( + ) 𝑑𝑣
2 10 + 𝑣 10 − 𝑣
1
𝑡= (ln(10 + 𝑣) − ln(10 − 𝑣)) + 𝐶
2
At the start of this new journey, 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 𝑉.
1
𝐶 = − (ln(10 + 𝑉) − ln(10 − 𝑉))
2
Therefore
1 10 + 𝑣 1 10 + 𝑉
𝑡= ln ( ) − ln ( )
2 10 − 𝑣 2 10 − 𝑉
1 (10 + 𝑣)(10 − 𝑉)
= ln
2 (10 − 𝑣)(10 + 𝑉)
10b iv 𝑉 = 25.7 m/s

The terminal velocity after the parachute opens is:
𝑔
𝑉𝑡 = √ = √100 = 10 m/s
𝑘
105
105% of 𝑉𝑡 = 100 × 10 = 10.5 m/s
Using equation from part b iii with 𝑣 = 10.5 and 𝑉 = 25.7:

1 (10 + 𝑣)(10 − 𝑉)
𝑡= ln
2 (10 − 𝑣)(10 + 𝑉)
≑ 1.4819

1
11a 𝑉 = 30, 𝜃 = 45°, 𝑘 = 3, 𝑔 = 10
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
= −𝑘 and 2
= −𝑔 − 𝑘
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
= −𝑘𝑣
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫
𝑘 𝑣
1
𝑡 = − ln 𝑣 + 𝐶
𝑘
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 𝑉 cos 45° = 15√2 m/s = 𝑣𝑥 .
1
𝐶= ln 𝑣𝑥
𝑘
Therefore
1 1
𝑡 = − ln 𝑣 + ln 𝑣𝑥
𝑘 𝑘
1 𝑣𝑥
𝑡= ln
𝑘 𝑣
𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 ∫ 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1
𝑥 = − 𝑣𝑥 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 + 𝐷
𝑘
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 0.
1
𝐷= 𝑣
𝑘 𝑥
Therefore
1 1
𝑥 = − 𝑣𝑥 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 + 𝑣𝑥
𝑘 𝑘
1
= 𝑣 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )
𝑘 𝑥
𝑡
= 45√2 (1 − 𝑒 −3 )

11b
𝑑𝑣𝑦
= −(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣𝑦 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
= −(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫
𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣
1
𝑡 = − ln(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣) + 𝐶
𝑘
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 𝑉 sin 45° = 𝑣𝑦 = 15√2 .
1
𝐶= ln(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣𝑦 )
𝑘
Therefore
1 1
𝑡 = − ln(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣) + ln(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣𝑦 )
𝑘 𝑘
1 𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣𝑦
𝑡= ln ( )
(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣𝑦 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 − 𝑔 𝑑𝑦
𝑣= =
𝑘 𝑑𝑡
1 𝑔
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣𝑦 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑘 𝑘
1 𝑔
𝑦=− 2
(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣𝑦 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 − 𝑡 + 𝐷
𝑘 𝑘
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑦 = 0.
1
𝐷= (𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣𝑦 )
𝑘2
Therefore
1 𝑔 1
𝑦=− 2
(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣𝑦 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 − 𝑡 + 2 (𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣𝑦 )
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
1 𝑔
𝑦= 2
(𝑔 + 𝑘𝑣𝑦 )(1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ) − 𝑡
𝑘 𝑘
𝑦 = 9(10 + 5√2)(1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ) − 30𝑡
𝑦 = 45(2 + √2)(1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ) − 30𝑡

𝑡 1
𝑦 = 45(2 + √2) (1 − 𝑒 −3 ) − 30𝑡 as 𝑘 =
3
𝑡
11c 𝑦 = 45(2 + √2) (1 − 𝑒 −3 ) − 30𝑡 and
𝑡
𝑥 = 45√2 (1 − 𝑒 −3 )
45√2
𝑡 = 3 ln ( )
45√2 − 𝑥
Substituting for 𝑡 in the equation for 𝑦:
45√2
− ln( )
45√2−𝑥 ) −
45√2
𝑦 = 45(2 + √2) (1 − 𝑒 90 ln ( )
45√2 − 𝑥
45√2−𝑥
ln( )
45√2 ) −
45√2
𝑦 = 45(2 + √2) (1 − 𝑒 90 ln ( )
45√2 − 𝑥
45√2 − 𝑥 45√2
𝑦 = 45(2 + √2) (1 − ) − 90 ln ( )
45√2 45√2 − 𝑥
𝑥 45√2
𝑦 = 45(2 + √2) (1 − (1 − )) − 90 ln ( )
45√2 45√2 − 𝑥
𝑥 45√2
𝑦 = 45(2 + √2) − 90 ln ( )
45√2 45√2 − 𝑥
𝑥 45√2
𝑦 = 45√2(√2 + 1) − 90 ln ( )
45√2 45√2 − 𝑥
45√2
𝑦 = (1 + √2)𝑥 − 90 ln ( )
45√2 − 𝑥

11d Graph of
45√2
𝑦 = (1 + √2)𝑥 − 90 ln ( )
45√2 − 𝑥
The range from the plot is approximately 44 m.
11e When there is no air resistance:

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑2𝑦
=0 and = −𝑔
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
1
𝑥 = 𝑉 cos 45° 𝑡 and 𝑦 = 𝑉 sin 45° 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2
1
𝑥 = 15√2𝑡 and 𝑦 = 15√2 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2
𝑥
𝑡=
15√2
Substituting for 𝑡 in equation for 𝑦:
𝑥 1 𝑥 2
𝑦 = 15√2 × − × 10 × ( )
15√2 2 15√2
5𝑥 2
𝑦=𝑥−
450
𝑥2
𝑦=𝑥−
90
𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑥 (1 − )
90

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Chapter 1 worked solutions – Complex numbers I

Solutions to Exercise 1A Foundation questions

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3b (−8 + 6𝑖) + (2 − 4𝑖)

3d (3 − 5𝑖) − (−4 + 6𝑖)

4d (−7 + 5𝑖)(8 − 6𝑖)

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5d (−4 − 7𝑖)(−4 + 7𝑖)

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= Re((1 + 4𝑖)(2 − 𝑖))

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Solutions to Exercise 1B Foundation questions

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4a Let (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 2𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real.

4b Let (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 3 + 4𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real.

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4c Let (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = −8 − 6𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real.

4d Let (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 35 + 12𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real.

4e Let (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = −5 + 12𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real.

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4f Let (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 24 − 10𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real.

4g Let (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = −15 − 8𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real.

4h Let (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 9 − 40𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real

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Solutions to Exercise 1C Foundation questions

2a Complex number that represents (−3, 0) is

2b Complex number that represents (0, 3) is

2c Complex number that represents (7, −5) is

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2d Complex number that represents (𝑎, 𝑏) is

3c An anticlockwise rotation of 90° about the origin.

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The points form a square.

The points form a square.

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Conjugate pairs are reflections in the real axis.

With 𝑂 at the origin, the points form a parallelogram.

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With 𝑂 at the origin, the points form a parallelogram.

5 For the following section, let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real.

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5h Re(𝑧) > −Im(𝑧)

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Solutions to Exercise 1D Foundation questions

|𝑧| = √02 + (−5)2

|𝑧| = √12 + (−1)2

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2 Note that −𝜋 < Arg(𝑧) ≤ 𝜋.

2d 𝑧 = 1 + √3𝑖 (first quadrant)

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2f 𝑧 = −√3 − 𝑖 (third quadrant)